Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

Unit 1
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Dr P A Sleigh
P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes
C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
January 2008
Module web site:

www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics 3 lectures

Flow
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Unit 2: Statics 3 lectures

Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow 4 lectures

Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 1
Unit 1
Notes For the First Year Lecture Course:
An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds.
CIVE1400 FLUID MECHANICS
Dr Andrew Sleigh
January 2008
Contents of the Course
Objectives:
The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in civil engineering.
Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics

Why are we studying fluid mechanics on a Civil Engineering course? The provision of adequate
water services such as the supply of potable water, drainage, sewerage is essential for the
development of industrial society. It is these services which civil engineers provide.
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either directly or indirectly.
Some examples of direct involvement are those where we are concerned with manipulating the
fluid:
Sea and river (flood) defences;
Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
Dams;
Irrigation;
Pumps and Turbines;
Water retaining structures.
And some examples where the primary object is construction - yet analysis of the fluid
mechanics is essential:
Flow of air in buildings;
Flow of air around buildings;
Bridge piers in rivers;
Ground-water flow – much larger scale in time and space.
Notice how nearly all of these involve water. The following course, although introducing general
fluid flow ideas and principles, the course will demonstrate many of these principles through
examples where the fluid is water.

Unit 1
Module Consists of:

Lectures:
20 Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application.
Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. You will be
asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
Assessment:
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 80% of the module credits.
This consists of 6 questions of which you choose 4.
2 Multiple choice question (MCQ) papers, worth 10% of the module credits (5% each).
These will be for 30mins and set after the lectures. The timetable for these MCQs and
lectures is shown in the table at the end of this section.
1 Marked problem sheet, worth 10% of the module credits.
Laboratories: 2 x 3 hours
These two laboratory sessions examine how well the theoretical analysis of fluid dynamics
describes what we observe in practice.
During the laboratory you will take measurements and draw various graphs according to the
details on the laboratory sheets. These graphs can be compared with those obtained from
theoretical analysis.
You will be expected to draw conclusions as to the validity of the theory based on the
results you have obtained and the experimental procedure.
After you have completed the two laboratories you should have obtained a greater
understanding as to how the theory relates to practice, what parameters are important in
analysis of fluid and where theoretical predictions and experimental measurements may
differ.
The two laboratories sessions are:
1. Impact of jets on various shaped surfaces - a jet of water is fired at a target
and is deflected in various directions. This is an example of the application of
the momentum equation.
2. The rectangular weir - the weir is used as a flow measuring device. Its
accuracy is investigated. This is an example of how the Bernoulli (energy)
equation is applied to analyses fluid flow.
[As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work. You must
attend them. Should you fail to attend either one you will be asked to complete
some extra work. This will involve a detailed report and further questions. The
simplest strategy is to do the lab.]
Homework:
Example sheets: These will be given for each section of the course. Doing these will greatly
improve your exam mark. They are course work but do not have credits toward the module.
Lecture notes: Theses should be studied but explain only the basic outline of the necessary
concepts and ideas.
Books: It is very important do some extra reading in this subject. To do the examples you
will definitely need a textbook. Any one of those identified below is adequate and will also
be useful for the fluids (and other) modules in higher years - and in work.
Example classes:
There will be example classes each week. You may bring any problems/questions you have
about the course and example sheets to these classes.

Unit 1
Schedule:
Lecture Month Date Week Day Time Unit
Tue
1 January 15 0 s 3.00 pm Unit 1: Fluid Mechanic Basics Pressure, density
2 16 0 Wed 9.00 am Viscosity, Flow
Tue
double lecture
Extra 22 1 s 3.00 pm Presentation of Case Studies
3 23 1 Wed 9.00 am Flow calculations
Tue
4 29 2 s 3.00 pm Unit 2: Fluid Statics Pressure
5 30 2 Wed 9.00 am Plane surfaces
Tue
6 February 5 3 s 3.00 pm Curved surfaces
7 6 3 Wed 9.00 am Design study 01 - Centre vale park
Tue
8 12 4 s 3.00 pm Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics General
9 13 4 Wed 9.00 am Bernoulli
Tue
10 19 5 s 3.00 pm Flow measurement
MCQ 4.00 pm MCQ
11 20 5 Wed 9.00 am Weir
surveyin Tue
12 g 26 6 s 3.00 pm Momentum
13 27 6 Wed 9.00 am Design study 02 - Gaunless + Millwood
Tue
12 March 4 7 s 3.00 pm Applications
13 5 7 Wed 9.00 am Design study 02 - Gaunless + Millwood
Tue
14 11 8 s 3.00 pm Applications
15 12 8 Wed 9.00 am problem sheet given out Calculation
Vacatio
n
Tue
16 April 15 9 s 3.00 pm Unit 4: Effects of the Boundary on Flow Boundary Layer
17 16 9 Wed 9.00 am Friction
Tue
18 22 10 s 3.00 pm Dim. Analysis
19 23 10 Wed 9.00 am problem sheet handed in Dim. Analysis
Tue
20 29 11 s 3.00 pm Revision
MCQ 4.00 pm MCQ
21 30 11 Wed 9.00 am

Unit 1
Books:
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module. (You will probably not
need any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the Civil Engineering course)
Mechanics of Fluids, Massey B S., Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Fluid Mechanics, Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A, Longman.
Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Featherstone R E and Nalluri C, Blackwell Science.
Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chadwick A, and Morfett J., E & FN Spon -
Chapman & Hall.
Online Lecture Notes:

http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/cive/FluidsLevel1
There is a lot of extra teaching material on this site: Example sheets, Solutions, Exams,
Detailed lecture notes, Online video lectures, MCQ tests, Images etc. This site DOES NOT
REPLACE LECTURES or BOOKS.

Unit 1
Take care with the System of Units

As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become
confused as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field
of fluid mechanics. Over the years many different ways have been used to express the various
quantities involved. Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different
units for the same thing - they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American
pint is 4/5 of a British pint!
To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric) system - which you will
already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in the same system or
the wrong solutions will results.
Despite this warning you will still find that this is the most common mistake when you attempt
example questions.
The SI System of units

The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practice which are made from combinations
of these primary units.
Primary Units
The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
Quantity SI Unit Dimension

Length metre, m L
Mass kilogram, kg M
Time second, s T
Temperature Kelvin, K θ
Current ampere, A I
Luminosity candela Cd
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have
dimension of L.
(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions - we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)

Unit 1
Derived Units
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those
most used are shown in the table below:
Quantity SI Unit Dimension
Velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2
force N
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
energy (or work) Joule J
N m,
kg m2/s2 kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
power Watt W
N m/s Nms-1
pressure ( or stress) Pascal
P, Nm-2
N/m2, kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
kg/m/s2
density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3
specific weight N/m3
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2
relative density a ratio 1
no units no dimension
viscosity N s/m2 N sm-2
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
surface tension N/m Nm-1
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
- find out, else your guess will probably be wrong.
More on this subject will be seen later in the section on dimensional analysis and similarity.

Unit 1
Properties of Fluids: Density
There are three ways of expressing density:
1. Mass density:
ρ = mass per unit volume
mass of fluid
ρ=
volume of fluid
(units: kg/m3)
2. Specific Weight:
(also known as specific gravity)
ω = weight per unit volume
ω = ρg
(units: N/m3 or kg/m2/s2)
3. Relative Density:
σ = ratio of mass density to
a standard mass density
ρsubs tan ce
σ=
ρ o
H2 O( at 4 c)
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is
the maximum mass density for water (which occurs
o
at 4 c) at atmospheric pressure.
(units: none, as it is a ratio)

Unit 1
Pressure
Convenient to work in terms of pressure, p,

which is the force per unit area.
Force
pressure =
Area over which the force is applied
F
p=
A
Units: Newtons per square metre,

N/m2, kg/m s2 (kg m-1s-2).
Also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar,

where 1bar = 105 N/m2
Standard atmosphere = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa (kilopascals)
1 mbar = 0.001 bar = 0.1 kPa = 100 Pa
Uniform Pressure:
If the pressure is the same at all points on a surface
uniform pressure

Unit 1
Pascal’s Law: pressure acts equally in all
directions.
ps
B
δz
A δs
px
δy F C
θ
E D
δx
py
No shearing forces :
All forces at right angles to the surfaces
Summing forces in the x-direction:

Force in the x-direction due to px,
Fx x = p x × Area ABFE = p x δx δy
Force in the x-direction due to ps,
Fx s = − ps × Area ABCD × sin θ
δy
= − psδs δz
δs
= − psδy δz
( sin θ =
δy
δs )
Unit 1
Force in x-direction due to py,
Fx y = 0
To be at rest (in equilibrium) sum of forces is zero
Fx x + Fx s + Fx y = 0
p xδxδy + ( − psδyδz ) = 0
p x = ps
Summing forces in the y-direction.

Force due to py,
Fy = p y × Area EFCD = p yδxδz
y
Component of force due to ps,

Fy = − ps × Area ABCD × cosθ
s
δx
= − psδsδz
δs
= − psδxδz
( cos θ = δx
δs )
Component of force due to px,

Fy x = 0
Force due to gravity,
Unit 1
weight = - specific weight × volume of element
1
= − ρg × δxδyδz
2
To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Fy + Fy + Fy + weight = 0
y s x
⎛ 1 ⎞
p yδxδy + ( − psδxδz ) + ⎜ − ρg δxδyδz⎟ = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
The element is small i.e. δx, δx, and δz, are small,
so δx × δy × δz, is very small
and considered negligible, hence
p y = ps
We showed above
px = ps
thus
p x = p y = ps
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
This is Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at rest.
Change of Pressure in the Vertical Direction

Unit 1
p2, A
Area A
Fluid density ρ z2
p1, A z1
Cylindrical element of fluid, area = A, density = ρ
The forces involved are:

Force due to p1 on A (upward) = p1A
Force due to p2 on A (downward) = p2A
Force due to weight of element (downward)
= mg= density × volume × g
= ρ g A(z2 - z1)
Taking upward as positive, we have

p1 A − p2 A − ρgA( z2 − z1 ) = 0
p2 − p1 = − ρg( z2 − z1 )

Unit 1
In a fluid pressure decreases linearly with
increase in height
p2 − p1 = − ρg( z2 − z1 )
This is the hydrostatic pressure change.
With liquids we normally measure from the

surface.
Measuring h down from the

free surface so that h = -z
z h
giving p 2 − p1 = ρgh
Surface pressure is atmospheric, patmospheric .

p = ρgh + patmospheric

Unit 1
It is convenient to take atmospheric

pressure as the datum
Pressure quoted in this way is known as

gauge pressure i.e.
Gauge pressure is
pgauge = ρ g h
The lower limit of any pressure is

the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
Pressure measured above

a perfect vacuum (zero)
is known as absolute pressure
Absolute pressure is
pabsolute = ρ g h + patmospheric
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric

Unit 1
Pressure density relationship
Boyle’s Law
pV = constant
Ideal gas law

pV = nRT
where
p is the absolute pressure, N/m2, Pa
V is the volume of the vessel, m3
n is the amount of substance of gas, moles
R is the ideal gas constant,
T is the absolute temperature. K
In SI units, R = 8.314472 J mol-1 K-1

(or equivalently m3 Pa K−1 mol−1).

Unit 1
Lecture 2: Fluids vs Solids, Flow
What makes fluid mechanics different

to solid mechanics?
Fluids are clearly different to solids.

But we must be specific.
Need definable basic physical

difference.
Fluids flow under the action of a force,

and the solids don’t - but solids do
deform.
• fluids lack the ability of solids to

resist deformation.
• fluids change shape as long as a
force acts.
Take a rectangular element

Unit 1
A B A’ B’ F
F
C D C D
Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F,

are know as shearing forces.
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

or flows, when subjected to shearing forces.
This has the following implications

for fluids at rest:
If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting

on it, and
any force must be acting perpendicular to the fluid

Unit 1
Fluids in motion
Consider a fluid flowing near a wall.

- in a pipe for example -
Fluid next to the wall will have zero velocity.
The fluid “sticks” to the wall.
Moving away from the wall velocity increases

to a maximum.
Plotting the velocity across the section gives

“velocity profile”
Change in velocity with distance is

“velocity gradient” = du
dy

Unit 1
As fluids are usually near surfaces

there is usually a velocity gradient.
Under normal conditions one fluid

particle has a velocity different to its
neighbour.
Particles next to each other with different

velocities exert forces on each other
(due to intermolecular action ) ……
i.e. shear forces exist in a fluid moving

close to a wall.
What if not near a wall?
No velocity gradient, no shear forces.

Unit 1
What use is this observation?
It would be useful if we could quantify

this shearing force.
This may give us an understanding of

what parameters govern the forces
different fluid exert on flow.
We will examine the force required to

deform an element.
Consider this 3-d rectangular element,

under the action of the force F.

Unit 1
δx
a b
δz
F
A B
δy
F
C D
under the action of the force F
a a’ b b’
F
A’ B B’
A
F
C D

Unit 1
A 2-d view may be clearer…

A’ B B’ F
E x
φ E’
F
C D
The shearing force acts on the area
A = δz × δx
Shear stress, τ, is the force per unit area:

F
τ =
A
The deformation which shear stress causes is

measured by the angle φ, and is know as
shear strain.
Using these definitions we can amend our

definition of a fluid:
In a fluid φ increases for as long as τ is applied -

the fluid flows
In a solid shear strain, φ, is constant for a fixed
shear stress τ.

Unit 1
It has been shown experimentally that the

rate of shear strain is directly
proportional to shear stress
φ
τ∝
time
φ
τ = Constant ×
t
We can express this in terms of the cuboid.
If a particle at point E moves to point E’ in

time t then:
for small deformations

x
shear strain φ =
y
rate of shear strain =
= =
=
x
(note that = u is the velocity of the particle at E)
t

Unit 1
So
u
τ = Constant ×
y
u/y is the rate of change of velocity with distance,
du
in differential form this is
= velocity gradient.
dy
The constant of proportionality is known as
the dynamic viscosity, μ.
giving
du
τ =μ
dy
which is know as Newton’s law of viscosity
A fluid which obeys this rule is know as a

Newtonian Fluid
(sometimes also called real fluids)
Newtonian fluids have constant values of μ

Unit 1
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Some fluids do not have constant μ.

They do not obey Newton’s Law of viscosity.
They do obey a similar relationship and can

be placed into several clear categories
The general relationship is:
n
⎛ δu ⎞
τ = A + B⎜ ⎟
⎝ δy ⎠
where A, B and n are constants.
For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B = μ and n = 1

Unit 1
This graph shows how μ changes for different fluids.
Bingham plastic Pseudo plastic

plastic
Newtonian
Shear stress, τ
Dilatant
Ideal, (τ=0)
Rate of shear, δu/δy

• Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before
flow commences.
• Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear
stress must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An
example is sewage sludge.
• Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the
viscosity decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidal
substances like clay, milk and cement.
• Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear
e.g. quicksand.
• Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of
time shear force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
• Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of
time shear force is applied
• Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a

sudden large change in shear they behave like plastic
Viscosity
Unit 1
There are two ways of expressing viscosity
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

τ
μ=
du
dy
Units: N s/m2 or Pa s or kg/m s

The unit Poise is also used where 10 P = 1 Pa·s
Water µ = 8.94 × 10−4 Pa s

Mercury µ = 1.526 × 10−3 Pa s
Olive oil µ = .081 Pa s
Pitch µ = 2.3 × 108 Pa s
Honey µ = 2000 – 10000 Pa s
Ketchup µ = 50000 – 100000 Pa s (non-newtonian)
Kinematic Viscosity
ν = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density

μ
ν=
ρ
Units m2/s
Water ν = 1.7 × 10−6 m2/s.
Air ν = 1.5 × 10−5 m2/s.

Unit 1
Flow rate
Mass flow rate
dm mass
m& = =
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
A simple example:
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then:
mass of fluid in bucket

mass flow rate = m
& =
time taken to collect the fluid
8.0 − 2.0
=
7
= 0.857kg / s

Unit 1
Volume flow rate - Discharge.
More commonly we use volume flow rate

Also know as discharge.
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
volume of fluid
discharge, Q =
time
A simple example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 litres in 25 seconds,
what is the discharge?
2.0 × 10 − 3 m3
Q=
25 sec
= 0.0008 m3 / s
= 0.8 l / s

Unit 1
Discharge and mean velocity
If we know the discharge and the diameter of a

pipe, we can deduce the mean velocity
um t
x area A
Pipe Cylinder of fluid
Cross sectional area of pipe is A

Mean velocity is um.
In time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point X with

a volume A× um × t.
The discharge will thus be
volume A × um × t
Q= =
time t
Q = Aum

Unit 1
A simple example:
If A = 1.2×10-3m2
And discharge, Q is 24 l/s,
mean velocity is
Q
um =
A
2.4 × 10 − 3
=
. × 10 − 3
12
= 2.0 m / s
Note how we have called this the mean velocity.
This is because the velocity in the pipe is not

constant across the cross section.
u
um umax
This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the

area gives the discharge, applies to all situations
- not just pipe flow.

Unit 1
Continuity
This principle of conservation of mass says matter
cannot be created or destroyed
This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as

control volumes (or surfaces)
Mass flow in
Control
volume
Mass flow out
For any control volume the principle of conservation of

mass says
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase
per unit time per unit time of mass in
control vol
per unit time
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within

the control volume, so
For steady flow
Mass entering = Mass leaving

Unit 1
In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the

mean velocity and write
ρ1 A1um1 = ρ2 A2 um2 = Constant = m&
For incompressible, fluid ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ

(dropping the m subscript)
A1u1 = A2 u2 = Q
This is the continuity equation most often used.
This equation is a very powerful tool.
It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of

this course.

Unit 1
Lecture 3: Examples from

Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics
Units
1.
A water company wants to check that it will have sufficient water if there is a prolonged drought
in the area. The region it covers is 500 square miles and various different offices have sent in
the following consumption figures. There is sufficient information to calculate the amount of
water available, but unfortunately it is in several different units.
Of the total area 100 000 acres are rural land and the rest urban. The density of the urban
population is 50 per square kilometre. The average toilet cistern is sized 200mm by 15in by
0.3m and on average each person uses this 3 time per day. The density of the rural population
is 5 per square mile. Baths are taken twice a week by each person with the average volume of
water in the bath being 6 gallons. Local industry uses 1000 m3 per week. Other uses are
estimated as 5 gallons per person per day. A US air base in the region has given water use
figures of 50 US gallons per person per day.
The average rain fall in 1in per month (28 days). In the urban area all of this goes to the river
while in the rural area 10% goes to the river 85% is lost (to the aquifer) and the rest goes to the
one reservoir which supplies the region. This reservoir has an average surface area of 500
acres and is at a depth of 10 fathoms. 10% of this volume can be used in a month.
a) What is the total consumption of water per day?
b) If the reservoir was empty and no water could be taken from the river, would there be
enough water if available if rain fall was only 10% of average?

Unit 1
Fluid Properties
1. The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at constant temperature.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
du/dy (s-1) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
τ (N m )
-2
0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0

Unit 1
2. The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and
Kinematic viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 × 10-3 kg/ms.

Unit 1
3. The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic viscosity μ = 0.9 Ns/m )

2
flowing over a fixed plate is given by u = 0.68y - y2 (u is velocity in m/s and y is

the distance from the plate in m).
What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and at y=0.34m?

Unit 1
4. 5.6m3 of oil weighs 46 800 N. Find its mass density, ρ and relative density, γ.
5. From table of fluid properties the viscosity of water is given as 0.01008

poises. What is this value in Ns/m2 and Pa s units?

Unit 1
6. In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the boundary is 1.125m/s.
The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s and relative density 0.913. What is the
velocity gradient and shear stress at the boundary assuming a linear velocity distribution.

Unit 1
Continuity
Section 1 Section 2
A liquid is flowing from left to right.
By continuity
A1u1ρ1 = A2 u2 ρ2
As we are considering a liquid (incompressible),

ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ
Q1 = Q2
A1u1 = A2u2
If the area A1=10×10-3 m2 and A2=3×10-3 m2

And the upstream mean velocity u1=2.1 m/s.
What is the downstream mean velocity?

Unit 1
Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges

as in the figure below,
Section 1 Section 2
If d1=30mm and d2=40mm and the velocity u2=3.0m/s.
What is the velocity entering the diffuser?

Unit 1
Velocities in pipes coming from a junction.
mass flow into the junction = mass flow out
ρ1Q1 = ρ2Q2 + ρ3Q3
When incompressible
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Α1u1 = Α2u2 + Α3u3

Unit 1
If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter

40mm takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60mm.
What are the values of discharge and mean velocity in each pipe?

CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics
Pressure And Head
We have the vertical pressure relationship It is convenient to take atmospheric

dp pressure as the datum
Ug ,
dz
integrating gives Pressure quoted in this way is known as
p = -Ugz + constant gauge pressure i.e.
Gauge pressure is
measuring z from the free surface so that z = -h pgauge = U g h
z h
The lower limit of any pressure is
y
the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
x
Pressure measured above

p Ugh constant a perfect vacuum (zero)
is known as absolute pressure
surface pressure is atmospheric, patmospheric .
Absolute pressure is
patmospheric constant pabsolute = U g h + patmospheric
so
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric
p Ugh patmospheric
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics 35 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics Section 2: Statics 36
A gauge pressure can be given Pressure Measurement By Manometer

using height of any fluid.
p Ugh Manometers use the relationship between pressure
and head to measure pressure
This vertical height is the head.
The Piezometer Tube Manometer

If pressure is quoted in head,
the density of the fluid must also be given. The simplest manometer is an open tube.
Example: This is attached to the top of a container with liquid
What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2 in at pressure. containing liquid at a pressure.
head of water of density, U = 1000 kgm-3
Use p = Ugh,
p 500 u 103 h1 h2
h 50.95m of water
Ug 1000 u 9.81
A
In head of Mercury density U = 13.6u103 kgm-3.
3
500 u 10 B
h 3.75m of Mercury
3
13.6 u 10 u 9.81
In head of a fluid with relative density J = 8.7.
remember U = J u Uwater) The tube is open to the atmosphere,
3 The pressure measured is relative to
500 u 10
h . m of fluid J = 8.7
586 atmospheric so it measures gauge pressure.
u 1000 u 9.81
8.7
An Example of a Piezometer.
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1 What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that
can be measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m?
And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what
pA = U g h 1 would the maximum measurable gauge pressure?
Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid h2
pB = U g h 2
Problems with the Piezometer:
1. Can only be used for liquids
2. Pressure must above atmospheric
3. Liquid height must be convenient

i.e. not be too small or too large.
Equality Of Pressure At
The Same Level In A Static Fluid
P Q
Fluid density ρ
Area A
z z
pl, A pr, A
Face L Face R L R
weight, mg
Horizontal cylindrical element

We have shown
cross sectional area = A
mass density = U pl = pr
left end pressure = pl For a vertical pressure change we have
right end pressure = pr pl p p Ugz
and
For equilibrium the sum of the pr pq Ugz
forces in the x direction is zero.
so
pl A = pr A p p Ugz pq Ugz
pp pq
pl = pr
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant. Pressure at the two equal levels are the same.
This true for any continuous fluid.
The “U”-Tube Manometer We know:
“U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids Pressure in a continuous static fluid
and gases to be measured is the same at any horizontal level.
“U” is connected as shown and filled with
manometric fluid. pressure at B = pressure at C
pB = pC
Important points:
1. The manometric fluid density should be For the left hand arm
greater than of the fluid measured. pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure of height of
Uman > U liquid being measured
2. The two fluids should not be able to mix pB = pA + Ugh1

they must be immiscible.
For the right hand arm
Fluid density ρ pressure at C = pressure at D + pressure of height of
D
manometric liquid
pC = patmospheric + Uman gh2
h2
A
h1 We are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract
B C patmospheric giving
pB = pC
Manometric fluid density ρ
man
pA = Uman gh2 - Ugh1
An example of the U-Tube manometer.

What if the fluid is a gas? Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge
pressure of fluid density U = 700 kg/m3, and the
manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density
Nothing changes. of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
The manometer work exactly the same. b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?
BUT:
As the manometric fluid is liquid

(usually mercury , oil or water)
And Liquid density is much

greater than gas,
Uman >> U
Ugh1 can be neglected,
and the gauge pressure given by
pA = Uman gh2
Pressure difference measurement pressure at C = pressure at D

Using a “U”-Tube Manometer.
pC = pD
The “U”-tube manometer can be connected
at both ends to measure pressure difference between pC = pA + U g ha
these two points
pD = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
B
pA + U g ha = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
Fluid density ρ
Giving the pressure difference
hb
E
pA - pB = U g (hb - ha) + (Uman - U)g h

h
ha Again if the fluid is a gas Uman >> U, then the terms

C D involving U can be neglected,
pA - pB = Uman g h
Manometric fluid density ρman
An example using the u-tube for pressure Advances to the “U” tube manometer
difference measuring
In the figure below two pipes containing the same
fluid of density U = 990 kg/m3 are connected using a Problem: Two reading are required.
u-tube manometer. Solution: Increase cross-sectional area
What is the pressure between the two pipes if the of one side.
manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Fluid density ρ Result: One level moves
much more than the other.
Fluid density ρ
A
p1 p2
B
ha = 1.5m
E
hb = 0.75m
diameter D
h = 0.5m
diameter d
z2
Datum line
C D z1
Manometric fluid density ρman = 13.6 ρ
If the manometer is measuring the pressure

difference of a gas of (p1 - p2) as shown,
we know
p1 - p2 = Uman g h
volume of liquid moved from

the left side to the right
= z2 u ( Sd2 / 4) Problem: Small pressure difference,
movement cannot be read.
The fall in level of the left side is

Volume moved
z1 Solution 1: Reduce density of manometric
Area of left side fluid.
z 2 Sd 2 / 4
SD 2 / 4 Result: Greater height change -
2
§d· easier to read.
z2 ¨ ¸
© D¹
Putting this in the equation,
2
ª d º
p1 p2 Ug « z 2 z 2 §¨ ·¸ » Solution 2: Tilt one arm of the manometer.
¬ © ¹ D ¼
2
ª d º
Ugz 2 «1 §¨ ·¸ » Result: Same height change - but larger
© ¹
¬ D ¼ movement along the
If D >> d then (d/D)2 is very small so manometer arm - easier to read.
p1 p2 Ugz2
Inclined manometer
Example of an inclined manometer.
p1
p2 An inclined manometer is required to measure an air
diameter d
pressure of 3mm of water to an accuracy of +/- 3%.
The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the larger
diameter D
er
x arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid
ad
eR
e
has density Uman = 740 kg/m3 and the scale may be
al z2
Sc read to +/- 0.5mm.
Datum line
z1 What is the angle required to ensure the desired
accuracy may be achieved?
θ
The pressure difference is still given by the

height change of the manometric fluid.
p1 p2 Ugz2
but,
z2 x sin T
p1 p2 Ugx sin T
The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased

further by a greater inclination.
Choice Of Manometer Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids
Take care when fixing the manometer to vessel We have seen these features of static fluids
Burrs cause local pressure variations.
x Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution
Disadvantages: x Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous
x Slow response - only really useful for very slowly fluid are equal
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures; x Pressure at a point acts equally in all
directions (Pascal’s law).
x For the “U” tube manometer two measurements
must be taken simultaneously to get the h value. xForces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right
x It is often difficult to measure small variations in angles to that boundary.
pressure.
x It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
Fluid pressure on a surface
x For very accurate work the temperature and
relationship between temperature and U must be Pressure is force per unit area.
known; Pressure p acting on a small area GA exerted
force will be
Advantages of manometers:
x They are very simple.
F = puGA
x No calibration is required - the pressure can be
calculated from first principles.
Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at
right-angles to the surface.
General submerged plane Horizontal submerged plane

F =p δA1
1 1
F =p δA
2 2 2
The pressure, p, will be equal at all points of
F =p δA
n n n the surface.
The resultant force will be given by
R pressure u area of plane
The total or resultant force, R, on the R = pA
plane is the sum of the forces on the
small elements i.e. Curved submerged surface
R p1GA1 p 2 GA2 p n GAn ¦ pGA
and Each elemental force is a different
This resultant force will act through the magnitude and in a different direction (but
centre of pressure. still normal to the surface.).
It is, in general, not easy to calculate the

For a plane surface all forces acting
resultant force for a curved surface by
can be represented by one single combining all elemental forces.
resultant force,
acting at right-angles to the plane The sum of all the forces on each element
through the centre of pressure. will always be less than the sum of the
individual forces, ¦ pGA .
Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a

general plane surface in a liquid.
¦ zGA is known as
O
the 1st Moment of Area of the
O
θ
Fluid Q elemental
density ρ z
area δA
Resultant
z
s plane PQ about the free surface.
Force R D
G
area δA G
x
C Sc area A d
And it is known that
P
x ¦ zGA Az
Take pressure as zero at the surface.
A is the area of the plane
Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on z is the distance to the centre of gravity
an element GA, depth z,
(centroid)
p = Ugz
In terms of distance from point O
So force on element ¦ zGA Ax sin T
F = UgzGA = 1st moment of area u sinT

about a line through O
Resultant force on plane
(as z x sin T )
R Ug ¦ zGA
The resultant force on a plane
(assuming U and g as constant). R UgAz
UgAx sin T
This resultant force acts at right angles Sum of moments Ug sin T ¦ s 2 GA

through the centre of pressure, C, at a depth D.
Moment of R about O = R u S c = UgAx sin T S c

How do we find this position?
Take moments of the forces. Equating

UgAx sin T S c Ug sin T ¦ s 2 GA
As the plane is in equilibrium:
The moment of R will be equal to the sum of the
The position of the centre of pressure along the
moments of the forces on all the elements GA plane measure from the point O is:
about the same point.
Sc
¦ s GA2
It is convenient to take moment about O Ax
The force on each elemental area: How do we work out

Force on GA UgzGA the summation term?
Ug s sin T GA
This term is known as the
the moment of this force is:
2nd Moment of Area , Io,
Moment of Force on GA about O Ug s sin T GA u s of the plane
Ug sin T GAs 2 (about the axis through O)
U , g and T are the same for each element, giving the
total moment as
2nd moment of area about O Io ¦ s 2GA

How do you calculate the 2nd moment of
area?
It can be easily calculated
for many common shapes.
2nd moment of area is a geometric property.
It can be found from tables -

The position of the centre of pressure
BUT only for moments about
along the plane measure from the point O is:
an axis through its centroid = IGG.
2 nd Moment of area about a line through O

Sc Usually we want the 2nd moment of area
1st Moment of area about a line through O
about a different axis.
and
Through O in the above examples.
Depth to the centre of pressure is We can use the

parallel axis theorem
D S c sin T to give us what we want.
nd
The 2 moment of area about a line
The parallel axis theorem can be written through the centroid of some common
Io I GG Ax 2
shapes.
Shape Area A 2nd moment of area, I GG ,

about
We then get the following an axis through the centroid
equation for the Rectangle
b
position of the centre of pressure bd bd 3
h 12
G G
I GG
Sc x
Ax
Triangle
§I ·
D sin T ¨ GG x ¸ bd bd 3
h
© Ax ¹ G
h/3
G
b
2 36
Circle
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem
G
R
G SR 2 SR 4
and the I GG will be given)
4
Semicircle 2
SR
R4
R
G
(4R)/(3π)
2 01102
.
An example:
Find the moment required to keep this triangular Submerged vertical surface -
gate closed on a tank which holds water. Pressure diagrams
1.2m
For vertical walls of constant width
D
2.0m
it is possible to find the resultant force and
centre of pressure graphically using a
G 1.5m pressure diagram.
C
We know the relationship between

pressure and depth:
p = Ugz
So we can draw the diagram below:
z ρgz
H 2H
3
R
p
ρgH
This is know as a pressure diagram.
Pressure increases from zero at the

surface linearly by p = Ugz, to a
maximum at the base of p = UgH. For a triangle the centroid is at 2/3 its height
i.e. the resultant force acts
2
The area of this triangle represents the horizontally through the point z H.
3
resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall, For a vertical plane the
depth to the centre of pressure is given by
Units of this are Newtons per metre.
1 2
Area u AB u BC D H
2 3
1
HUgH
2
1
UgH 2
2
Resultant force per unit width
1
R UgH 2 ( N / m)
2
The force acts through the centroid of

the pressure diagram.
Check this against The same technique can be used with combinations
the moment method: of liquids are held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
For example:
The resultant force is given by: oil ρo 0.8m

D
R UgAz UgAx sinT
1.2m
H water ρ R
Ug H u 1 sinT
2
1
UgH 2 ρg0.8 ρg1.2
2 Find the position and magnitude of the resultant

and the depth to the centre of pressure by: force on this vertical wall of a tank which has oil
§I · floating on water as shown.
D sin T ¨ o ¸
© Ax ¹
and by the parallel axis theorem (with width of 1)
Io I GG Ax 2
2
1u H3 H H3
1 u H §¨ ·¸
12 © 2¹ 3
Depth to the centre of pressure
§ H 3 / 3· 2
D ¨ 2 ¸ H
© H / 2¹ 3
Submerged Curved Surface

In the diagram below liquid is resting on
If the surface is curved the resultant force top of a curved base.
must be found by combining the elemental
forces using some vectorial method. E D
Calculate the C
B
horizontal and vertical G
FAC O RH
components.
A
Combine these to obtain the resultant Rv R
force and direction.

The fluid is at rest – in equilibrium.
So any element of fluid

(Although this can be done for all three such as ABC is also in equilibrium.
dimensions we will only look at one vertical
plane)
Consider the Horizontal forces

The resultant horizontal force of a fluid
above a curved surface is:
The sum of the horizontal forces is zero.
C
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
B
curved surface onto a vertical plane.
FAC RH
We know
A 1. The force on a vertical plane must act
horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane).
No horizontal force on CB as there are 2. That RH must act through the same point.
no shear forces in a static fluid
So:
Horizontal forces act only on the faces RH acts horizontally through the centre of
AC and AB as shown. pressure of the projection of
the curved surface onto an vertical plane.
FAC, must be equal and opposite to RH.
We have seen earlier how to calculate
AC is the projection of the curved surface resultant forces and point of action.
AB onto a vertical plane.
Hence we can calculate the resultant
horizontal force on a curved surface.
Consider the Vertical forces Resultant force

The sum of the vertical forces is zero.
E D
The overall resultant force is found by
combining the vertical and horizontal
C
B
components vectorialy,
G
Resultant force
2
A
R RH RV2
Rv
There are no shear force on the vertical edges, And acts through O at an angle of T.
so the vertical component can only be due to
the weight of the fluid. The angle the resultant force makes to the
horizontal is
So we can say §R ·
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a T tan 1 ¨ V ¸
© RH ¹
curved surface is:
RV = Weight of fluid directly above the curved

surface. The position of O is the point of interaction of
the horizontal line of action of R H and the
It will act vertically down through the centre of vertical line of action of RV .
gravity of the mass of fluid.
A typical example application of this is the
determination of the forces on dam walls or curved
What are the forces if the fluid is below the
sluice gates.
curved surface?
Find the magnitude and direction of the This situation may occur or a curved sluice gate.
resultant force of water on a quadrant gate as
shown below. C
Gate width 3.0m B
G
1.0m
FAC O RH
Water ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Rv R
The force calculation is very similar to

when the fluid is above.
Horizontal force Vertical force

C
B
G
B
FAC O RH
A A’ Rv
What vertical force would

The two horizontal on the element are:
The horizontal reaction force RH keep this in equilibrium?
The force on the vertical plane A’B.
If the region above the curve were all
The resultant horizontal force, RH acts as shown in water there would be equilibrium.
the diagram. Thus we can say:
Hence: the force exerted by this amount of fluid

must equal he resultant force.
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid below a
curved surface is:
RH = Resultant force on the projection of the
curved surface onto a vertical plane. The resultant vertical force of a fluid below a
curved surface is:
Rv =Weight of the imaginary volume of fluid
vertically above the curved surface.
The resultant force and direction of application An example of a curved sluice gate which
are calculated in the same way as for fluids experiences force from fluid below.
above the surface: A 1.5m long cylinder lies as shown in the figure,
holding back oil of relative density 0.8. If the cylinder
has a mass of 2250 kg find
a) the reaction at A b) the reaction at B
Resultant force E
C
2
R RH RV2
A
D
And acts through O at an angle of T.

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal
is
§R ·
T tan 1 ¨ V ¸
© RH ¹
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Fluid Dynamics
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Objectives
Dr P A Sleigh: P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes: C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
1.Identify differences between:
x steady/unsteady
January 2008
x uniform/non-uniform
Module web site: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 x compressible/incompressible flow
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics 3 lectures
Flow 2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity 3.Introduce the Continuity principle
Hydrostatic pressure 4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
Manometry / Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures 5.Use the continuity equations to predict pressure

The continuity equation. and velocity in flowing fluids
The Bernoulli Equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation. 6.Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
Laminar and turbulent flow 7.Demonstrate use of the momentum equation to
Boundary layer theory
An Intro to Dimensional analysis predict forces induced by flowing fluids
Similarity
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 98 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 99
Fluid dynamics: Flow Classification

Fluid flow may be
The analysis of fluid in motion classified under the following headings
Fluid motion can be predicted in the uniform:

same way as the motion of solids Flow conditions (velocity, pressure, cross-section or
depth) are the same at every point in the fluid.
By use of the fundamental laws of physics and the non-uniform:
physical properties of the fluid Flow conditions are not the same at every point.
Some fluid flow is very complex: steady

e.g. Flow conditions may differ from point to point but
x Spray behind a car DO NOT change with time.
x waves on beaches;
x hurricanes and tornadoes unsteady
Flow conditions change with time at any point.
x any other atmospheric phenomenon
Fluid flowing under normal circumstances

All can be analysed
- a river for example -
with varying degrees of success conditions vary from point to point
(in some cases hardly at all!). we have non-uniform flow.
There are many common situations If the conditions at one point vary as time passes
which analysis gives very accurate predictions then we have unsteady flow.
Combining these four gives. Compressible or Incompressible Flow?
Steady uniform flow. All fluids are compressible - even water.

Conditions do not change with position
in the stream or with time. Density will change as pressure changes.
E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity. Under steady conditions
- provided that changes in pressure are small - we
Steady non-uniform flow. usually say the fluid is incompressible
Conditions change from point to point in the stream but - it has constant density.
do not change with time.
E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the
inlet. Three-dimensional flow
In general fluid flow is three-dimensional.
Unsteady uniform flow.
At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are Pressures and velocities change in all directions.
the same, but will change with time.
E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump
pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off. In many cases the greatest changes only occur in
two directions or even only in one.
Unsteady non-uniform flow
Every condition of the flow may change from point to Changes in the other direction can be effectively
point and with time at every point. ignored making analysis much more simple.
E.g. Waves in a channel.
This course is restricted to Steady uniform flow

- the most simple of the four.
One dimensional flow: Two-dimensional flow
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in
not across the cross-section. one direction at right angles to this.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown
varying in time but not across the cross-section. by curved lines on a plane.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
Below shows flow pattern over a weir.

But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall
- yet non-zero in the centre -
there is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
Pipe Ideal flow Real flow
In this course we will be considering:

Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow?
Possibly - but it is only necessary if very high x steady
accuracy is required. x incompressible
x one and two-dimensional flow
Streamlines Some points about streamlines:
It is useful to visualise the flow pattern. x Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are parallel
Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity to that boundary
contours - can be drawn.
x The direction of the streamline is the direction of
the fluid velocity
These lines are know as streamlines
x Fluid can not cross a streamline
Here are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section of
an aircraft wing shaped body:
x Streamlines can not cross each other
x Any particles starting on one streamline will stay

on that same streamline
x In unsteady flow streamlines can change position

with time
Fluid flowing past a solid boundary does not flow
into or out of the solid surface. x In steady flow, the position of streamlines does
not change.
Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction

must be along the boundary.
Streamtubes Some points about streamtubes
A circle of points in a flowing fluid each x The “walls” of a streamtube are streamlines.
has a streamline passing through it.
x Fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
These streamlines make a tube-like shape known cannot cross a streamtube “wall”.
as a streamtube
x A streamtube is not like a pipe.
Its “walls” move with the fluid.
x In unsteady flow streamtubes can change position

with time
x In steady flow, the position of streamtubes does

not change.
In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat (in

the plane of the paper):
Flow rate Discharge and mean velocity
Mass flow rate Cross sectional area of a pipe is A

Mean velocity is um.
dm mass Q = Au m
m
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
We usually drop the “m” and imply mean velocity.
Volume flow rate - Discharge. Continuity Mass flow in

Control
volume
Mass flow out

Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase
More commonly we use volume flow rate
per unit time per unit time of mass in
Also know as discharge. control vol
per unit time
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within
the control volume, so
volume of fluid
discharge, Q For steady flow
time Mass entering = Mass leaving
per unit time per unit time
Q1 = Q2 = A1u1 = A2u2
Applying to a streamtube: In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the mean
velocity and write
Mass enters and leaves only through the two ends
(it cannot cross the streamtube wall). U1 A1um1 U2 A2 um2 Constant m
ρ2
u2
A2
For incompressible, fluid U1 = U2 = U

(dropping the m subscript)
ρ1
u1
A1
A1u1 A2 u2 Q
Mass entering = Mass leaving
per unit time per unit time
This is the continuity equation most often used.
U1GA1u1 U2GA2u2
Or for steady flow,

This equation is a very powerful tool.
It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of this
dm course.
U1GA1u1 U2GA2 u2 Constant m
dt
This is the continuity equation.
Some example applications of Continuity

Water flows in a circular pipe which increases in diameter
1. What is the outflow? from 400mm at point A to 500mm at point B. Then pipe
then splits into two branches of diameters 0.3m and 0.2m
discharging at C and D respectively.
1.5 m3/s If the velocity at A is 1.0m/s and at D is 0.8m/s, what are

the discharges at C and D and the velocities at B and C?
Solution:
Draw diagram:
Qin = Qout C
A dB=0.5m dC=0.3m
1.5 + 1.5 = 3 B
Qout = 3.0 m3/s
dA=0.4m
2. What is the inflow?
vA=1.0m/s
D
u = 1.5 m/s dD=0.2m
A = 0.5 m2 vD=0.8m/s
u 3.
= 0.2 m/s Make a table and fill in the missing values
u = 1.0 m/s = 1.3 m2
A 4.
A = 0.7 m2 5.
Point Velocity m/s Diameter m Area m² Q m³/s
A 1.00 0.4 0.126 0.126

Q = 2.8 m3/s Q
B 0.64 0.5 0.196 0.126
C 1.42 0.3 0.071 0.101
Q = Area u Mean Velocity = Au
D 0.80 0.2 0.031 0.025
Q + 1.5u0.5 + 1u0.7 = 0.2u1.3 + 2.8
Q = 3.72 m3/s
potential head = z total head = H

Restrictions in application
Lecture 9: The Bernoulli Equation of Bernoulli’s equation:
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
x Flow is steady
The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the
principle of conservation of energy along a x Density is constant (incompressible)
streamline
x Friction losses are negligible
It can be written:
p1 u12 x It relates the states at two points along a single
z H = Constant streamline, (not conditions on two different
Ug 2 g 1 streamlines)
These terms represent:

All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any
instant in time!
Pressure Kinetic Potential Total
energy per energy per energy per energy per Fortunately, for many real situations where the
unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight conditions are approximately satisfied, the equation
gives very good results.
These term all have units of length,
they are often referred to as the following:
p u2
pressure head = velocity head =
Ug 2g
The derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation: m

Cross sectional area a distance AA’ =
B
B’
Ua
A work done = force u distance AA’
z A’
m pm
mg = pa u
Ua U
An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has potential
energy due to its height z above a datum and kinetic energy
p
work done per unit weight =
due to its velocity u. If the element has weight mg then Ug
potential energy = mgz This term is know as the pressure energy of the flowing stream.
potential energy per unit weight = z Summing all of these energy terms gives
1 2
kinetic energy = mu Pressure Kinetic
energy per energy per energy per
Potential Total
2 unit weight unit weight unit weight

energy per
unit weight
u2
kinetic energy per unit weight = or
2g
At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the fluid
p u2
z H
will flow, moving the cross-section, so work will be done. If the Ug 2 g
pressure at cross section AB is p and the area of the cross-
section is a then
force on AB = pa By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy in
the system does not change, thus the total head does not
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section AB change. So the Bernoulli equation can be written
will have moved to A’B’
mg m p u2
volume passing AB =
z H Constant
Ug U Ug 2 g
therefore
The Bernoulli equation is applied along Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation
_______________
like that joining points 1 and 2 below. The Bernoulli equation is often combined with the
2
continuity equation to find velocities and pressures
at points in the flow connected by a streamline.
Example:
1 Finding pressures and velocities within a
total head at 1 = total head at 2 contracting and expanding pipe.
or
p1 u12 p2 u22 u1 u2
z z
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
p1 p2
section 1
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction) or section 2
3
energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It can be A fluid, density U = 960 kg/m is flowing steadily through
expanded to include these simply, by adding the appropriate the above tube.
energy terms:
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
Total Total Loss Work done Energy
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2
energy per energy per unit per unit per unit supplied
unit weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight per unit weight The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2)
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z h wq
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2 What is the gauge pressure at section 2?
Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline joining We have used both the Bernoulli equation and the
section 1 with section 2. Continuity principle together to solve the problem.
p1 u12 p2 u22
z1 z2
Ug 2 g Ug 2 g Use of this combination is very common. We will be
seeing this again frequently throughout the rest of
U
p2 p1 (u12 u22 ) the course.
2
Use the continuity equation to find u2 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

A1u1 A2u2
2 The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many
A1u1 § d1 ·
u2 ¨ ¸ u1 situations not just the pipe flow.
A2 © d2 ¹
7.8125 m / s Here we will see its application to flow
So pressure at section 2 measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as in
p2 200000 17296.87 open channels.
182703 N / m2
182.7 kN / m2
Note how
the velocity has increased
the pressure has decreased
Applications of Bernoulli: Flow from Tanks Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the
Flow Through A Small Orifice surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice.
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure

Flow from a tank through a hole in the side. atmospheric (p1 = 0).
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so

1
Aactual again the pressure is atmospheric (p2 = 0).
h
If we take the datum line through the orifice
then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
2
u22
Vena contractor
h
2g
The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional losses by u2 2 gh
minimising the contact between the hole and the liquid.
The streamlines at the orifice This theoretical value of velocity is an overestimate as

friction losses have not been taken into account.
contract reducing the area of flow.
This contraction is called the vena contracta A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the theoretical
velocity,
The amount of contraction must uactual Cv utheoretical
be known to calculate the flow
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they
usually lie in the range( 0.97 - 0.99)
The discharge through the orifice Time for the tank to empty
is We have an expression for the discharge from the tank
jet area u jet velocity Q Cd Ao 2 gh
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not
We can use this to calculate how long
the area of the orifice. it will take for level in the to fall
We use a coefficient of contraction As the tank empties the level of water falls.
to get the area of the jet The discharge will also drop.
Aactual Cc Aorifice
h1
Giving discharge through the orifice: h2
Q Au
Qactual Aactual uactual
Cc Cv Aorifice utheoretical The tank has a cross sectional area of A.
Cd Aorifice utheoretical In a time Gt the level falls by Gh

Cd Aorifice 2 gh The flow out of the tank is
Q Au
Gh
Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Q A
Gt
Cd = Cc u Cv (-ve sign as Gh is falling)
This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so Submerged Orifice
What if the tank is feeding into another?
Gh
Cd Ao 2 gh A Area A1
Gt Area A2
h1
A Gh h2
Gt
Cd Ao 2 g h
Orifice area Ao
Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the deeper

Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final level, h2, tank to point 2 at the centre of the orifice,
gives the time it takes to fall this height
p1 u12 p2 u22
A h2 Gh z1 z2
t ³h
Cd Ao 2 g 1 h Ug 2g Ug 2g
Ugh2 u22
0 0 h1 0
§ 1 · Ug 2 g
¨³ 1/ 2 1/ 2
³h 2h 2 h¸
© h ¹ u2 2 g (h1 h2 )
And the discharge is given by
A Q Cd Ao u
t >2 h @hh12 Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 )
Cd Ao 2 g
2A
Cd Ao 2 g
> h2 h1 @ So the discharge of the jet through the submerged orifice
depends on the difference in head across the orifice.
Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the

Lecture 10: Flow Measurement Devices pressure at this point.
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Along the central streamline at 1: velocity u1 , pressure p1
At the stagnation point (2): u2 = 0. (Also z1 = z2)
Pitot Tube p1 u12 p2

The Pitot tube is a simple velocity measuring device. U 2 U
1
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has
p2 p1 Uu12
2
streamlines similar to this:
How can we use this?

1 2
The blunt body does not have to be a solid.

It could be a static column of fluid.
Some move to the left and some to the right.
The centre one hits the blunt body and stops. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube
within the pipe can be used as shown below to measure
velocity of flow.
At this point (2) velocity is zero
The fluid does not move at this one point.

This point is known as the stagnation point.
Pitot Static Tube

The necessity of two piezometers makes this
h1 h2 arrangement awkward.
The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they

1
2 can then be easily connected to a manometer.
1
We have the equation for p2 , 2
1
p2 p1 Uu12 1
X
2 h
1
Ugh1 Uu12
A B
Ugh2
2
u 2 g (h2 h1 ) [Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its diameter
is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are considered to
be at the same level]
We now have an expression for velocity from two
pressure measurements and the application of the
Bernoulli equation.
The holes on the side connect to one side of a
manometer, while the central hole connects to the other
side of the manometer
Using the theory of the manometer, Pitot-Static Tube Example

pA p1 Ug X h Uman gh
pB p2 UgX A pitot-static tube is used to measure the air flow at
the centre of a 400mm diameter building ventilation
pA pB duct.
p2 UgX p1 Ug X h Uman gh If the height measured on the attached manometer is
10 mm and the density of the manometer fluid is 1000
1 kg/m3, determine the volume flow rate in the duct.
We know that p2 p1 Uu12 , giving Assume that the density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.
2
Uu12
p1 hg Uman U p1
2
2 gh( Um U )
u1
U
The Pitot/Pitot-static is:
x Simple to use (and analyse)
x Gives velocities (not discharge)
x May block easily as the holes are small.
Venturi Meter Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
discharge in a pipe.
By continuity
Q u1 A1 u2 A2
It is a rapidly converging section which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. u1 A1
u2
A2
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section. Substituting and rearranging gives
about 6°
2 º
p1 p2 u12 ª§ A1 ·
z1 z2 «¨ ¸ 1»
about 20° Ug 2 g «© A2 ¹ »¼
¬
u12 ª A12 A22 º
2 « »
2 g ¬ A22 ¼
1
ª p p2 º
2g« 1 z1 z2 »
z2
u1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼
2 2
z1
h A1 A2
datum
The theoretical (ideal) discharge is uuA. Venturimeter design:
Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to friction, x The diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration after
we include a coefficient of discharge (Cd |0.9) the throat. So that pressure rises to something near that
Qideal u1 A1 before the meter.
Qactual Cd Qideal Cd u1 A1
x The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees.
ª p p2 º
2g« 1 z1 z2 » x Wider and the flow might separate from the walls increasing
Qactual Cd A1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼ energy loss.
2 2
A1 A2
x If the angle is less the meter becomes very long and pressure
losses again become significant.
In terms of the manometer readings
p1 Ugz1 p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h) x The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to
the original is rarely greater than 80%.
p1 p2 §U ·
z1 z2 h¨ man 1¸ x Care must be taken when connecting the manometer so that
Ug © U ¹
no burrs are present.
Giving
§U ·
2 gh¨ man 1¸
© U ¹
Qactual Cd A1 A2
A12 A22
This expression does not include any
elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
When used with a manometer

The Venturimeter can be used without knowing its angle.
Venturimeter Example
Lecture 11: Notches and Weirs
A venturimeter is used to measure the flow of water Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
in a 150 mm diameter pipe. The throat diameter of the
venturimeter is 60 mm and the discharge coefficient
is 0.9. If the pressure difference measured by a
x A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir.
manometer is 10 cm mercury, what is the average
velocity in the pipe?
Assume water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 and x It is a device for measuring discharge
mercury has a relative density of 13.6.
x A weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in rivers.
x It is used as both a discharge measuring device and a device

to raise water levels.
x There are many different designs of weir.

x We will look at sharp crested weirs.
Weir Assumptions
x velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we
can ignore kinetic energy.
x The velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below the
free surface. u 2 gh
These assumptions are fine for tanks with notches or reservoirs

with weirs, in rivers with high velocity approaching the weir is
substantial the kinetic energy must be taken into account
A General Weir Equation Rectangular Weir
Consider a horizontal strip of The width does not change with depth so
width b, depth h below the free surface
b constant B
b h
H
δh B
velocity through the strip, u 2 gh

discharge through the strip, GQ Au bGh 2 gh Substituting this into the general weir equation gives
H
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest, Qtheoretical B 2 g ³ h1/ 2 dh
h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge 0
H 2
Qtheoretical 2 g ³ bh1/ 2 dh B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
0
To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of
discharge, Cd, to account for
This is different for every differently losses at the edges of the weir
shaped weir or notch. and contractions in the area of flow,
2
We need an expression relating the width of flow across
Qactual Cd B 2 gH 3 / 2
3
the weir to the depth below the free surface.
Rectangular Weir Example ‘V’ Notch Weir

The relationship between width and depth is dependent
Water enters the Millwood flood storage area via a on the angle of the “V”.
rectangular weir when the river height exceeds the
weir crest. For design purposes a flow rate of 162
litres/s over the weir can be assumed b h
H
θ
1. Assuming a height over the crest of 20cm and

Cd=0.2, what is the necessary width, B, of the weir?
The width, b, a depth h from the free surface is
§T ·
b 2 H h tan¨ ¸
© 2¹
So the discharge is
H
§T ·
Qtheoretical 2 2 g tan¨ ¸ ³ H hh1/ 2 dh
© 2¹
0
H
2. What will be the velocity over the weir at this § T · ª2 2 º
2 2 g tan¨ ¸ « Hh 3/ 2 h5/ 2 »
design? © 2¹ ¬ 3 5 ¼0
8 §T ·
2 g tan¨ ¸ H 5/ 2
15 © 2¹
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a
coefficient of discharge
8 §T ·
Qactual Cd 2 g tan¨ ¸ H 5 / 2
15 © 2¹
‘V’ Notch Weir Example

Water is flowing over a 90o ‘V’ Notch weir into a tank Lecture 12: The Momentum Equation
with a cross-sectional area of 0.6m2. After 30s the Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
depth of the water in the tank is 1.5m.
If the discharge coefficient for the weir is 0.8, what is We have all seen moving
the height of the water above the weir?
fluids exerting forces.
x The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the air

moving over the wing.
x A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on

whatever it hits.
The analysis of motion is as in solid mechanics: by

use of Newton’s laws of motion.
The Momentum equation

is a statement of Newton’s Second Law
It relates the sum of the forces

to the acceleration or
rate of change of momentum.
From solid mechanics you will recognise In time Gt a volume of the fluid moves
F = ma from the inlet a distance u1Gt, so
What mass of moving fluid we should use? volume entering the stream tube = area u distance
= A 1u1 Gt
We use a different form of the equation.
The mass entering,
Consider a streamtube: mass entering stream tube = volume u density
= U1 A1 u1 Gt
And assume steady non-uniform flow
A2
And momentum
u2 momentum entering stream tube = mass u velocity
A1
u1 ρ2 = U1 A1 u1 Gt u1
ρ1
u1 δt Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:

momentum leaving stream tube = U2 A 2 u 2 Gt u 2
nd
By Newton’s 2 Law. An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
Force = rate of change of momentum mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2
( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 ) we can write

F= dm
Gt rate of change of mass m
dt
U1 A1u1 U2 A2u2
We know from continuity that
The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is
Q A1u1 A2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
1
And if we have a fluid of constant density, The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is
i.e. U1 U2 U , then U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
F QU (u2 u1 ) Thus the rate at which momentum changes across

the stream tube is
U2 A2 u2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
2 mu
1
So
Force = rate of change of momentum

F m ( u2 u1 )
The previous analysis assumed the inlet and outlet

So we have these two expressions, velocities in the same direction
either one is known as the momentum equation i.e. a one dimensional system.
What happens when this is not the case?

u2
F m ( u2 u1 )
θ2
F QU ( u2 u1)
θ1
The Momentum equation.
u1
This force acts on the fluid

in the direction of the flow of the fluid. We consider the forces by resolving in the
directions of the co-ordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction

Fx m u2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
m u2 x u1 x
or
Fx UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
UQu2 x u1 x
And the force in the y-direction

Fy m u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1 In summary we can say:
m §¨© u2 y u1 y ·¸¹ Total force rate of change of

on the fluid = momentum through
or
the control volume
Fy UQu2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
UQ§¨© u2 y u1 y ·¸¹ F m uout uin

or
The resultant force can be found by combining F UQuout uin

these components
Fy
FResultant
Remember that we are working with vectors so F is

φ
in the direction of the velocity.
Fx
Fresultant Fx2 Fy2
And the angle of this force
§ Fy ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© Fx ¹
This force is made up of three components:

FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body Application of the Momentum Equation
touching the control volume
Forces on a Bend
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure

Consider a converging or diverging pipe bend lying
outside the control volume
in the vertical or horizontal plane
turning through an angle of T.
So we say that the total force, FT,
is given by the sum of these forces: Here is a diagram of a diverging pipe bend.
y p2 u
2 A2
FT = FR + FB + FP
x
1m
The force exerted p1
u1 45°
A1
by the fluid
on the solid body
touching the control volume is opposite to FR.
So the reaction force, R, is given by

R = -FR
Why do we want to know the forces here? An Example of Forces on a Bend
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45q rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
As the fluid changes direction internal angle of 135q). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
a force will act on the bend. at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is 100kN/m2
and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe is 0.075m3.
[13.95kN at 67q 39’ to the horizontal]
This force can be very large in the case of water
supply pipes. The bend must be held in place
to prevent breakage at the joints. 1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis
system
y p2 u
We need to know how much force a support 2 A2
(thrust block) must withstand. x
p1 1m
Step in Analysis:
u1 45°
A1
1.Draw a control volume
2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3.Calculate the total force
4.Calculate the pressure force p1 = 100 kN/m2,
5.Calculate the body force Q = 0.3 m3/s
6.Calculate the resultant force T = 45q
d1 = 0.15 m d2 = 0.3 m
A1 = 0.177 m2 A2 = 0.0707 m2
3 Calculate the total force 4 Calculate the pressure force.

in the x direction FP pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
T1 0, T2 T
FT x UQu2 x u1 x
FP x p1 A1 cos 0 p 2 A2 cos T p1 A1 p 2 A2 cos T
UQu2 cosT u1
FP y p1 A1 sin 0 p 2 A2 sin T p 2 A2 sin T
by continuity A1u1 A2 u2 Q , so
We know pressure at the inlet
but not at the outlet
0.3
u1 16.98 m / s
S 015
. 2 / 4 we can use the Bernoulli equation
0.3 to calculate this unknown pressure.
u2 4.24 m / s
0.0707
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z hf
FT x 1000 u 0.34.24 cos 45 16.98 Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
4193.68 N
and in the y-direction where hf is the friction loss
In the question it says this can be ignored, hf=0
FT y
UQ u2 y u1 y
UQ u2 sin T 0 The height of the pipe at the outlet
1000 u 0.34.24 sin 45 is 1m above the inlet.
Taking the inlet level as the datum:
899.44 N
z1 = 0 z2 = 1m
6 Calculate the resultant force

So the Bernoulli equation becomes:
100000 16.982 p2 4.24 2 FT x FR x FP x FB x
0 10
.
1000 u 9.81 2 u 9.81 1000 u 9.81 2 u 9.81 FT y FR y FP y FB y
p2 2253614. N / m2
FR x FT x FP x FB x
FP x 100000 u 0.0177 2253614
. cos 45 u 0.0707 4193.6 9496.37
1770 11266.34 9496.37 kN 5302.7 N
FP y 2253614
. sin 45 u 0.0707 FR y FT y FP y FB y
11266.37 899.44 11266.37 735.75
. N
1290156
5 Calculate the body force
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
The only body force is the force due to gravity. That FRy
FResultant
is the weight acting in the -ve y direction.
FB y Ug u volume
φ
1000 u 9.81 u 0.075
FRx
1290156
. N 2 2
FR F Rx F Ry
There are no body forces in the x direction,
FB x 0 5302.7 2 1290156
. 2
13.95 kN
And the direction of application is Lecture 14: Momentum Equation Examples

§ FR y · Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
I tan 1 ¨¨ ¸¸
© FR x ¹
§ 1290156
. · Impact of a Jet on a Plane
tan 1 ¨ ¸
© 5302.7 ¹
67.66$ 67$ 39' A jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90q
The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in We want to find the reaction force of the plate.
the opposite direction i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay in
the same position.
R FR 13.95 kN
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure below.
y u2
Lecture 13: Design Study 2 u1
See Separate Handout
u2
3 Calculate the total force 6 Calculate the resultant force

In the x-direction
FT x FR x FP x FB x
FT x UQu2 x u1 x FR x FT x 0 0
UQu1 x UQu1 x
Exerted on the fluid.
The system is symmetrical
the forces in the y-direction cancel. The force on the plane is the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction
FT y 0 R FR x
If the plane were at an angle
4 Calculate the pressure force. the analysis is the same.
The pressures at both the inlet and the outlets But it is usually most convenient to choose the axis
system normal to the plate.
to the control volume are atmospheric. y
The pressure force is zero x u2
FP x FP y 0
u1
θ
As the control volume is small
we can ignore the body force due to gravity.
u3
FB x FB y 0
Force on a curved vane 3 Calculate the total force

in the x direction
This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the
analysis is simpler. FT x UQu2 u1 cosT
Pressures at ends are equal at atmospheric

Q
by continuity u1 u2 , so
A
Both the cross-section and velocities
(in the direction of flow) remain constant.
Q2
FT x U 1 cosT
A
u2
y
and in the y-direction
x
FT y UQu2 sin T 0
u1
Q2
θ U
A
4 Calculate the pressure force.
The pressure at both the inlet and the outlets to the
control volume is atmospheric.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure above. FP x FP y 0

FR FR2 x FR2 y
No body forces in the x-direction, FB x = 0.
And the direction of application is

In the y-direction the body force acting is the weight
of the fluid.
If V is the volume of the fluid on the vane then, § FR y ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
FB x UgV © FR x ¹
exerted on the fluid.
(This is often small as the jet volume is small and
sometimes ignored in analysis.) The force on the vane is the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction
6 Calculate the resultant force
R FR
FT x FR x FP x FB x
Q2
FR x FT x U 1 cosT
A
FT y FR y FP y FB y
Q2
FR y FT y U
A
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
SUMMARY We work with components of the force:

u2
θ2
The Momentum equation
is a statement of Newton’s Second Law
For a fluid of constant density,

θ1
Total force rate of change of u1
on the fluid = momentum through

Fx UQu2 x u1x UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
the control volume
F m uout uin UQuout uin Fy

UQ u2 y u1 y UQu2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
This force acts on the fluid The resultant force can be found by combining
in the direction of the velocity of fluid. these components
Fy
FResultant
This is the total force FT where:

FT = FR + FB + FP φ
FR = External force on the fluid from any solid body Fx Fresultant Fx2 Fy2
touching the control volume
FB = Body force on the fluid body (e.g. gravity) And the angle this force acts:
FP = Pressure force on the fluid by fluid pressure § Fy ·
outside the control volume I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© Fx ¹
2. A 600mm diameter pipeline carries water under a head of

30m with a velocity of 3m/s. This water main is fitted with a
Lecture 15: Calculations horizontal bend which turns the axis of the pipeline through
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics 75q (i.e. the internal angle at the bend is 105q). Calculate
the resultant force on the bend and its angle to the
horizontal.
1. The figure below shows a smooth curved vane attached to

a rigid foundation. The jet of water, rectangular in section,
75mm wide and 25mm thick, strike the vane with a velocity
of 25m/s. Calculate the vertical and horizontal components
of the force exerted on the vane and indicate in which
direction these components act.
45q
25q
3. A 75mm diameter jet of water having a velocity of 25m/s

strikes a flat plate, the normal of which is inclined at 30q to 4. In an experiment a jet of water of diameter 20mm is fired
the jet. Find the force normal to the surface of the plate. vertically upwards at a sprung target that deflects the water
at an angle of 120° to the horizontal in all directions. If a
500g mass placed on the target balances the force of the
jet, was is the discharge of the jet in litres/s?
5. Water is being fired at 10 m/s from a hose of 50mm

diameter into the atmosphere. The water leaves the hose
through a nozzle with a diameter of 30mm at its exit. Find
the pressure just upstream of the nozzle and the force on
the nozzle.
Unit 4 Unit 4
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Real fluids
Dr P A Sleigh Flowing real fluids exhibit

P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk viscous effects, they:
Dr CJ Noakes x “stick” to solid surfaces

C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk x have stresses within their body.
January 2008
From earlier we saw this relationship between
Module web site: shear stress and velocity gradient:
www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1
du
W v
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics
Flow
3 lectures dy
Pressure
Properties of Fluids The shear stress, W, in a fluid
Fluids vs. Solids is proportional to the velocity gradient
Viscosity
- the rate of change of velocity across the flow.
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures du
The continuity equation. W P
The Bernoulli Equation. dy
The momentum equation. where P is coefficient of viscosity
Application of momentum equation.
(or simply viscosity).
Laminar and turbulent flow
Here we look at the influence of forces due to
Boundary layer theory momentum changes and viscosity
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity in a moving fluid.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 178 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 179
Unit 4 Unit 4
Laminar and turbulent flow All three would happen -

but for different flow rates.
Injecting a dye into the middle of flow in a pipe, Top: Slow flow
what would we expect to happen? Middle: Medium flow
This Bottom: Fast flow
Top: Laminar flow

Middle: Transitional flow
Bottom: Turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
this Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
or this overall direction of flow is one way.
But what is fast or slow?

At what speed does the flow pattern change?
And why might we want to know this?
Unit 4 Unit 4
The was first investigated in the 1880s After many experiments he found this
by Osbourne Reynolds expression
in a classic experiment in fluid mechanics.
Uud
A tank arranged as below: P
U = density, u = mean velocity,

d = diameter P = viscosity
This could be used to predict the change in

flow type for any fluid.
This value is known as the

Reynolds number, Re:
Uud
Re
P
Laminar flow: Re < 2000

Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
Unit 4 Unit 4
What are the units of Reynolds number? At what speed does the flow pattern change?
We can fill in the equation with SI units: We use the Reynolds number in an example:
U kg / m3 , u m / s, d m A pipe and the fluid flowing

P Ns / m2 kg / m s have the following properties:
Uud kg m m m s water density U = 1000 kg/m3

Re 1
P m3 s 1 kg pipe diameter d = 0.5m
(dynamic) viscosity, P = 0.55x103 Ns/m2
It has no units!
A quantity with no units is known as a What is the MAXIMUM velocity when flow is
non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity. laminar i.e. Re = 2000
(We will see more of these in the section on

dimensional analysis.) Uud
Re 2000
P
The Reynolds number, Re, 2000P 2000 u 0.55 u 10 3

u
is a non-dimensional number. Ud 1000 u 0.5
u 0.0022 m / s
Unit 4 Unit 4
What is the MINIMUM velocity when flow is What does this abstract number mean?
turbulent i.e. Re = 4000
We can give the Re number a physical meaning.
Uud
Re 4000
P This may help to understand some of the
u 0.0044 m / s reasons for the changes from laminar to
turbulent flow.
In a house central heating system,

typical pipe diameter = 0.015m, Uud
Re
P
limiting velocities would be, inertial forces
0.0733 and 0.147m/s. viscous forces
Both of these are very slow. When inertial forces dominate

(when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger)
In practice laminar flow rarely occurs the flow is turbulent.
in a piped water system.
When the viscous forces are dominant
Laminar flow does occur in (slow flow, low Re)
fluids of greater viscosity they keep the fluid particles in line,
e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant. the flow is laminar.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Laminar flow Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline
x Re < 2000
x ‘low’ velocity Up to now we have considered ideal fluids:
x Dye does not mix with water no energy losses due to friction
x Fluid particles move in straight lines
x Simple mathematical analysis possible Because fluids are viscous,
x Rare in practice in water systems. energy is lost by flowing fluids due to friction.
Transitional flow This must be taken into account.

x 2000 > Re < 4000
x ‘medium’ velocity The effect of the friction shows itself as a
x Dye stream wavers - mixes slightly. pressure (or head) loss.
Turbulent flow
x Re > 4000 In a real flowing fluid shear stress
x ‘high’ velocity slows the flow.
x Dye mixes rapidly and completely
x Particle paths completely irregular To give a velocity profile:
x Average motion is in flow direction
x Cannot be seen by the naked eye
x Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to
detect. Must use laser.
x Mathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used
x Most common type of flow.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Attaching a manometer gives Consider a cylindrical element of
pressure (head) loss due to the energy lost by incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe,
the fluid overcoming the shear stress. τw
L
το
το
τw area A
Ww is the mean shear stress on the boundary

Upstream pressure is p,
Δp
Downstream pressure falls by 'p to (p-'p)
The driving force due to pressure
The pressure at 1 (upstream) driving force = Pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2

is higher than the pressure at 2. Sd 2
pA p 'p A 'p A 'p
4
How can we quantify this pressure loss
in terms of the forces acting on the fluid?
The retarding force is due to the shear stress
shear stress u area over which it acts

= W w u area of pipe wall
= W wSdL
Unit 4 Unit 4
As the flow is in equilibrium, What is the variation of shear stress in the flow?
driving force = retarding force τw

R
2 r
Sd
'p W wSdL
4
Ww 4 L τw
'p
d At the wall
R 'p
Giving pressure loss in a pipe in terms of: Ww
2 L
x pipe diameter
At a radius r
x shear stress at the wall r 'p
W
2 L
r
W Ww
R
A linear variation in shear stress.
This is valid for:

x steady flow
x laminar flow
x turbulent flow
Unit 4 Unit 4
Shear stress and hence pressure loss varies Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
In general the shear stress Ww. is almost
Many experiments have been done impossible to measure.
with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers. For laminar flow we can calculate
a theoretical value for
A graph of pressure loss and Re look like: a given velocity, fluid and pipe dimension.
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles

of fluid do not cross.
Flow is like a series of concentric cylinders

sliding over each other.
And the stress on the fluid in laminar flow is

entirely due to viscose forces.
As before, consider a cylinder of fluid, length L,
radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe.
This graph shows that the relationship between

pressure loss and Re can be expressed as
laminar 'p v u
turbulent 'p v u1.7 ( or 2 .0 )
Unit 4 Unit 4
δr In an integral form this gives an

expression for velocity,
r r
'p 1
L 2P ³
R u r dr
The fluid is in equilibrium, The value of velocity at a

shearing forces equal the pressure forces. point distance r from the centre
W 2Sr L 'p A 'pSr 2 'p r 2
ur C
'p r L 4P
W At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at
L 2
r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;
du 'p R 2
Newtons law of viscosity saysW P , C
dy L 4P
At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is
laminar:
We are measuring from the pipe centre, so
'p 1
W P
du ur
L 4P
R2 r 2
dr
This is a parabolic profile
Giving:
(of the form y = ax2 + b )
'p r du so the velocity profile in the pipe looks similar to
P
L 2 dr
du 'p r

dr L 2P
v
Unit 4 Unit 4
To get pressure loss (head loss)
What is the discharge in the pipe? in terms of the velocity of the flow, write
pressure in terms of head loss hf, i.e. p = Ughf
The flow in an annulus of thickness Gr
GQ ur Aannulus Mean velocity:
u Q/ A
Aannulus S (r Gr )2 Sr 2 | 2SrGr
'p 1 Ugh f d 2
GQ
L 4P

R 2 r 2 2SrGr u
32 PL
'p S R 2
Q ³ R r r 3 dr
L 2P 0
Head loss in a pipe with laminar flow by the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
'p SR 4 'p Sd 4
L 8P L128P 32 PLu
hf
Ugd 2
So the discharge can be written
Pressure loss is directly proportional to the
4 velocity when flow is laminar.
'p Sd
Q
L 128P
It has been validated many time by experiment.
It justifies two assumptions:
This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation
1.fluid does not slip past a solid boundary
for laminar flow in a pipe
2.Newtons hypothesis.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Boundary Layers Considering a flat plate in a fluid.
Recommended reading: Fluid Mechanics

by Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A.
Longman publishers. Pages 327-332. Upstream the velocity profile is uniform,
This is known as free stream flow.
Fluid flowing over a stationary surface,

e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe,
is brought to rest by the shear stress to Downstream a velocity profile exists.
This gives a, now familiar, velocity profile: This is known as fully developed flow.
umax
Free stream flow
zero velocity τo
Fully developed flow
Wall
Zero at the wall

A maximum at the centre of the flow.
The profile doesn’t just exit.

It is build up gradually.
Some question we might ask:
Starting when it first flows past the surface
e.g. when it enters a pipe. How do we get to the fully developed state?
Are there any changes in flow as we get there?
Are the changes significant / important?
Unit 4 Unit 4
Understand this Boundary layer growth diagram. Boundary layer thickness:

G = distance from wall to where u = 0.99 umainstream
G increases as fluid moves along the plate.

It reaches a maximum in fully developed flow.
The G increase corresponds to a

drag force increase on the fluid.
As fluid is passes over a greater length:
* more fluid is slowed

* by friction between the fluid layers
* the thickness of the slow layer increases.
Fluid near the top of the boundary layer drags the

fluid nearer to the solid surface along.
The mechanism for this dragging

may be one of two types:
Unit 4 Unit 4
First: viscous forces Second: momentum transfer
(the forces which hold the fluid together)
If the viscous forces were the only action
When the boundary layer is thin: the fluid would come to a rest.
velocity gradient du/dy, is large
Viscous shear stresses have held the fluid
by Newton’s law of viscosity particles in a constant motion within layers.
shear stress, W = P (du/dy), is large. Eventually they become too small to
hold the flow in layers;
The force may be large enough to
drag the fluid close to the surface. the fluid starts to rotate.
As the boundary layer thickens

velocity gradient reduces and
shear stress decreases.
Eventually it is too small

to drag the slow fluid along.
Up to this point the flow has been laminar.

The fluid motion rapidly becomes turbulent.
Newton’s law of viscosity has applied. Momentum transfer occurs between fast moving
main flow and slow moving near wall flow.
This part of the boundary layer is the Thus the fluid by the wall is kept in motion.
laminar boundary layer The net effect is an increase in momentum in the
boundary layer.
This is the turbulent boundary layer.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Close to boundary velocity gradients are very large. Use Reynolds number to determine which state.
Viscous shear forces are large. Uud
Possibly large enough to cause laminar flow. Re
P
This region is known as the laminar sub-layer. Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
This layer occurs within the turbulent zone Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
it is next to the wall.
It is very thin – a few hundredths of a mm.
Surface roughness effect
Despite its thinness, the laminar sub-layer has vital

role in the friction characteristics of the surface.
In turbulent flow:
Roughness higher than laminar sub-layer:
increases turbulence and energy losses.
Laminar flow: profile parabolic (proved in earlier lectures)

In laminar flow: The first part of the boundary layer growth diagram.
Roughness has very little effect
Boundary layers in pipes Turbulent (or transitional),

Initially of the laminar form. Laminar and the turbulent (transitional) zones of the
boundary layer growth diagram.
It changes depending on the ratio of inertial and
viscous forces; Length of pipe for fully developed flow is
the entry length.
i.e. whether we have laminar (viscous forces high) or
turbulent flow (inertial forces high). Laminar flow |120 u diameter
Turbulent flow | 60 u diameter
Unit 4 Unit 4
Boundary layer separation Boundary layer separation:
* increases the turbulence
Divergent flows:
* increases the energy losses in the flow.
Positive pressure gradients.
Pressure increases in the direction of flow.
Separating / divergent flows are inherently
unstable
The fluid in the boundary layer has so little
momentum that it is brought to rest,
Convergent flows:
and possibly reversed in direction.
Reversal lifts the boundary layer. x Negative pressure gradients
x Pressure decreases in the direction of flow.

u1 u2
p1
x Fluid accelerates and the boundary layer is thinner.
p2
p1 < p2 u1 > u2 u1
u2
p2
p1
p1 > p2 u1 < u2
x Flow remains stable
x Turbulence reduces.
This phenomenon is known as
boundary layer separation. x Boundary layer separation does not occur.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Examples of boundary layer separation Tee-Junctions
A divergent duct or diffuser

velocity drop
(according to continuity)
pressure increase
(according to the Bernoulli equation).
Assuming equal sized pipes),

Velocities at 2 and 3 are smaller than at 1.
Pressure at 2 and 3 are higher than at 1.
Causing the two separations shown
Y-Junctions
Tee junctions are special cases of the Y-junction.
Increasing the angle increases the probability of
boundary layer separation.
Venturi meter
Diffuser angle of about 6q
A balance between:
* length of meter
* danger of boundary layer separation.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Bends Flow past a cylinder
Slow flow, Re < 0.5 no separation:
Moderate flow, Re < 70, separation

vortices form.
Two separation zones occur in bends as shown

above.
Pb > Pa causing separation.
Fast flow Re > 70
Pd > Pc causing separation
vortices detach alternately.
Form a trail of down stream.
Karman vortex trail or street.
Localised effect
(Easily seen by looking over a bridge)
Downstream the boundary layer reattaches and
normal flow occurs.
Boundary layer separation is only local. Causes whistling in power cables.
Nevertheless downstream of a Caused Tacoma narrows bridge to collapse.
junction / bend /valve etc. Frequency of detachment was equal to the bridge
fluid will have lost energy. natural frequency.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Aerofoil
Normal flow over a aerofoil or a wing cross-section.
(boundary layers greatly exaggerated)
The velocity increases as air flows over the wing. The

Fluid accelerates to get round the cylinder pressure distribution is as below
Velocity maximum at Y. so transverse lift force occurs.
Pressure dropped.
Adverse pressure between here and downstream.

Separation occurs
Unit 4 Unit 4
At too great an angle Examples:
boundary layer separation occurs on the top Exam questions involving boundary layer theory are
Pressure changes dramatically. typically descriptive. They ask you to explain the
This phenomenon is known as stalling. mechanisms of growth of the boundary layers including
how, why and where separation occurs. You should also be
able to suggest what might be done to prevent separation.
All, or most, of the ‘suction’ pressure is lost.

The plane will suddenly drop from the sky!
Solution:
Prevent separation.
1 Engine intakes draws slow air from the boundary
layer at the rear of the wing though small holes
2 Move fast air from below to top via a slot.
3 Put a flap on the end of the wing and tilt it.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Uses principle of dimensional homogeneity
Lectures 18 & 19: Dimensional Analysis It gives qualitative results which only become quantitative
Unit 4: The Effect of the Boundary on Flow from experimental analysis.
Dimensions and units

Application of fluid mechanics in design makes use of
experiments results. Any physical situation
Results often difficult to interpret. can be described by familiar properties.
Dimensional analysis provides a strategy for choosing
relevant data. e.g. length, velocity, area, volume, acceleration etc.
Used to help analyse fluid flow
Especially when fluid flow is too complex for These are all known as dimensions.
mathematical analysis.
Dimensions are of no use without a magnitude.
Specific uses: i.e. a standardised unit
x help design experiments e.g metre, kilometre, Kilogram, a yard etc.
x Informs which measurements are important
x Allows most to be obtained from experiment: Dimensions can be measured.
e.g. What runs to do. How to interpret. Units used to quantify these dimensions.
It depends on the correct identification of variables In dimensional analysis we are concerned with the nature
of the dimension
Relates these variables together
i.e. its quality not its quantity.
Doesn’t give the complete answer
Experiments necessary to complete solution
Unit 4 Unit 4
The following common abbreviations are used: This table lists dimensions of some common physical
quantities:
length =L Quantity SI Unit Dimension

mass =M velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2
time =T
force N
force =F kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
temperature =4 energy (or work) Joule J

N m,
kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
kg m2/s2
Here we will use L, M, T and F (not 4). power Watt W
N m/s Nms-1
We can represent all the physical properties we are pressure ( or stress) Pascal P,
interested in with three: N/m2, Nm-2
kg/m/s2 kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
3 -3
density kg/m kg m ML-3
L, T specific weight N/m 3
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2

and one of M or F
relative density a ratio 1
no units no dimension
As either mass (M) of force (F) can be used to represent viscosity N s/m2 N sm-2
the other, i.e. kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
-1
surface tension N/m Nm
F = MLT-2
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2
M = FT2L-1
We will mostly use LTM:
Unit 4 Unit 4
Dimensional Homogeneity What exactly do we get
from Dimensional Analysis?
Any equation is only true if both sides
have the same dimensions.
A single equation,
It must be dimensionally homogenous.
Which relates all the physical factors
of a problem to each other.
What are the dimensions of X?
2 An example:
B 2 gH 3/ 2 X
3 Problem: What is the force, F, on a propeller?
L (LT-2)1/2 L3/2 = X What might influence the force?
L (L1/2T-1) L3/2 = X
L3 T-1 = X It would be reasonable to assume that the force, F,
depends on the following physical properties?
The powers of the individual dimensions must be equal
on both sides. diameter, d
(for L they are both 3, for T both -1). forward velocity of the propeller
(velocity of the plane), u
Dimensional homogeneity can be useful for: fluid density, U
1. Checking units of equations; revolutions per second, N
2. Converting between two sets of units; fluid viscosity, P
3. Defining dimensionless relationships
Unit 4 Unit 4
How do we get the dimensionless groups?
From this list we can write this equation:
There are several methods.
F = I ( d, u, U, N, P ) We will use the strategic method based on:

or Buckingham’s S theorems.
0 = I ( F, d, u, U, N, P )
There are two S theorems:
I and I1 are unknown functions. 1st S theorem:
A relationship between m variables (physical properties
Dimensional Analysis produces: such as velocity, density etc.) can be expressed as a
relationship between m-n non-dimensional groups of
variables (called S groups), where n is the number of
§ F Nd P ·
I¨ , , ¸ 0 fundamental dimensions (such as mass, length and time)
© Uu 2 d 2 u Uud ¹ required to express the variables.
These groups are dimensionless.

So if a problem is expressed:
I will be determined by experiment.
I ( Q1 , Q2 , Q3 ,………, Qm ) = 0
These dimensionless groups help

to decide what experimental measurements to take. Then this can also be expressed
I ( S1 , S2 , S3 ,………, Sm-n ) = 0
In fluids, we can normally take n = 3

(corresponding to M, L, T)
Unit 4 Unit 4
2nd S theorem
An example
Each S group is a function of n governing or repeating
variables plus one of the remaining variables.
Taking the example discussed above of force F induced
Choice of repeating variables on a propeller blade, we have the equation
Repeating variables appear in most of the S groups. 0 = I ( F, d, u, U, N, P )

They have a large influence on the problem. n = 3 and m = 6
There is great freedom in choosing these.
There are m - n = 3 S groups, so
Some rules which should be followed are I ( S1 , S2 , S3 ) = 0
x There are n ( = 3) repeating variables.
x In combination they must contain The choice of U, u, d satisfies the criteria above.
all of dimensions (M, L, T)
x The repeating variables must not form a
dimensionless group. They are:
x They do not have to appear in all S groups. x measurable,
x The should be measurable in an experiment. x good design parameters
x They should be of major interest to the designer. x contain all the dimensions M,L and T.
It is usually possible to take

U, u and d
This freedom of choice means:
many different S groups - all are valid.
There is not really a wrong choice.
Unit 4 Unit 4
For the first S group, S 1 U a1 ub1 d c1 F

We can now form the three groups In terms of dimensions
according to the 2nd theorem, 3 a1 1 b1
M 0 L0 T 0 M L L T L c1
M L T 2
S1 U a1 u b1 d c1 F
The powers for each dimension (M, L or T), the powers
S2 U a2 u b2 d c2 N
must be equal on each side.
S3 U a3 u b3 d c3 P
for M: 0 = a1 + 1
The S groups are all dimensionless, a1 = -1
i.e. they have dimensions M0L0T0
for L: 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
We use the principle of dimensional homogeneity to 0 = 4 + b1 + c1
equate the dimensions for each S group.
for T: 0 = -b1 - 2
b1 = -2
c1 = -4 - b1 = -2
Giving S1 as
S1 U 1u 2 d 2 F
F
S1
Uu 2 d 2
Unit 4 Unit 4
And a similar procedure is followed for the other S And for the third, S 3 U a3 ub3 d c3 P
groups. 3 a3 1 b3
a2 b2 c2
M 0 L0T 0 M L L T L c3
ML1T 1
Group S 2 U u d N
3 a1 1 b1
M 0 L0T 0 M L L T L c1
T 1
for M: 0 = a3 + 1
a3 = -1
for M: 0 = a2
for L: 0 = -3a3 + b3 + c3 -1
for L: 0 = -3a2 + b2 + c2 b3 + c3 = -2
0 = b2 + c2
for T: 0 = -b3 - 1
for T: 0 = -b2 - 1 b3 = -1
b2 = -1 c3 = -1
c2 = 1
Giving S3 as
Giving S2 as S3 U 1u 1d 1P
0 1 1
S2 Uu d N P
S3
Nd Uud
S2
u
Unit 4 Unit 4
Thus the problem may be described by Manipulation of the S groups

I ( S1 , S2 , S3 ) = 0 Once identified the S groups can be changed.
The number of groups does not change.
Their appearance may change drastically.
§ F Nd P ·
I¨ , , ¸ 0
© Uu 2 d 2 u Uud ¹
Taking the defining equation as:
This may also be written:
I ( S1 , S2 , S3 ……… Sm-n ) = 0
The following changes are permitted:
F § Nd P ·
I¨ , ¸ i. Combination of exiting groups by multiplication or division
Uu 2 d 2 © u Uud ¹
to form a new group to replaces one of the existing.
E.g. S1 and S2 may be combined to form S1a = S1 / S2 so the defining

Wrong choice of physical properties. equation becomes
If, extra, unimportant variables are chosen : I ( S1a , S2 , S3 ……… Sm-n ) = 0

* Extra S groups will be formed ii. Reciprocal of any group is valid.
* Will have little effect on physical performance I ( S1 ,1/ S2 , S3 ……… 1/Sm-n ) = 0
* Should be identified during experiments iii. A group may be raised to any power.
If an important variable is missed: I ( (S1 )2, (S2 )1/2, (S3 )3……… Sm-n ) = 0
x A S group would be missing. iv. Multiplied by a constant.
x Experimental analysis may miss significant v. Expressed as a function of the other groups
behavioural changes. S2 = I ( S1 , S3 ……… Sm-n )
Initial choice of variables In general the defining equation could look like
should be done with great care.
I ( S1 , 1/S2 ,( S3 )i……… 0.5Sm-n ) = 0
Unit 4 Unit 4
An Example Common S groups

Q. If we have a function describing a problem:
Several groups will appear again and again.
I Q, d , U , P , p 0
d 2 p 1 / 2 § dU 1 / 2 p 1 / 2 · These often have names.
Show that Q I¨ ¸
U 1/ 2 © P ¹
They can be related to physical forces.
Ans.
Other common non-dimensional numbers
Dimensional analysis using Q, U, d will result in:
or ( S groups):
§ dP d 4 p ·
I¨ , ¸ 0 Reynolds number:
© QU UQ 2 ¹
Uud
Re inertial, viscous force ratio
P
The reciprocal of square root of S2: Euler number:
1 U 1/ 2 Q p
S 2a , En pressure, inertial force ratio
S 2 d 2 p1/ 2 Uu 2
Multiply S1 by this new group: Froude number:
dP U 1/ 2 Q P u2
S 1a S 1S 2 a Fn inertial, gravitational force ratio
QU d 2 p1/ 2 dU 1/ 2 p1/ 2 gd
then we can say Weber number:
1/ 2
§ dU p d p · 1/ 2 2 1/ 2
Uud
I 1 / S 1a , S 2 a I ¨ , ¸ 0 We inertial, surface tension force ratio
© P QU 1/ 2 ¹ V
or Mach number:
2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 u
d p § dU p · Mn Local velocity, local velocity of sound ratio
Q 1/ 2
I¨ ¸ c
U © P ¹
Unit 4 Unit 4
Similarity Kinematic similarity
The similarity of time as well as geometry.

Similarity is concerned with how to transfer
It exists if:
measurements from models to the full scale.
i. the paths of particles are geometrically similar
ii. the ratios of the velocities of are similar
Three types of similarity
which exist between a model and prototype:
Some useful ratios are:
Vm L m / Tm O L
Geometric similarity: Velocity Ou
Vp L p / Tp OT
The ratio of all corresponding dimensions
in the model and prototype are equal.
am Lm / Tm2 OL
Acceleration Oa
For lengths ap L p / Tp2 O2T
Lmodel Lm
OL
Lprototype Lp Qm L3m / Tm O3L
Discharge OQ
OL is the scale factor for length. Qp L3p / Tp OT
For areas A consequence is that streamline

Amodel L2m patterns are the same.
O2L
Aprototype L2p
All corresponding angles are the same.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Dynamic similarity Modelling and Scaling Laws
Measurements taken from a model needs a scaling law
If geometrically and kinematically similar and
applied to predict the values in the prototype.
the ratios of all forces are the same.
An example:
Force ratio
2
Fm M m am Um L3m O L 2 § OL ·
u O O
U L ¨ ¸ O U O2L O2u For resistance R, of a body
Fp M pa p U p L3p O2T © OT ¹
moving through a fluid.
R, is dependent on the following:
This occurs when
the controlling S group U ML-3 u: LT-1 l:(length) L P: ML-1T-1
is the same for model and prototype.
So
I (R, U, u, l, P ) = 0
The controlling S group is usually Re.
So Re is the same for
model and prototype: Taking U, u, l as repeating variables gives:
R § Uul ·
I¨ ¸
Um um dm U pupd p Uu 2 l 2 © P ¹
Pm Pp § Uul ·
R Uu 2 l 2I ¨ ¸
© P ¹
It is possible another group is dominant. This applies whatever the size of the body
In open channel i.e. river Froude number is i.e. it is applicable to prototype and
often taken as dominant. a geometrically similar model.
Unit 4 Unit 4
For the model Example 1

An underwater missile, diameter 2m and length 10m is tested in a
Rm § Um um lm · water tunnel to determine the forces acting on the real prototype. A
I¨ ¸
Um um2 lm2 © Pm ¹ 1/20th scale model is to be used. If the maximum allowable speed of the
prototype missile is 10 m/s, what should be the speed of the water in
the tunnel to achieve dynamic similarity?
and for the prototype

Dynamic similarity so Reynolds numbers equal:
Rp § U puplp ·
I¨ ¸ Um um dm U p u p d p
U p u p2 l p2 © Pp ¹
Pm Pp
Dividing these two equations gives The model velocity should be

Rm / Um um2 lm2 I Um um lm / P m U p d p Pm
um up
R p / U p u 2p l p2 IU puplp / P p Um d m P p
W can go no further without some assumptions. Both the model and prototype are in water then,
Assuming dynamic similarity, so Reynolds number are Pm = Pp and Um = Up so
the same for both the model and prototype:
Um um dm U pupd p dp 1
um up 10 200 m / s
Pm Pp dm 1 / 20
so
Rm Um um2 lm2 This is a very high velocity.
Rp U p u 2p l p2 This is one reason why model tests are not always done
i.e. a scaling law for resistance force: at exactly equal Reynolds numbers.
OR OU O2u O2L A wind tunnel could have been used so the values of the
U and P ratios would be used in the above.
Unit 4 Unit 4
Example 2 So the model velocity is found to be
A model aeroplane is built at 1/10 scale and is to be tested in a wind 1 1
tunnel operating at a pressure of 20 times atmospheric. The aeroplane um up 0.5u p
will fly at 500km/h. At what speed should the wind tunnel operate to give 20 1 / 10
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype? If the drag um 250 km / h
measure on the model is 337.5 N what will be the drag on the plane?
Earlier we derived an equation for resistance on a body
moving through air: And the ratio of forces is
§ Uul · Rm Uu l 2 2
Uu 2 l 2I Re
m
R Uu 2 l 2I ¨ ¸
© P ¹ Rp Uu l 2 2
p
2 2
Rm 20 0.5 01
.
0.05
For dynamic similarity Rem = Rep, so Rp 1 1 1
U p d p Pm So the drag force on the prototype will be
um up
Um d m P p 1
Rp Rm 20 u 337.5 6750 N
0.05
The value of P does not change much with pressure so
Pm = Pp
For an ideal gas is p = URT so the density of the air in the

model can be obtained from
pm Um RT Um
pp U p RT Up
20 p p Um
pp Up
Um 20U p
Unit 4 Unit 4
Geometric distortion in river models
For practical reasons it is difficult to build a geometrically

similar model.
A model with suitable depth of flow will often be far too

big - take up too much floor space.
Keeping Geometric Similarity result in:

x depths and become very difficult to measure;
x the bed roughness becomes impracticably small;
x laminar flow may occur -
(turbulent flow is normal in rivers.)
Solution: Abandon geometric similarity.
Typical values are

1/100 in the vertical and 1/400 in the horizontal.
Resulting in:
x Good overall flow patterns and discharge
x local detail of flow is not well modelled.
The Froude number (Fn) is taken as dominant.

Fn can be the same even for distorted models.

Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

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Introduction To Fluid Mechanics

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Unit 1

CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Module web site:

Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics 3 lectures

Unit 2: Statics 3 lectures

Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow 4 lectures

Contents of the Course

Civil Engineering Fluid Mechanics

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 2

Module Consists of:

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 3

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 4

Online Lecture Notes:

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 5

Take care with the System of Units

The SI System of units

Quantity SI Unit Dimension

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 6

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 7

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 8

Convenient to work in terms of pressure, p,

Units: Newtons per square metre,

Also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar,

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 9

Summing forces in the x-direction:

Summing forces in the y-direction.

Component of force due to ps,

Component of force due to px,

Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.

This is Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at rest.

Change of Pressure in the Vertical Direction

Cylindrical element of fluid, area = A, density = ρ

The forces involved are:

Taking upward as positive, we have

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 13

With liquids we normally measure from the

Measuring h down from the

Surface pressure is atmospheric, patmospheric .

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 14

It is convenient to take atmospheric

Pressure quoted in this way is known as

The lower limit of any pressure is

Pressure measured above

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 15

Pressure density relationship

Ideal gas law

In SI units, R = 8.314472 J mol-1 K-1

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 1 16

Lecture 2: Fluids vs Solids, Flow

What makes fluid mechanics different

Fluids are clearly different to solids.

Need definable basic physical

Fluids flow under the action of a force,

• fluids lack the ability of solids to

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lecture 2 17

Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F,

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,

This has the following implications

If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting