Biophysical Interactions

Introduction to Senior Geography
Geography is the science which seeks to explain the

character of places and distribution of people, features
and events as they occur and develop over the surface of
the Earth.
The International Charter on Geographical Education (!!"#
In senior geography we focus on the two broad fields in
geography: Physical Geography and Human Geography.
The units are organised into these two categories but we must
appreciate that they overlap (Ecological imension!
1
Geography
The Study of
Environments
Physical
Environment
(Biophysical)
uman
Environment
(Built)
!tmosphere "ithosphereydrosphere Biosphere
Population
Geog
Social
and
#ultural
Geog
$r%an
Geog
Economic
Geog
&ifferentiating %et'een the Ecological and Spatial
dimensions in the study of Geography
The very first outcome in geography states that you need
to %e a%le to differentiate %et'een the ecological
dimension of geography and the spatial dimension.
SP!TI!" &I(E)SI*)+
"imply# what$s there# where is it# and why is it there%
"o# whenever you learn about location and processes
such as weathering# erosion# nutrient cycles# soil formation
etc. you are focusing on the spatial dimensions
E#*"*GI#!" &I(E)SI*)+
"imply# how do humans affect the environment and how
does the environment affect humans.
&henever you learn about how humans are impacting on
the environment such as land clearing and environmental
management or how the environment affects people such
as natural disasters# climate determining what we wear#
you are focusing on the ecological dimension.
2
Ecological and Spatial dimensions are not distinctively separate but overlapping Ecological and Spatial dimensions are not distinctively separate but overlapping
.
.
Ecological
Dimension
Spatial
&imension
How do people interact with
the environment?
What are the impacts of
humans?
Which biophysical processes
have humans disturbed
What ways are people
responding to the issue?
Where does the issue exist?
Why is it in that particular
location?
How big or small is the
issue (scale)
How does it vary in
different locations and
places.
What is the location of
groups affected by the
issue?
Source: Baer et al (!"""#p $!%)
3
The ,ey geographical -uestions are a The ,ey geographical -uestions are a
com%ination of spatial and ecological dimensions com%ination of spatial and ecological dimensions
of geography. of geography.
.hat is it/ .hat is it/ (Spatial) (Spatial)
.here is it/ .here is it/ (Spatial) (Spatial)
.hy is it there/ .hy is it there/ (Spatial and Ecological (Spatial and Ecological ) )
Should it %e li,e this/ Should it %e li,e this/ (Spatial and Ecological (Spatial and Ecological ) )
as it changed over time as it changed over time/ / (Spatial and Ecological) (Spatial and Ecological)
.hat might it %e li,e in the futu .hat might it %e li,e in the future/ re/ (Spatial and Ecological) (Spatial and Ecological)
o' do people affect it/ o' do people affect it/ (Ecological) (Ecological)
.hat action is appropriate/ .hat action is appropriate/ (Ecological) (Ecological)

The first 'nit of wor( we will wor( on is called the
)I*PH+"I,-. I/TE0-,TI*/"
&e will loo( at the spatial dimensions of the four spheres in the
biophysical environment and then focus on the ecological
dimensions by loo(ing at human impacts and management
4
/ew 'nit
Biophysical Interactions
The focus of this study is a geographical investigation of biophysical processes and how
an understanding of these processes contributes to sustainable management.
0.1
The nature and functioning of the four components+ the
atmosphere2 hydrosphere2 lithosphere and %iosphere in a
specific %iophysical environment
The first thing we need to be able to do is to describe the
interactions between the four components which define the
biophysical environment
The %iophysical environment
The biophysical environment includes living things (bio! such
as plants and animals# and non1living things (physical! such
as roc(s# soil# and water.
The biophysical environment consists of 2*'0 main
components or spheres:
TE !T(*SPE3E+ the gaseous envelope
surrounding the earth. It is a comple3 system that deals
with weather# climate# energy and air.
TE 4&3*SPE3E+ The best way to understand the
hydrosphere is that it is about the flow of water and the
storage of water on the earth.
TE "IT*SPE3E+ 2ocuses on the earth$s crust.
How it is formed and how it is shaped.
TE BI*SPE3E+ 2ocuses on all the living things on
the earth$s surface. "uch as flora (plants! and fauna
(animals# insects etc!.
5
It is difficult to separate the four spheres of the biophysical
environment into clearly defined 4ones as each of the four
components interacts with others in various ways.
These interactions influence the nature of the total biophysical
environment
2or e3ample &ater (hydrosphere! and temperature
(atmosphere! affects the types of vegetation (biosphere! that
develop.
In turn high landforms (lithosphere! can influence climate
patterns (atmosphere! and vegetation types (biosphere!.
,hanges in one sphere will result in changes in all other
spheres as well.
2or e3ample# If native vegetation is removed from the
biosphere it will also affect the soils (lithosphere!# evaporation
and run1off (hydrosphere! and the amount of o3ygen
generated (atmosphere!.
6
The Biophysical Environment Worksheet
Name ___________________________________ De Date _________________________
1. Find the terms associated with the definitions below. (20 marks)
a! The total o" all thin#s that srron$ s% ____________________________________
&! 'ncl$es livin# an$ non(livin# thin#s% _______________________________________
c! )ny "orm o" moistre that reaches the earth*s sr"ace% _________________________________
$! +ccrs ,hen the #ron$ a&sor&s ,ater into the soil% ______________________________________
e! The process ,here tectonic plates colli$e to "orm montain ran#es% __________________________
"! Where almost all ,eather an$ relate$ processes take place% _________________________________
#! -ommonly calle$ simply .the air*% ______________________________________________
h! The ,ater on or n$er the earth*s sr"ace% _______________________________________________
i! The &reak$o,n/ &t not removal o" rocks% ______________________________________________
0! The chan#es in a plant commnity over time ntil it reaches a state o" &alance%
___________________________________________________
k! ) system involvin# the interactions &et,een a commnity an$ the non(livin# environment
_________________________________________________
l! The nm&ers o" $i""erent plant an$ animal species present% __________________________________
m! the earths sr"ace to a&ot 111 kilometres $epth _________________________________________
n! -onsists o" people an$ their economic/ social/ cltral an$ political systems%
_______________________________________
o! The natral environment o" a species in an ecosystem% ____________________________________
p! The con$ition o" the atmosphere at a particlar time an$ place% ______________________________
2! The part o" the earth*s sr"ace an$ atmosphere in ,hich or#anisms
live%________________________
r! The transportation an$ removal o" particles o" soil% ________________________________________
s! )nimals that "ee$ on plants ________________________________________________________
t! )nimals that "ee$ on other animals ____________________________________________________
3
2. The Water Cycle (14 marks)
Complete the paragraph by filling in the most appropriate word to explain the functioning of the water
cycle%
Ener#y "rom the sn chan#es li2i$ ,ater to a #aseos state 4 _________________________! an$
ena&les plants to lose ,ater "rom their leaves 4 ________________________! % The com&ine$ moistre
loss "rom &oth these processes is calle$ ___________________________% The ,ater vapor in the
atmosphere then chan#es &ack 4 _______________________! to #aseos ,ater
4 ___________________! or soli$ ,ater 4 _______________________! an$ "alls as
4________________________!% 5ost precipitation occrs aron$ the _______________________
areas o" the ,orl$/ alon# coastal re#ions an$ in the ______________ ( latit$es% The precipitation
either rns &ack to the oceans 4______________________________! or soaks into the #ron$
4________________________!% Water that moves thro#h the #ron$ an$ into rivers is calle$
________________________ ,hile ,ater that stays in the #ron$ "orms the __________________
ta&le% Eventally most ,ater "in$s its ,ay &ack to rivers an$ streams 4 _______________________
"lo,! an$ into the ocean%
3. raw a dia!ram below that shows the internal str"ct"re of the earth. e#ise a key to show the
cr"st$ mantle and core. ( % marks)
4. &sin! the e'am(le of a rainforest ecosystem$ e'(lain the interactions between the atmos(here$
hydros(here$ lithos(here and bios(here. () marks)
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
6
)ac(ground Information on The 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea
5oscius4(o /ational Par( is nationally and internationally
recognised as a '/E",* )iosphere 0eserve.
It is one of the world6s great national par(s# and the largest in
/ew "outh &ales.
,overing almost 789#::: hectares# the par( contains the
highest mountains in -ustralia# the famous "nowy 0iver and all
/"& s(i fields. It is /"&$s largest national par(.
Its many and varied attractions include wal(s through alpine
herbfields; spectacular caves and limestone gorges; scenic
drives; and historic huts and homesteads.
It contains si3 wilderness areas# and its alpine and sub1alpine
areas contain plant species found nowhere else in the world.
The par( is also home to the rare mountain pygmy possum and
corroboree frog.
The alpine area has <uite distinct features# with glacial la(es
such as )lue .a(e# .a(e -lbina and Hedley Tarn# and large
granite boulders dominating the area.
The vegetation varies from herbfields of snow grass and snow
daisies# heaths# feldmar(s (consisting of bare# stony ground
between plants!# and alpine bogs.
=t 5oscius(o (located in the national par(! at >>>? metres# is
-ustralia$s highest pea(.
It was first climbed by Polish e3plorer Paul "tr4elec(i in @?A:#
and was named after a Polish national hero.
7
The population of the "nowy =ountains region is appro3imately
BA#9::
The northernmost e3tremity of the "nowy =ountains lies only
B:(ms west of the -,T
The southern end of the region is mar(ed by a @#C9@ metre high
pea( called "outh 0ams Head# and is only @:(ms from the
Dictorian border.
=ore than half of the >9: s<uare (ilometres of alpine habitat in
-ustralia falls inside the "nowy region6s boundaries
-round B million people visit 5oscius(o /ational Par( each year
and some B:#::: ma(e the tre( to the top of =ount 5oscius(o
uring the most recent ice age# the area around =ount
5oscius(o was the only part of mainland -ustralia to be covered
by glaciers.
The glaciers left their mar( on the mountains# most notably by
gouging @B enormous cir<ues# four of which are deep enough to
be permanently filled with water; these are (nown as glacial
la(es.
11
0.0 "ocation of the 5oscius,o !lpine !rea
0. $sing the tracing paper provided2 copy the map on page 066 of your te7t%oo,
Ensure you have the 9 elements of a map: )order# *rientation# .egend# Title# "cale ()*.T"!
Include water storage areas and the -lpine area# =elbourne# ,anberra# and =t 5oscius4(o.
.abel (ey towns# rivers# water storage# and mountains.
Paste the map in the space below and then answer the <uestions
>. *ver what two -ustralian states do the -ustralian -lps e3tend%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
B. &hat is the appro3imate latitude (lat lines are the flat lines! and longitude of the
-ustralian -lps%
.atitude: EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
.ongitude: EEEEEEEEEEEEEE
A. &hat does the latitude tell you about the type of climate the -ustralian -lps might
e3perience%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
11
9. ,alculate the appro3imate area of the -ustralian -lps.
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
7. &hat are the three main rivers of the -ustralian -lps%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
8. /ame "IF (7! mountains of the -ustralian -lps in order of si4e (highest to lowest!
?. /ame TH0EE (B! water storages in the -lps.
C. &hat is the source of the "nowy 0iver%
@:. &rite one paragraph that describes the location of the -ustralian -lps. Include the
information collected above.
12
0.6 The !tmosphere
&hen tal(ing about the atmosphere# geographers often refer to:
#limate+ long term temperature and precipitation patterns
.eather: conditions in the atmosphere at a particular time
!tmospheric processes: the factors that affect precipitation
and temperature%
0.6.0 The #limate of 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
Co$plete the cli$atic graph for Charlotte %ass and paste into
your work books
2rom the ,limatic graph you should notice a pattern in the
Temperature and precipitation.
"o' Temperature: The average mid summer temperature is
often less than @:G ,elsius and the average midwinter
temperature is far below :G ,elsius.
igh Precipitation+ -n average annual rainfall of >?::1
B7::mm (mainly as snow!
-s geographers we as( ourselves &H+ is the climate li(e this in
the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea%
13
Station: ,H-0.*TTE P-"" (5*",I'"5* ,H-.ET! .atitude (deg "!: 1B7.ABB8; .ongitude (deg E!: @A?.BB>8; -lt:@8B9m
Element Han 2eb =ar -pr =ay Hun Hul -ug "ep *ct /ov ec
=ean ma3. temp. deg , @8.@ @8.> @A.9 @:.B 7.7 B.> @.C >.9 A.8 ?.8 @>.@ @9.B
=ean min. temp. deg , 9 A.C >.7 1:.B 1>.8 19.B 17.? 19.? 1B.7 1:.9 @.8 B.8
=ean rainfall 1 mm @B7.8 @B>.> @A?.9 @8A.> >:A.> >:7.9 >:@.B >@?.A >@>.> >9>.@ >:9 @7@.>
9 : ( ! ( 9 9 ! S * ) &
.ocation -ltitude
.atitude .ongitude
Total Precip. Temp. 0ange
Temp G ,
A:
B9
B:
Precip. mm
>9
>:
9:: @9
A9: @:
A:: 9
B9: :
B:: 19
>9: 1@:
>:: 1@9
@9: 1>:
@::
9:
:
H 2 = - = H H - " * /
"eason
14
0.6.6 .hy the "o' Temperature/
There are two e3planations:
@. .ess sunlight ((nown as I/"*.-TI*/! reaches the area
>. -ltitude (height above sea level! ma(es an area cooler.
"ess Sunlight
.atitude has a big influence on temperature. 0emember lat
lines are the flat lines around the Earth.
The further away (/orth or south! you travel away from the
e<uator# the cooler it gets.
-lso you need to remember that the E<uator is *G and the
/orth and "outh poles are C: G.
&hy does it get cooler away from the e<uator%
&ell# it all has to do with the amount of sunlight (I/"*.-TI*/!
that hits the earth$s surface.
The concept of !)G"E *: I)#I&E)#E e3plains this
)ecause the Earth is shaped li(e a sphere the middle of it
stic(s out more and closer to the sun. &hereas# the ends are
tuc(ed in and further away from the sun.
Then add to this the tilt in the Earth$s a3is.
&hat is the .atitude of 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea% It is B7G south
of the e<uator.
"ince it is further away from the e<uator less insolation reaches
this particular spot thus contributing to the low temperature.
15
16
!ltitude
Plot the following on the graph paper provided. o not Ioin the lines
Location Altitude (m) Average Annual Min. Temp.C
Thredbo @B?: >.@
,ran(enbac( @C98 1:.@
,ooma 88? A.@
)ombala 8:9 A.8
/immitabel @:89 B.A
/albaugh 789 9.A
Tumut B:9 7.7
,harlottes Pass @8B9 1:.7
,arabout "J2 A>: 7.@
13
The graph clearly shows a pattern. -s there is an increase in
altitude the lower the temperature gets. Thus# there is a relation
between -ltitude and temperature.
This is due to a phenomenon called the E);I3*)(E)T!"
"!PSE 3!TE. (E.0!
-ccording to E.0# temperature drops an average 7G ,elsius for
every @:::m you go up.
This figure changes based on how moist or dry the air is
The 5oscius4(o area is the highest in -ustralia. Therefore# it
e3periences cool temperatures because of its height and the
influence of E.0.
3elationship Bet'een !ltitude and Temperature
("ocation SE )S. !ustralia)
:
9::
@:::
@9::
>:::
>9::
1@ : @ > B A 9 7 8
!verage !nnual (in Temperature &egrees #elcius
!
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
m
)
16
0.6.< .hy the igh Precipitation/
There are T&* e3planations for the high precipitation in
5oscius4(o:
@. 0ain bearing winds (air cells!
>. *rographic 'plift
3ain Bearing .inds (air cells)
There are a number of types of air masses (big cells of air in the
atmosphere!
"ome cells of air are cool and are full of moisture# some are dry
and hot# and some are moist and hot.
-ir cells that originate from the ocean are often moist whereas
air cells that originate over continents (large land masses! are
often dry.
The -ir cell that impacts the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea is (nown as
the "outhern =aritime -ir =ass.
It originates from the "outhern *cean near -ntarctica# which
ma(es it cool and moist. (It is full of rain! It travels mainly from
the &est.
=ost of the rain and snow that falls on 5oscius4(o is from this
air mass
17
21
*rographic $plift
,louds are evaporated water that has been heated. They get
to a certain height and cool down and form as clouds
(,ondensation!. &hen it gets really cool they turn bac( into
water (precipitation!.
&ith *rographic 0ain the air is lifted to higher altitudes
because of rising ground.
-s the air cannot pass through the Earth it is forced up and
over the higher ground (remember temperature drops the
higher you go!
It is so cool that the condensation turns to rain and falls on the
mountain. That is why most mountains are very moist.
"ince the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea has a high altitude# the moist
air from the "outhern =aritime air mass from the west is forced
up over the region. The air is cooled <uic(ly because of the
E.0 and the moisture is dumped onto the region
21
0.< The "ithosphere
The lithosphere is all to do with the surface of the Earth.
Geographers:
escribe the shape of the surface and identify its features
(T*P*G0-PH+!
E3plain how it was shaped (built up and worn down!
Identify the materials that ma(e it up.
0.<.0 The T*P*G3!P4 of the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
The Kosciuszko Alpine areas topograph! consists o" e#tensive
undulating plateaus and ridges that are surrounded $! steep
slopes and escarpments. The plateaus are characterised $! $road
shallo% valle!s and gentle slopes rising to rounded or "lattened hill
tops.
The following (ey terms help describe 5oscius4(o$s topography:
'ndulating
Plateau
0idges
"teep slopes
Gentle slopes
"hallow valleys
Escarpments
0ounded
Some landform features in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
Pea(s and (nolls
)asins
Escarpments
"lopes and 0idges
Gorges and &ater falls
0iver Dalleys
,ir<ue
=oraine
22
8ori9ontal :cale is the 5ap :cale
23
24
0.<.6 o' did the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea get its
Shape/
There are T&* processes we are interested in
*rogenesis (Earth )uilding!
enudation (&earing own!
To understand how 5oscius4(o has been shaped it is important to
(now what types of materials it is made up of.
"I(EST*)E=- significant feature of the area is the limestone
that underlays most of the -lps. .imestone accumulated during
the deposition of marine sediments over ?7: million years ago.
G3!)ITE B!T*"ITS1There are many Granite )atholiths.
Granite is magma that often doesn$t ma(e it to the surface.
SE&I(E)T!34 "!4E3I)G1 this is sediments which form in
layers and that has been metamorphosed (pressure and heat) to
form metamorphic roc(s (e.g. sandstone!
The varying degrees of resistance to erosion offered by roc(
types is important.
The highest areas of the -lps are made up of roc(s that are
most resistant to denudation1 particularly Granite.
"ofter roc(s such as the metamorphic roc(s tend to weather
away easier and these are found in the valleys# gorges and
waterfalls.
25

To understand how 5oscius4(o has been shaped it is important
to (now what types of materials it is made up of.
"I(EST*)E=- significant feature of the area is the limestone
that underlays most of the -lps. .imestone accumulated
during the deposition of marine sediments over ?7: million
years ago.
G3!)ITE B!T*"ITS1There are many Granite )atholiths.
Granite is magma that often doesn$t ma(e it to the surface.
SE&I(E)T!34 "!4E3I)G1 this is sediments which form in
layers and that has been metamorphosed (pressure and heat)
to form metamorphic roc(s (e.g. sandstone!
The varying degrees of resistance to erosion offered by roc(
types is important.
The highest areas of the -lps are made up of roc(s that are
most resistant to denudation1 particularly Granite.
"ofter roc(s such as the metamorphic roc(s tend to weather
away easier and these are found in the valleys# gorges and
waterfalls.
26
0.<.6.0 *3*GE)ESIS ((*$)T!I) B$I"&I)G)
How did the -lps get so high%
Through a process called $P"I:T.
The materials that ma(e up the -lps were laid down millions of
years ago.
The highland area used to be underwater and that$s when the
old coral reefs provided the limestone base.
Then the silt# sand# volcanic ash and lava layered on top of the
old coral reefs.
Earth<ua(es and continental collisions then created an uplift
which folded and faulted the ocean floor to push it up to higher
altitudes.
This folding and faulting helped create the undulated surface of
the alps.
uring this period of uplift# magma intruded to help provide the
Granite batholiths.
This uplift and constant weathering and erosion continued on
and off for millions of years until the -lps were raised to its
current height and shape.
23
0.<.6.6 &enudation (.earing &o'n)
.eathering is the brea(ing apart of the roc(.
Erosion is the pic(ing up# moving and depositing of
weathered material.
"o what types of weathering and erosion have occurred on
the -lps%
0. :luvial Erosion = 0ivers and streams have cut through
the less resistant roc(s to form the deep wide valleys and
narrow gorges.
6. !eolian Erosion = &ind has removed many of the layers
of sedimentary roc( to e3pose the harder roc(s it has
also rounded and smoothed the surface.
<. Glacial and Periglacial weathering and erosion have
contributed greatly to the topography of the area.
a) Glacial (large thic( ice that moves slowly down!
2eatures such as cir<ue la(es and moraines were
formed by glaciers.
#ir-ues are actually formed at the head of the
glacier where it digs out a semicircular basin as it
26
pushes down the slope (li(e a scoop!. ,lub .a(e
and )lue .a(e are cir<ues
(oraines are ridges and outcrops of boulders and
debris dumped along the sides or at the end of the
retreating glacier. .a(e -lbina# .a(e
,ootapatamba and Hedley Tarn were formed by
moraine deposits.
%) %eriglacial (free8e and tha')
(i! (ass (ovement1 periglaciation causes the mass
movement of water saturated soil and stones down
fro4en subsoil. *n some slopes this creates
TE00-,I/G and on others it creates a surface with
stony debris.
27
(ii) )eedle Ice= soil movement through needle ice
&rom the te#t $ook (pge'()) dra% diagram ).''*
that sho%s ho% needle ice moves soil.
-nother common form of ground ice is needle ice. /eedle
ice consists of groups of narrow ice slivers that are up to
several centimeters long. They normally form in moist soils
when temperatures drop below free4ing overnight. /eedle
ice plays an active role in loosening soil for erosion and
tends to move small roc(s upward to the soil surface. *n
sloped surfaces# needle ice can also enhance soil creep by
moving soil particles at right angles to the slope.
(iii) Ice 'edges
Ice wedges occur where water enters a crevice or
crac( in a roc(. &hen the water free4es it e3pands
widening the gap even further. uring the thaw more
water enters the bigger crac( which e3pands more in
the ne3t free4e.
31

Ice 'edges are responsi%le for the numerous
shattered roc,s around the 5oscius8,o !lpine
!rea.

31
(iv) )ivation
/ivation is a form of weathering and erosion associated with sno'
patches that remain through the summer season. "now patches
that remain through the warm season create conditions for physical
weathering to occur mainly on the edges of the snow patch.
Temperatures at the edges of the snow fluctuate from free4ing to
non1free4ing. -s a result# ice wedge weathering occurs in the
crac(s of roc(s located near the snow patch <uic(ly creating a
mass of small fragments. If the snow patch is on a slope# the snow
that melts (meltwater! along the base of the snow patch will
transport the weathered roc( fragments down slope. *ver some
time# this leads to the formation of nivation hollo's which# when
enlarged# can be the beginnings of a cir<ue.

32
0.<.< T*3S= ! special feature in the "ithosphere at
5oscius8,o
- tor is a roc( outcrop formed by weathering# usually found on or
near the summit of a hill.
There are T&* theories on how Tors are formed.
0. &eep #hemical .eathering in tropical conditions1
&hen granite is formed it contains radioactive crystals that cools
slowly. The radioactive crystals and slow cooling process produce
large crystals in the granite. Then a layer is created that forms a
cap on top of the newly formed granite which traps molten magma
with volatile gases and hydrothermal li<uids beneath. Gases
escaped through Ioints and fissures to the surface# rotting and
wea(ening the granite in areas# as it alters the crystals to other
forms that can be chemically weathered.
Tor formations occur when the area is e3periencing tropical
conditions. 2rom the surface# leeching occurs from surface water
above and chemically reacts with crystals and minerals throughout
the granite# thus wea(ening it.
33
6. (echanical .eathering during Ice ages
- second theory suggests mechanical weathering during the ice
age was responsible. This theory suggests that as the granite is
e3posed water seeps into the crac(s and forms ice wedges that
e3pand. The e3pansion creates larger crac(s# thus creating the
shattered loo( of Tors.
B. #om%ining the theories1 - geologist named ,olin )ristows
argues that it is both theories combined that create tors. That
chemical weathering under tropical conditions played a significant
roll# as did mechanical weathering during the ice age# -fter the
chemical weathering wea(ened the granite# the top layers are
eroded away and slowly e3pose the granite# mechanical erosion
then occurred as the wea(ened material caused by chemical
weathering is removed# leaving the core stones or tors.
34
%)
,,,%"ossil,alks%com;$artmoortors1;tors%htm
35
36
1.3.4 *oils of the +osci"s,ko -l(ine .e!ion
<e"er to http:JJwww.australianalps.deh.gov.auJpublicationsJedu(itJsoils.html an$ ans,er the
"ollo,in# 2estions%
a! With re#ar$ to soils/ ,hat is the $istinctive "eatre o" the )stralian )lps=
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
&! Why are the :no,y 5ontains re"erre$ to as .montains ,ith soil*=
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
c! Why are soils a "n$amental component on the ecosystem o" the )stralian )lps=
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
$! What $etermines the soil type in the )stralian )lps= _______________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
e! Descri&e the soils in the "ollo,in# areas>
a% ?ently n$latin# sheltere$ slopes
________________________________________
&% Bottom o" the valleys $rainin# the slopes
___________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
c% 8i#h e@pose$ ri$#es an$ scree slopes ________________________________
"! What "actors have in"lence$ the $evelopment o" soils o" the pper elevations= ___________
_____________________________________________________________________________
#! 8o, $o lo, temperatres a""ect the "ormation o" soil material= ________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
33
h! 8o, $o e@pan$in# ice crystals a""ect soil "ormation=
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
i! E@plain the impact o" hi#h rain"all on soils in the )stralian )lps=
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
0! Dra, an$ la&el a soil pro"ile o" a typical alpine hms soil%
k! Arom the point o" vie, o" hman se/ ,hat is the main "eatre o" the soils o" the )lps=
_____________________________________________________________________________
l! What are the most common soils "on$ in the )stralian )lps=
_____________________________________________________________________________
m! 8o, can "rost a""ect the soils=
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
n! What are the main cases o" soil erosion in the )stralian )lps=
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
36
0.> The ydrosphere
The ydrosphere refers to the :"*. and ST*3!GE of 'ater
around the Earth. The %est 'ay to thin, of the hydrosphere
is the 'ater cycle.
2.*&" include:
Precipitation (0ain# "now# Hail!
0unoff
Evaporation
Transpiration
"tream and 0iver 2low
Infiltration
"torages include
,louds
*ceans
"nowJIce
"oil mositure
Ground &ater
37
41
0.>.0 The :"*. and ST*3!GE of 'ater in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
&hat is it li(e%
2lows:
o The -lpine area has a good source of water with
minimal loss.
It e3periences high levels of precipitation
It has low transpiration (plant and animal
sweat!# and low evaporation.
.arge 0iver "ystems: The "nowy 0iver#
Thredbo 0iver# and =urrumbidgee 0iver
"torages:
o The -lpine -rea stores water really well.
&ater stores in winter months (snow!
The soil and vegetation hold water really well
which leads to a slow discharge of water
.arge reservoirs (.a(e Eucumbene and .a(e
Hindabyne (Human made!.
/atural reservoirs made by glaciers (,ir<ues
and moraines! .a(e -lbina# .a(e
,ootapatamba# ,lub .a(e# Headley Tarn.
41
0.>.6 .hy the good :"*. of 'ater/
High Precipitation:
/otes from -tmosphere i.e. =oist -ir ,ells ("outhern =aritime
-ir mass! and *rographic 0ain
.ow transpiration and evaporation (refer to low temperature
notes!
Transpiration is the evaporation of moisture from
within the plant through pores on the leaf surfaces1i.e.
plant sweat.
Transpiration and evaporation are maIor forms of
water loss in other areas# but is low all year because of
low daytime temperatures in 5oscius4(o.
"now melt then goes in to an e3tensive system of rivers which
flow into the large reservoirs.

42
0.>.< .hy the good ST*3!GE /
uring winter# much water is stored as snow and ice until it
thaws in warmer weather
,ontinuous vegetation cover allows water to collect as droplets
on the leaves and stems of alpine vegetation.
5oscius4(o$s porous soils absorb and retain precipitation.
.ow temperatures slow evaporation and transpiration in soils
and vegetation storages
The high component of undecomposed plant matter in peats and
alpine humus soils enables them to hold water for long periods
of time. Peats# particularly can absorb large <uantities and
release them slowly.
The bog and fen communities store water well. "phagnum =oss
can absorb up to seven times its own weight in water.
The ydrosphere in !ction in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
43
44
45
0.? The Biosphere
The biosphere is all the living things on the Earth$s surface. In
particular geographers are interested in the 2.*0- (plants!
and the 2-'/- (animals!
The plant s and animals of the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea are
significant because their habitat is very different to the rest of
the continent.
0.?.0 The :"*3!
.hat is the :lora li,e in the 5oscius,o !lpine !rea/
-bove the -ltitude @?::m1# which is beyond the tree line# is the
T0'E alpine 4one.
The botanical definition of -.PI/E refers to plants living above
the tree line
-lpine plants must survive in difficult conditions such as cold#
strong wind# limited water (as it is usually ice!# and few plant
nutrients.
This is why many plants grow close to the ground in cushions or
mats.
T-"5
0) Trace the plant communities of the 5oscius8,o !lpine @one
diagram on page0>? of the te7t%oo,.
46
.hy are the plant communities distri%uted the 'ay they are
on 5oscius8,o/
!ltitude1 Trees need at least @:: days straight of temperature
above @: ,. )ecause of the Environmental .apse
0ate and .atitude in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea
above @?::m does not get the re<uired temperature
to sustain trees# thus# the tree line stops.
!spect (the direction something faces) 1 north facing slopes
e3perience strong winds and sunlight whereas the
south and south1east slopes are sheltered# cool and
moist.
Precipitation1 is high especially on the western slopes.
Soils1 there is an abundance of soils # but they lac( nutrients
because of high leeching. -lso# the soils are water logged.
:ire1 constant fires have altered the flora
43
0.?.6 The :!$)!
.hat is the :auna "i,e in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea/
There are over A:: species of mammals which are E/E=I,
to the 5oscius4(o region# also around >:: species of birds# B:
species of reptiles# @9 species of frogs# @A species of native
fish# and many species of invertebrates.
The term E/E=I, means that it is only found in that
ecosystem.
Tas,
$sing the information on pages 0>A=0?1 of the te7t%oo,
complete the ta%le titled &auna of the 'oscius(ko )lpine )rea*
46
.hat influences the distri%ution of :auna in the !lpine
!rea/
-nimals living in this environment have to deal with:
o long cold winter seasons1 which impacts on the availability of
food#
o e3treme low temperatures#
o lac( of habitats in the form of trees as it is in the alpine 4one.
Thus# the animals that live in the alpine area can:
o "ive Entirely under the sno' during 'inter
There is space between the snow and the ground
because vegetation helps separate it. "mall
animals can forage around. 2urther# surprisingly#
the snow is warmer than outside.
o i%ernate and torpor
Hibernation and torpor is where the animal$s
metabolism shuts down and only have the core
organs function. Thus# no food is re<uired. -nimals
become inactive over the winter months.
o #ommunal living and nesting.
-nimals group together to (eep warm. .i4ards have
been found hibernating in groups of more than a
hundred in old logs during winter.
o (igration
47
2lying species tend to leave the area either moving
down to lower altitudes or moving up to warmer
latitudes.
51
&auna o" the Kosciuszko Alpine Area
!nimals Identification and &escription
(ammals
Insects
3eptiles
Birds
:ish and
!mphi%ians
51
Biophysical functioning of the !tmosphere in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea.
The atmosphere functions in many different ways in the 5oscius4(o -lpine area. In
particular we are interested in theEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE# which refers to the long1term
EEEEEEEEEEEEEE and precipitation patterns of an area.
The temperature of 5oscius4(o can be best described as being EEEEEEEEEEE for most of
the year. 2or instance# the highest temperature achieved at ,harlottes Pass in summer is
EEEEEEEEEE and during winter it is often belowEEEEEEEEEEE. There are two reasons why
the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea e3periences low temperatures.
2irstly# the temperature is low in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea because it is located in
the higher EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. The further away from the e<uator you travel the colder it
gets. This is because of a concept called the EEEEEEEEEEE of EEEEEEEEEEEE. "ince the
Earth is round in shape# the further you move away from the e<uator both /orth and "outh
the suns rays (called EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE! have to travel through the EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE at
an angle and as a result have to travel more distance . The lower temperatures occur
because by the time the suns rays hit the surface of the earth they are cooler and spread
over a wider area.
"econdly# low temperatures occur in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea because of its
EEEEEEEEEEEEE. The higher from the surface you travel the EEEEEEEEEEE the
atmosphere gets. This is because of a phenomena called The EEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEE
0ate. 2or every EEEEEEEEEEm you go up the temperature decreases on average by
EEEEEEE degrees ,elsius. The 5oscius(o -lpine -rea has high altitudes thus# contributing
to the low temperature.
The average annual precipitation of the 5oscius4(o area is best described as being
EEEEEEEEE. 2or instance the average annual precipitation at ,harlotte$s Pass is between
EEEEEEEEEmm and EEEEEEEEEEEEmm a year. There are two reasons why the
precipitation is high.
2611 atmosphere climate montain moistre :othern 5aritime Environmental Bapse
east oro#raphic 3611 cool 14C- temperatre 1111 insolation
)n#le altit$e 1 C- precipitation ,et 'nci$ence lo, +cean latit$e
moist
col$er 6C- hi#h ,est
52
2irstly# it is affected by cool EEEEEEEEEE air cells. -ir cells that originate over the
ocean are often full of EEEEEEEEEEEE. The air cell that impacts on 5oscius4(o is called
The EEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEE -ir =ass. This air cell originates from the
"outhern EEEEEEEEEEE thus# ma(ing it full of moisture. This air cell travels from EEEEEEEE
to EEEEEEEEE and is the source for most of the EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE (both snow and rain!
that falls in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea.
"econdly# the abundance of precipitation is also caused by a process called
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 'plift. The cool moist air cell can not go through a EEEEEEEEEEEE
thus# it is forced up into the cooler altitudes. )y the moist air being forced up it ma(es the
evaporated moisture in the air cell to EEEEEEEEEEEEEE and then turn into precipitation.
The reason it is cooled is because of the phenomenon e3plained earlier called the
Environmental .apse 0ate. That is why mountains are often EEEEE and moist. ue to the
5oscius4(o alpine area being mountainous# it e3periences orographic uplift and that is
another reason for its high precipitation.
The atmosphere plays a crucial role in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea. Its low
temperatures are caused by its location in the higher latitudes which is influenced by the
angle of incidence# and because of its altitude# due to a phenomenon called the
Environmental .apse 0ate. The high precipitation the area e3periences is caused by the
moist air cell called the "outhern =aritime -ir =ass that hits the area# and since the area
is mountainous# orographic uplift cools the moist air to further contribute to the high
precipitation.
53
Summary of the !tmosphere
&escri%e+
The -tmosphere in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea# in
particular the climate# is that it e3periences "*.
TE(PE3!T$3E all year with free4ing conditions during
winter and IG P3E#IPIT!TI*) in the form of rain and
snow.
E7planation+
#ause of "o' temperature/
.ocation in low latitude
o -ngle of Incidence
-ltitude
o Environmental .apse rate
#ause of igh precipitation
,ool =oist -ir ,ell
o "outhern =aritime -ir =ass
*rographic 'plift

Summary of the "ithosphere
&escri%e+
The lithosphere of the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea is high in altitude#
undulating# has steep escarpments# has gentle rounded slopes#
deep gorges and valleys. It has features such as =oraines#
cir<ues# tors# escarpments and shattered granite boulders. Has
good layer of soil.
54
E7planation
#auses of the shape and altitude/
*rogenesis
o 'plift creates altitude
o 2olding and faulting creates
undulating surface
enudation
o 2luvial erosion
o -eolian Erosion
o Glacial &eathering
,ir<ues
=oraines
o Periglacial &eathering
=ass =ovementJ Terracing
Ice &edges
/eedle ice
/ivation
Tors
o eep &eathering (,hemical!
o =echanical &eathering and erosion
+oil t!pes and cause
-lpine Humus loams
Peat bogs
High precipitation creates moist soils
55
Gentle slopes ma(es them not erode away
<uic(er thus can accumulate.
56
Biophysical :unctioning of The "ithosphere in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
The lithosphere functions in many different ways in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea.
&hen referring to the lithosphere geographers focus on three aspects. They describe the
shape of the surface (EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE!# e3plain how it was shaped# and study the
soils.
The topography of the 5oscius4(o -lpine area can best be described as being
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. It has steep EEEEEEEEEEEEEE# long shallow EEEEEEEEEEEEE and
EEEEEEEEEEEEEE hills. The roc( materials that ma(e up the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea
consist of: EEEEEEEEEEEEEE# which was deposited by old marine environments;
EEEEEEEEEEEEEE roc(s# which are a softer roc( deposited by old weathered sediment and
silt; and EEEEEEEEEE# which is a hard roc( formed by magma. The Topography of the
5oscius4(o -lpine -rea was created by two broad process; EEEEEEEEEEE (mountain
building! and EEEEEEEEEEEE (wearing down!.
*rogenesis is the first process that has helped shaped the lithosphere 5oscius4(o
-lpine -rea. =illions of years ago the -lpine -rea was at sea level. Through a process
called EEEEEEEEEE the sea floor wasEEEEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEEE up into the high
altitudes and undulating surface that is evident now. This process continued for millions of
years and together with the constant wearing down has provided the shape of the -lpine
-rea.
enudation is the second process that has shaped the lithosphere of the -lpine
-rea. In particular geographers are interested in EEEEEEEEEEEEEE (the brea(ing of the
roc(! and EEEEEEEEEEEE processes (pic(ing up# transporting# and depositing!.
EEEEEEEEEEEEE erosion occurs when rivers and streams cut through the soft sedimentary
roc(s to create the deep gorges and valleys. EEEEEEEEEEEEE erosion helps smooth over
Ble perma"rost Alvial oro#enesis ,ell($raine$ "ol$e$ ron$e$ Nee$le
valleys pli"t -ootapatam&a a&n$ance peri#lacial cir2e 5ontains
tha,in# scoope$ Nivation Bithosols "alte$ ice n$late$ semi(circlar
erosion Deats #ravity -l& )eolian $e&ris "ree9in# 8ms
escarpments moraines topo#raphy limestone #lacial ,eatherin# #ranite e@pan$s
se$imentary $en$ation )l&ina
53
roc(s and hills through wind. )ut the most important denudation processes in the -lpine
area have been through EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE processes.
Glacial erosion occurred when glaciers# (big rivers of EEEEEEEEE that move slowly down a
slope! were present during ice ages in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea. The 5oscius4(o
-lpine -rea is the only area in -ustralia where glaciers were present. *ne Glacial feature
evident in the -lpine -rea are EEEEEEEEEE. These are formed at the head of a glacier
where it EEEEEEEEEEE out a EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE basin as it pushes down the slope. Two
e3amples of a cir<ue in the -lpine area are EEEEEEEEEEEE .a(e and EEEEEEEEEEE .a(e.
-nother glacial feature that is evident in the area are EEEEEEEEEEEEEE. These are the
deposits of EEEEEEEEEEEE left on the sides and ends of a retreating glacier (when glaciers
melt!. Two e3amples of the moraines in the -lpine -rea are .a(e EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
and .a(e EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE.
However# the most significant denudation process that is still occurring in
5oscius4(o is periglacial weathering. The term preglacial means the effects of
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEand EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. There are a number of periglacial processes
that continue in the -lpine -rea. Terracing is predominantly caused by the free4ing and
thawing of the topsoil. The top layer of soil sits on a permanently fro4en bottom called
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. uring winter the topsoil free4es and remains intact whereas in
summer# when the soil thaws# it slides down the permanently fro4en subsoil to create a
terrace loo( in the lithosphere.
EEEEEEEEEEEEE is another periglacial process whereby water creeps into the
crac(s of roc(s during summer and EEEEEEEEEEEEE when it free4es and brea(s apart the
roc(s. This happens year in and year out with the crac(s getting bigger and e3panding
more and more each time it free4es. This is one of the main causes of the many shattered
roc(s that are evident in -lpine -reas.
EEEEEEEEEEEEE ice is another periglacial process that erodes the lithosphere in the
5oscisu4(o -lpine -rea. This process moves particles of soil down a slope by lifting the
soil particles up on tiny needles of ice. &hen the ice thaws the soil particles drop down hill
because of EEEEEEEEEEEE.
-nother important aspect of the lithosphere in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea is its
soils. *ne feature that ma(es The 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea different from many -lpine
areas around the world is that it has an EEEEEEEEEEEEE of soils; as such they are called
56
KEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE of soilL. There are TH0EE main soil types on the -lpine -rea. Alpine
,,,,,,,,,,,, Loams# are highly organic soils which are porous. They are found in the
subalpine and alpine 4ones# occurring on relatively sheltered# gentle# EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
slopes. EEEEEEEEEE # which are found in basins and depressions# are highly organic and
water1logged soils. EEEEEEEEEEEE #which are found in poc(ets on high e3posed ridges
and elevated stony slopes# have a lower organic content than the other soils are highly
porous. -ll these soils are influenced by the high precipitation of the area. The ability of the
soils to retain water and release it effectively are important because of the high
precipitation. /early all the water falling as snow# hail and rain is transmitted through the
soil. "ome is stored and is available for spring and summer plant growth# the rest drains
slowly from the -lps through the bogs# streams and rivers.
57
Summary of the ydrosphere
&escri%e
The hydrosphere in the 5oscius(o -lpine -rea e3periences e3cellent flow and storage
of water. &ater flows as high precipitation# low transpiration# and during spring thaws
where it flows down some of the biggest rivers on the -ustralian East ,oast. The
water is stored as snow for the winter months# within the soils and vegetation# and in
the human made reservoirs.
E7planation
#auses of the good flo' of 'ater
o High precipitation: ,ool =oist -ir ,ell (southern =aritime -ir =ass!
o *rographic 'plift
o .ow transpiration: Plant sweat: .ow temperature (-ltitude and latitude!
o "pring thaw of snow: creates river system
#auses of Good storage
o "now: cold winters often below : degrees ,elsius
o Porus soils allow for good storage of water
o Degetation has good storage capacity
o .ow temperature: minimal loss of water.
Summary of Biosphere
&escri%e
The biosphere in the 5oscius(o -lpine -rea has uni<ue flora and fauna compared to
the rest of -ustralia. The flora grows low to the ground li(e mats and cushions. There
are mammals and reptiles that are endemic to the area and many species either leave
the area during winter or slow down their activities.
E7planation
,auses of plant distribution
o -lpine -rea
o "oils are low in nutrients
o -spect
o 2ire
o Human disturbance
,auses of animal distribution
o .ow temperature
o .ive under snow
o Hibernation and Torpor
o ,ommunal living
o =igration
61
The Biophysical :unctioning of the ydrosphere in the 5oscius8,o !lpine !rea
The EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE plays a significant role in the 5oscius(o -lpine -rea.
&hen geographers describe and e3plain the hydrosphere they are often referring to the
EEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEE of water. This is often best illustrated by the water EEEEEEEEE.
There is a EEEEEEEE amount of water that flows in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea. The
good flow of water can be attributed to a number of reasons.
2irstly# water flows in to the area in the form of EEEEEEEEEEEEEE. -s e3plained in the
atmosphere# the high levels of precipitation are caused by a large EEEEEEEE air cell#
called the EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE =aritime EEEEEE =ass# is lifted up in to the higher altitudes
in a process called EEEEEEEEEEEEE uplift# which results in an average annual
precipitation being between EEEEEEEEEmm and B7::mm in ,harlottes Pass alone.
-nother good reason for the good flow of water is because of the EEEEEEEEEEE river
system found in the area. The most notable rivers are the EEEEEEEEEE 0iver#
EEEEEEEEEEE 0iver# and EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 0iver. -ll of which catch the snow
EEEEEEEE in the spring and summer times.
The 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea also stores water very well. 2irstly# it stores water during
the winter months as EEEEEEEEE. This is due to the fact that the area e3periences EEEEE
temperature (its EEEEEEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEEEEE cause the low temperature! allowing
for the precipitation to EEEEEEEEEEE.
The low temperature in the area also slows the rate of EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. "ince the
water is not leaving the area at rapid rates in the form of EEEEEEEEE# it is able to retain
onto much of the water that enters. 2urther# snow is highly reflective of the suns rays
(called EEEEEEEEEEEE! and as such slows the rate of evaporation.
seven latitudes >?:: snow bogs low hydrosphere
Thredbo insolation discharge "outhern storage
2ree4e altitude precipitation gas valleys
evaporation flows orographic =urrumbidgee -ir cycle
e3tensive sphagnum soils moist high "nowy vegetation melt
61
2urther# the EEEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE also contribute the good storage of
water in the area. The soils retain water in the form of EEEEEEEE especially in the low
lying EEEEEEEEEEEEE. These slowly EEEEEEEEEEEEEE the water into the e3tensive cree(
and river systems all year round. Degetation also contributes to the good storage of
water. The fen communities found in the low lying areas help the soil retain the water.
"ome species of vegetation# such as EEEEEEEEEEEEEE moss# can hold EEEEEEEEEE
times its own weight of water.
The hydrosphere is an important biophysical component in the 5oscius4(o -lpine
-rea. The area is famous for its ability to store water as snow ma(ing it -ustralia$s
premier snow fields. The water cycle in particular the flow and storage of water is very
much evident in the area.
62
The )iophysical 2unctioning of the )iosphere in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea
The EEEEEEEEEEEEEE in the 5oscius4(o -lpine -rea also contributes to the
uni<ueness of this distinct environment. The interactions of the lithosphere# atmosphere
and hydrosphere are important in determining the distribution of the EEEEEE and EEEEEEE
of the alpine ecosystem.
The region is considered an EEEEEEEEEE area because it is above the EEEEEEEE line.
The tree line generally finishes at about EEEEEEEEE# ma(ing this part of the 5oscius4(o
region the True -lpine -rea. The areas below the tree line are called the sub alpine
regions. The reason trees stop growing in the -lpine 4one is that they re<uire the
EEEEEEEEEEEEEE to be above EEEEE degrees ,elsius for EEEEEEE days straight. The
interaction between the lithosphere and atmosphere combine through latitude and
altitude ma(e the temperature at @?9:m generally too EEEEEEE for trees to effectively
grow. -s a result the type of vegetation found in the -lpine area are low lying such as
grasses# EEEEEEEEE# mosses# fens and EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE.
-nother factor that has influenced the types of vegetation found in the area is the high
levels of EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE and conse<uently the formation of bogs. 2urther# the high
level of precipitation also leads to EEEEEEEEEEEEE of the soils which in turn has made the
soils very low in EEEEEEEEEEEEE. -spect also influences the distribution of vegetation
with south EEEEEEEEEEEEE slopes e3periencing high levels of precipitation and strong
winds creating very sturdy low lying vegetation communities such as feldspars# whereas
north eastern slopes get an abundance of sunlight and are more protected from the wind
thus developing more heath communities such as the =ountain EEEEEEEE Pine.
There are many EEEEEEEEEEE species of animals found in the 5oscius4(o -lpine
-rea which have EEEEEEEEEE to the harsh conditions. "ome of the more notable ones
Dlm "el$spars altit$e a$apte$ leechin# sno,
temperatre "lora alpine ,estern 111 meta&olism
commnal ntrients lo, <at mi#rate precipitation
&iosphere 11 Dossm hi&ernation north torpor
heaths Broa$ "ana -orro&oree 1651m inslatin# tree
en$emic Dy#my
63
are the EEEEEEEEE Tooth EEEEEE# the endangered marsupial the =ountain EEEEEEEEEE
EEEEEEEEEEEE# and the endangered amphibian the EEEEEEEEEEEEEE 2rog. =any of the
animals have had to adapt to the cold environment# the clear lac( of protection trees
provide# and the lac( of food when the snow comes in the winter months.
The fauna of the area has adapted by many different means. 2irstly# many of the small
marsupials have learned to live under the EEEEEEEEE by building tunnels and using the
ground cover the vegetation to support the tunnels. "urprisingly# these tunnels provide
warmth and protection from the elements as the snow is very EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE. -nother
adaptation method is that many animals shut their bodies EEEEEEEEEEEEEE down to
avoid eating during these months through EEEEEEEEEEEEE and EEEEEEEEE. 2urther#
many reptiles adapt to the cold weather through EEEEEEEEEEEE nesting as they try and
share body heat to stay warm. -nother more common strategy adopted by the bird
species is for them to EEEEEEEEEEE either to the warmer latitudes in the EEEEEEEEor
move down the lower EEEEEEEEEEEE below the snow line.
.i(e many ecosystems around the world# The 5oscius4(o -lpine area got its name
form the vegetation classification; here it is above the tree line (alpine!. The plant and
animal communities have had to adapt to harsh cold living conditions and many are
endemic and uni<ue on the -ustralian continent.
64
!ns'ers to #lo8e
-tmosphere
climate- temperature- lo%- './C- */C- latitudes- Angle- incidence- - insolation atmosphere-
altitude- cooler- 0nvironmental Lapse- '***m- 1/C- high- )2**- (1**- moist- moisture-
+outhern Maritime- 3cean- %est- east- precipitation- orographic- mountain- cool- %et
.ithosphere
topograph!- undulated- escarpments- valle!s- rounded- limestone- sedimentar!- granite-
orogenesis- denudation- upli"t- "olded- "aulted- %eathering- erosion- &luvial- Aeolian-
periglacial- glacial- ice- cir4ue- scoops- semi5circular- Clu$- 6lue- moraines- de$ris-
Cootapatam$a- Al$ina- "reezing- tha%ing- perma"rost- ice %edges- e#pand- 7eedle-
gravit!- a$undance- Mountains- 8umus- %ell5drained- 9eats- Lithosols
Hydrosphere
h!drosphere- "lo%s- storage- C!cle- high- precipitation- moist- +outhern- Air- orographic-
)2**- e#tensive- +no%!- Thred$o- Murrum$idgee- melt- sno%- lo%- altitude- latitude-
"reeze- evaporation- gas- insolation- soils- vegetation- $ogs- valle!s- discharge-
sphagnum- seven
)iosphere
$iosphere- "lora- "auna- alpine- tree- '2:*m- temperature- '*- '**- lo%- heaths- "eldspars-
precipitation- leeching- nutrients- %estern- 9lum- endemic- adapted- 6road- ;at- 9!gm!-
9ossum- Corro$oree- sno%- insulating- meta$olism- hi$ernation- torpor- communal-
migrate- north- altitude
65
6.1 The interactions %et'een2 and the human impacts
on2 the functioning of the atmosphere2 hydrosphere2
lithosphere and %iosphere.
66
6.0 The interactions %et'een the four spheres in 5oscius,o !lpine !rea.
!tmosphere ydrosphere "ithosphere Biosphere
!
t
m
o
s
p
h
e
r
e
"o' temperature
igh precipitation
Precipitation= high
precipitation
creates high flo'
of 'ater into the
region.
"o' temperature=
reduces
transpiration and
evaporation rates
(thus minimal loss
of flo')
#limate= lo' temp
during 'inter
creates periglaical
environment thus2
periglaical erosion
occurs e.g.
)ivation2 terracing2
needle ice
!tmospheric
process create
high 'inds
increases
instances of
!eolian Erosion
"o' temperature
affects animal
adaptation= animals
migrate2 hi%ernate2
torpor2 nest etc.
"o' temperature
affects plant
communities.
igh precipitation
create peats li,e
Sphagnum moss
y
d
r
o
s
p
h
e
r
e
"
i
t
h
o
s
p
h
e
r
e
B
i
o
s
p
h
e
r
e
63
6.1 uman Impacts on 5oscius8,o
The 5oscius8,o !lpine area has %een interfered 'ith %y
humans on a variety of scales. :rom human induced
glo%al 'arming affecting the atmosphereB interruptions
to the hydrosphere through cloud seedingB soil erosion
in the lithosphereB and ha%itat destruction in the
%iosphere.
66
6.6.0 uman Impacts on the !tmosphere= Glo%al .arming
The Canberra Times 8/04/ 2006
Crisis mo"nts in *nowies
't*s a vast panoramic vie, that
s,i"tly silences conversation%
?lacial lakes circle$ &y &ol$ers/
$eeply ,eathere$ #ranite otcrops
an$ #lacial scratchin#s etche$ across
rocks &y the pressres o" sno, an$
ice are evi$ence o" the ancient
ori#ins o" this sothern continent
an$ the immense po,er o" natre%
Ecolo#ically/ an$ visally/ there is
no,here else in )stralia like
Eoscis9ko National Dark% 'tFs
ni2e/ nrivalle$ an$ n&elieva&ly
spectaclar ( yet it remains nliste$
as a Worl$ 8erita#e )rea $espite
&oth its incre$i&le &eaty an$ its
#eolo#ical si#ni"icance%
:tan$ on the ,in$s,ept stone
steps otsi$e :eamanFs 8t ( a t,o(
room re"#e &ilt as a memorial to
an e@perience$ alpine ,alker ,ho
$ie$ on 5t Eoscis9ko in 1727 in a
&li99ar$ ( an$ the encirclin# s,eep
o" &ol$er stre,n/ ice(scarre$
lan$scape is over(po,erin#%
'tFs a lan$scape that inspire$ one
o" the ,orl$Fs #reat &otanists/ Baron
Aer$inan$ von 5eller/ on Ne,
GearFs Day/ 1655/ as he collecte$
plants on the 5ain <an#e aron$
Eoscis9ko "or his seven(volme
masterpiece/ Alora )straliensis%
5eller ,as aston$e$ &y
Eoscis9koFs &eaty an$ &otanical
$iversity%
5ore recently/ the r##e$ &eaty
o" the Eoscis9ko lan$scape le"t one
o" :ir Davi$ )tten&oro#hFs ,ell(
travelle$ cameramen a&soltely
speechless% H8eF$ ,orke$ in alpine
areas all aron$ the ,orl$/ an$ he
col$nFt #et over this place/H says
alpine ecolo#ist Dr Een ?reen/ ,ho
is a senior scientist ,ith the N:W
parks service at Iin$a&yne%
HWe &ro#ht him p here ,hen he
,as "ilmin# Bi"e o" 5ammals "or
television% 8e kept sayin#/ F+h my
?o$/ ' $i$nFt kno, there ,as
anythin# like this in )stralia% 'tFs
ama9in#%F 8e ,as completely
&o,le$ over% 'tFs a place that ten$s
to have that e""ect on people%H
Bt this ancient/ immensely
&eati"l lan$scape is increasin#ly
threatene$ &y #lo&al ,armin#%
:cientists ,ho have st$ie$ the
re#ionFs ni2e hi#h(altit$e "lora
an$ "ana "or $eca$es point to a
litany o" impacts ( ,armer
temperatres in #lacial lakes/ loss o"
alpine ,il$"lo,ers/ encroachin#
treelines/ sharp $eclines in
en$an#ere$ small mammal species/
earlier sprin# tha,s/ hi#her levels o"
ltra(violet ra$iation/ increase$
evaporation rates o" alpine &o#s an$
more "re2ent "ire $an#er%
H'tFs a""ectin# everythin#/H ?reen
says% H'tFs not 0st ,armer
temperatres/ &t the interactions o"
plants an$ animals% The &ir$s are
#ettin# messe$ aron$ &y the early
sprin# tha,s ,hich are "ollo,e$ &y
s$$en sno, $mps%
H'tFs not only hi#her avera#e
temperatres in places like -harlotte
Dass that are casin# pro&lems% 'tFs
#reater climate varia&ility/
particlarly the insta&ility o" early
sprin# ,eather in the montains%
H'n some areas/ sno, is meltin#
earlier/ an$ #revilleas ( ,hich are
the main "oo$ sorce "or
honeyeaters ( are also "lo,erin#
earlier% HThen s$$enly/ ,eFll #et
another sno,"all/ so the #revillea
&lossoms are &rie$ n$er the sno,%
H) "e, ni#hts a"ter that/ yoFll #et a
clear ni#ht sky an$ a killin# "rost/ so
the honeyeaters ,ho have move$ p
here to &ree$ have nothin# to eat/
an$ mi#rate &ack $o,n the
montain% HWeFre not seein# those
&ir$s retrn ,hen thereFs a secon$
tha, an$ more #revillea &lossoms
come ot%H
?reen says he has seen pink
ro&ins an$ ravens a&an$on nests an$
e##s a"ter a s$$en sprin# sno,
$mp% ThereFs also a likelihoo$ that
yon# pippit chicks are &ein# kille$
&y the npre$icta&le sprin# ,eather%
HBt no&o$y is $oin# any lon#(
term st$ies on this% We kno, the
&ir$s are &ein# messe$ aron$ &y
climate chan#e &t ,e nee$ $ata/ ,e
nee$ research to "in$ ot ,hatFs
happenin#/H he says% HJnless ,e
have that in"ormation/ ,e ,onFt
kno, ,hether ,e can $o anythin#
to miti#ate the e""ects o" climate
chan#e in the montains%H
Despite &ein# liste$ &y the
)stralian ?reenhose +""ice as a
top research priority/ scienti"ic "iel$
st$ies on the impact o" #lo&al
,armin# on the )stralian alps
remain chronically n$er"n$e$%
Dlenty o" people appear to &e
,orkin# in climate chan#e policy/
&t little "n$in# is &ein# $irecte$
to,ar$s the on(#ron$ research that
is necessary to map the e@tent an$
impact o" climate chan#e in the
)stralian alps%
ThatFs &ein# le"t to a $e$icate$
&an$ o" people ,ho are prepare$ to
$o ,hatever is necessary to make
sre crcial research is not
a&an$one$%
H5ost o" the "n$in# "or climate
chan#e research is ( perhaps
n$erstan$a&ly ( #oin# into lookin#
at ho, ,e can re$ce in$strial
#reenhose emissions/ atmospheric
physics or pre$ictive mo$ellin#/H
says alpine ecolo#ist <o#er ?oo$/
,ho co(athore$ a report ,ith
?reen an$ Dr -atherine Dickerin# o"
?ri""ith Jniversity on the impacts o"
#lo&al ,armin# on alpine
ecosystems% HThose thin#s are all
important &t ,e also nee$ to
n$erstan$ the re#ional impacts o"
climate chan#e%
5ost mo$ellin# st$ies ,ill #ive
a national pictre &t a lot o" the
si#ni"icant chan#es ,ill occr at the
re#ional level% H)n$ thatFs ,hy ,e
nee$ more "n$in# "or &iolo#ical
st$ies that ,ill track ,hat chan#es
are alrea$y occrrin#%H
?oo$/ ,ho recently retire$ "rom
the N:W parks service ,here he
,as a senior scientist/ is continin#
research on alpine soils/ &o#s/
ve#etation an$ "ire mana#ement
Hmostly as a volnteer an$ lar#ely
sin# my o,n "n$s to keep
,orkin# on the thin#s that interest
meH%
8e ar#es "ire mana#ement is
#oin# to &e a critical isse/ as
climate chan#e $erives ma0or
ve#etation chan#es across alpine
ecosystems% HWeFre #oin# to nee$
$i""erent "ire mana#ement re#imes
67
&ecase o" the erratic natre o"
chan#e% Ael loa$s ,ill &ecome
,etter in some places/ $rier in
others/H he says%
?reen/ ,ho is also a mem&er o"
an international alpine research
#rop/ $eci$e$ to set p his o,n
climate chan#e research pro#ram
H&ecase ' tho#ht ,e nee$e$ to set
p lon#( term monitorin# sites to
look at the impact o" #lo&al
,armin# on montains across the
,orl$H% 8e 0okes he Hscaven#e$H
"n$s to &y temperatre lo##ers
an$ e2ipment to measre levels o"
ltraviolet ra$iation%
HThe pro&lems ,eFre #oin# to #et
,ith animals re#ar$in# lack o" sno,
cover is #oin# to strike "irst at the
lo,er altit$es/H he says% H:no,y
8y$ro $i$nFt have a ,eekly recor$
o" sno, levels at lo, altit$es/ so '
set p somethin# ,hen ' ,as
measrin# ot trappin# #ri$s "or one
o" the en$an#ere$ species/ the
&roa$(toothe$ rat%
H:o over the last seven or ei#ht
years/ 'Fve &een recor$in# sno,
levels% ' sppose that i" ' ha$nFt &een
crios a&ot ,hat ,as happenin#
to the sno, $o,n at those lo,
altit$es/ ,e ,ol$nFt have those
recor$s%H
)ccor$in# to the ne,ly $evise$
mana#ement plan "or Eoscis9ko
National Dark/ climate chan#e is one
o" the &i##est threats to the
)stralian alps% -:'<+ climate
mo$ellin# pre$icts a temperatre
increase o" &et,een 1%2 $e#rees to 1
$e#ree an$ a $ecrease o"
precipitation &y 6%3 per cent &y &y
2121% '" these tren$s persist/ then &y
2151 temperatres in the alpine
re#ion col$ rise &y almost 3
$e#rees/ ,ith precipitation
$ecreasin# &y p to 24 per cent%
Bt ,hile "e$eral an$ state
#overnments/ an$ several o" the
&i##er national conservation #rops/
are spen$in# "n$s to or#anise
policy con"erences to talk a&ot the
nee$ to tackle climate chan#e/ the
scientists $oin# the #ron$,ork that
esta&lishes the impact o" #lo&al
,armin# are $esperately "ossickin#
"or "n$s to contine vital research%
ource! "http<==iacski.com=>8AT,T80,70>+=Crisis,mounts,in,the,sno%ies.pd"? accessed #6/0$/2008
%uestions
#& 'hat is significant ecologically and (isually about the )oscius*+o ,ational -ar+.
2& 'hat impressed the world famous botanist /aron 0erdinand (on 1ueller about the )oscius*+o
2lpine 2rea.
$& 'hat is threatening this uni3ue 2ustralian en(ironment.
4& 4ist the impacts scientists ha(e identified because of human induced global warming.
31
5& 6dentify and explain how are the interactions between the plants and animals getting 7messed
around.
6& 'hat is a ma8or issue with research into the affects of global warming in the alpine region.
9& 'hat is the problem with most modelling studies on global warming.
8& 'hat issue did the alpine ecologist :oger 'ood identify as the ma8or management issue for the
area. ;xplain his concerns<
=& 'hat is another issue that >r )en ?reen identified as being a problem at the lower altitudes.
31
#0& 'hat are some predictions about temperature and precipitation that the C:6@ ha(e made.
##& 'hat do you thin+ will be the most ob(ious impact on the Alpine area due to human induced
global warming.Ahint! what is the definition of alpine.&
32
6.0.6 uman Impacts on ydrosphere= cloud seeding
Sno'y Precipitation Enhancement 3esearch ProCect
:no,y 8y$ro Bimite$ is con$ctin# a si@(year research pro0ect o" ,inter clo$ see$in# to assess the "easi&ility o"
increasin# sno, precipitation in the :no,y 5ontains%
The Ne, :oth Wales ?overnment approve$ le#islation to ena&le the clo$ see$in# research pro0ect to commence in
,inter 2114%
-lo$ :ee$in# technolo#y is not ne, or ntrie$ an$ has &een se$ sccess"lly in )merica "or the last 51 years an$ in
Tasmania "or the last 41 years/ ,ith ,ater tilities continin# to se clo$ see$in# technolo#y to a#ment ,ater spply
systems%
+ow does it work,
'n the :no,y 5ontains/ ,hen hmi$ air is li"te$ over montains the moistre con$ense "ormin# oro#raphic clo$s
compose$ o" tiny ,ater $roplets remain in li2i$ "orm even at temperatres &elo, 9ero $e#rees -elcis% Water in this
"orm is kno,n as sper coole$ li2i$ ,ater/ or :BW%
To "all ot o" the clo$s as sno,/ these :BW $roplets nee$ to "orm ice crystals% They sally $o this thro#h interactin#
,ith tiny air&orne particles 4like $st! or ,hen clo$ temperatres are very col$% '" there are not eno#h o" these
particles/ or the temperatres are not col$ eno#h/ then not all the :BW $roplets are converte$ into ice crystals an$ the
clo$s are consi$ere$ .natrally ine""icient*%
Normally these clo$s evaporate as they $escen$ on the lee si$e o" the montains% )s a reslt lee si$e areas o" montain
ran#es/ like the 5anaro Dlains/ ten$ to &e mch $rier than on the p,in$ si$e% This natrally occrrin# phenomenon is
kno,n as a rain sha$o,%
To improve the sno, makin# e""iciency o" these clo$s/ a$$itional particles can &e intr o$ce$ into the clo$s% The
e@cess :BW $roplets "ree9e onto these particles "ormin# ice crystals ,hich #ro, an$ "all to the #ron$ as sno,% This
process is kno,n as #lacio#enic clo$ see$in#%
Winter clo$ see$in# involves increasin# the concentration o" ice crystals in clo$s that contain s""icient &elo,
"ree9in# ,ater $roplets/ an$ ,hich ,ol$ not natrally precipitate as sno, or rain% The process o" creatin# a$$itional
ice crystals is re"erre$ to as ice ncleation &y clo$ see$in#% )s the ice crystals #ro, in si9e/ they "orm sno,"lakes an$
"all to the #ron$ as sno,%
The research pro0ect involves the se o" minte amonts o" silver io$i$e as the see$in# a#ent/ $ispense$ "rom #ron$
&ase$ #enerators% The process ,ill create no more noise than a &ackyar$ &ar&e2e% :ilver io$i$e is the most commonly
se$ see$in# a#ent "or clo$ see$in# operations aron$ the ,orl$/ &ecase its strctre is very similar to natrally
occrrin# ice nclei%
The e@pecte$ annal avera#e increase in sno,pack over the tar#et area/ as a reslt o" the clo$ see$in# pro0ect/ is
appro@imately 11 per cent/ resltin# in avera#e increase in ,ater yiel$ o" 31 ?B 4#i#alitres!%
Arthermore/ once the sno, melts in sprin#/ a$$itional ,ater ,ill &e availa&le "or the #eneration o" rene,a&le
electricity/ as ,ell as provi$in# a$$itional ,ater release "or the 5rray <iver :ystem%
-lo$ see$in# technolo#y is not ne, or ntrie$/ an$
has &een se$ sccess"lly in )merica "or the last 51
years an$ in Tasmania "or the last 41 years ,ith ,ater
tilities continin# to se clo$ see$in# to a#ment
,ater spply systems%
:cientists no, have a si#ni"icant &o$y o" e@perience to
$ra, "rom an$ the :no,y Drecipitation Enhancement
<esearch Dro0ect 4:DE<D! e@perimental $esi#n has
&een $evelope$ &y international clo$ see$in# e@perts
$ra,in# on the reslts o" e@periments n$ertaken in
the J: an$ in )stralia%
De to a$vance$ techni2es in ra$iometry/
meteorolo#y an$ ne, clo$ see$in# techni2es/
precipitation as sno, rather than rain can &e relia&ly
pre$icte$%
Droven techni2es sin# tracin# a#ents com&ine$ ,ith a$vance$ statistical techni2es ena&le the evalation an$
measrement o" sno, ,hich is the $irect reslt o" clo$ see$in#%
ource! nowy Bydro 4imited http<==%%%.sno%!h!dro.com.au=LevelThree.asp@
pageADB):CDparentADB2:Dgrand9arentADB1 accessed #6/0$/2008
Possible Negative impacts
$ncertainties of cloud seeding methodology
&hile clouds across the globe have been seeded for 7: years to increase
rainfall and reduce hail# there is no scientifically credible proof it wor(s
1Kthere is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional
weather modification efforts.L
a(ota -tmospheric 0esource )oard director arin .angerud has stated
MIf you hold it to ... scientifically credible proof# it is true that a lot of
aspects of cloud seeding have not met that standard.L
Precipitation augmentation through cloud seeding should not be viewed as a drought relief measure.
*pportunities to increase precipitation are usually few# if any# during droughts; conse<uently the cost of
mounting a cloud1seeding operation will far e3ceed the benefits that may be obtained. ,loud seeding is not
the answer to ending a drought because the clouds have to be there to seed. M+ou can6t ma(e it rain out of a
clear# blue s(y#M .angerud said.
There are some indications that precipitation can either increase or decrease some distance beyond
intended target areas In the early @CC:s# =ontana farmers worried that cloud seeding over eastern =ontana
was stealing their rain. The =ontana .egislature passed a law re<uiring an environmental study and a N@:
million bond before any cloud seeding could ta(e place# effectively putting a stop to cloud seeding in @CCB.
("H. has admitted in a media release (:@@>:B!: KThe atmosphere is a dynamic system and does not behave
in a simplistic mannerL !. There will be many people in the Par( region that would have serious <uestions
about what this trial will mean for them and their livelihood# particularly those in e3isting rainshadow areas.
It has been concluded in the '" that careful attention should be paid to negative effects to the mountain and
a<uatic environment# long1term effects on the macroclimate# flooding and erosion. "ome sensitive areas
have re<uired suspension of the activity .
"now dependant animals# such as the =ountain Pygmy Possum# will suffer if increased precipitation falls are
rain# not snow.
Possi%le Impacts of elevated levels of silver due to cloud seeding
The silver iodide used in cloud seeding causes elevations in atmospheric silver concentrations.
"ilver concentrations in precipitation resulting from seeding clouds with silver iodide were @:1A#9::
nanograms per litre compared with concentrations of :1>: nanograms per litre without cloud seeding
(,ooper and Holly @C8:!.
Human sources of atmospheric silver# such as cloud seeding# may be responsible for the enrichment of silver
by factors of B>71B99 over its average concentration in the earth6s crust ("truempler @C89!.
"ilver is one of the most to3ic heavy metals to freshwater micro1organisms# both plants and animals .
"ilver becomes adsorbed onto humic comple3es and suspended particulates; and incorporated into# or
adsorbed onto# a<uatic plants and animals. The most sensitive organisms are phytoplan(ton# and the
embryos and larvae of animals# including the tadpole stage of the frog life cycle.
-ny increased silver in the region is of serious concern for the endangered "outhern ,orroboree 2rog
because of frogs$ high sensitivity to to3ins.
"ilver is more bioavailable under conditions of low anion concentrations# low levels of reactive sulfide or
sulfur containing ligands# low concentrations of organic ligands (humates!# lower suspended sediment and
lower pH. - number of these conditions apply to# at least# the 5oscius4(o alpine la(es and it is therefore of
concern that silver will impact on plants and animals in the la(es.
"ilver is a genoto3in i.e. capable of forming genetic mutations (It binds with /- and can cause /- strands
to brea( and affect replication!.
)$apte$ "rom Colon! Fo"ndation for Wilderness http>;;,,,%colon#,il$erness%or#%a;Eossie;clo$see$&r"%htm #6/0$/08
Tes$ay/ 7 +cto&er 2113
/'(ert warns on clo"d seedin! &y <osslyn Bee&y
) K21 million clo$(see$in# pro0ect to increase ,inter sno,"alls in Eoscis9ko National Dark col$ &e polltin# its
#lo&ally protecte$ pristine alpine lakes/ accor$in# to ne, research &y a lea$in# alpine ecolo#ist%
The four alpine la(es# already under threat from rising temperatures and early spring ice thaws caused by
global climate change# are -ustralia6s only mainland glacial la(es and home to several rare marine species.
/"& Par(s and &ildlife ecologist 5en Green told an audience in Hindabyne yesterday that winter cloud
seeding could be connected to a recent massive seasonal spi(e in ammonia levels in the alpine la(es# which
is already causing algal blooms# high nutrient levels and changes in acidity.
uring a public lecture on his role in climate change research in the national par(# r Green stressed the
need for more scientific monitoring of all alpine ecosystems. M&e really do need to (now a lot more about
what6s going on out there# and this recent discovery of what6s happening to the alpine la(es is a good
e3ample#M he said.
- series of tests conducted by r Green during >::7 showed ammonia levels in all four la(es )lue .a(e#
,lub .a(e# ,ootapatambra .a(e and .a(e -lbina increased significantly during the period when cloud
seeding was conducted. )lue .a(e and its B>:ha catchment area is protected as a site of global ecological
importance under the 0amsar treaty on wetlands.
The ammonia levels were highest in ,lub .a(e and ,ootapatambra .a(e# increasing by AA:: per cent after
winter cloud1seeding operations began in Huly.
MIt really was a case of ta(ing some samples out of curiosity and finding some interesting things were
happening#M he said.
-mmonia levels in the la(es were usually about B.B micrograms a litre for most of the year# but after cloud
seeding began# levels rose dramatically to B: micrograms# and then to more than @A: micrograms a litre.
"now samples ta(en after cloud seeding commenced# showed levels of 8: micrograms a litre.
MThese are massive pea(s# and we need to find out what6s causing them. Putting ammonia down your toilet
may seem li(e a good idea# but putting it into a pristine alpine la(e could definitely be a bit dodgy#M r Green
said.
The "nowy Hydro ,orporation# which is Iointly owned by the ,ommonwealth# /"& and Dictorian
governments# began a si3 year cloud1seeding trial in winter >::A# aiming to increase winter snowfalls by @:
per cent across @:::s<(m of the national par(# including the summit of =t 5oscius4(o and the glacial la(es.
The seeding process involves firing silver iodide particles from >A ground1based generators to increase the
concentration of ice crystals in storm clouds.
1% What is super cooled li<uid water# or ".&=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2% E@plain ho, sno, is sally create$=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3% E@plain ho, ,inter clo$ see$in# ,orks=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4% Where ,ill the clo$ see$in# pro0ect &e carrie$ ot in )stralia an$ "or ,hat reason=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3% Bist an$ e@plain the possi&le ne#ative impacts o" clo$ see$in# an$ the increase$ "lo, o" ,ater
the -olon# Aon$ation "or Wil$erness has i$enti"ie$ =
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4% What has Dr ?reen $iscovere$ in the stores o" ,ater in the )lpine area= What is he s##estion#
is to &lame=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6.0.< uman Impacts on the "ithosphere = Soil erosion
;e"er to pages '2)5'2( o" the te#t $ook E>hat is the histor! o" soil erosion in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area@F
@. &hy do they believe -boriginals did not contribute to accelerated soil erosion%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
>. &hen did Europeans discover the high mountain area and what did they soon introduce%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
B. &hat is T0-/"H'=-/,E% EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
A. &ho did transhumance first in the -ustralian -lps and with what animal%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
9. &hat practice did -ustralians do that had disastrous effects% EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
7. How did this practice contribute to soil erosion% EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
8. &hat impact did sheep and cattle have on soil%
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE
?. How significant did gra4ing become in the -lpine -rea%
C. &hat measures did the government ta(e to stop the problem%
6.0.> uman Impacts on the Biosphere= Effects of "and use on :auna
Human land use in the
-ustralian -lps brings changes
to the environment. -ny change
in the environment can change
the <uality of habitat for
particular wildlife. In some
instances the habitat is so
greatly changed that it no longer
provides ade<uately for a
particular community or
individual species. This
becomes critical for species that
occur only in restricted areas.
Three species are confined
to the alpine and subalpine 4one
1 the =ountain Pygmy1possum#
the ,orroboree 2rog and the
)aw )aw 2rog. They are
restricted not only to this 4one
but also to particular vegetation
communities within it. The
protection of the special habitats
of these three species is
essential for their continued
e3istence.
People6s activities from the
past threaten habitat in several
ways in the -lps. Impacts such
asthe introduction of feral
animals has had a significant
impact on alpine habitat. "uch
animals include feral horses
(brumbies!# hares# pigs# goats
and dogs. Hard hooved animals
have the capacity to damage
soils# gra4ing animals compete
with native browsing animals
and dogs prey on other wildlife.
amage to vegetation and
soils through stoc( gra4ing#
resort development and
establishment of the hydro1
electricity schemes are
widespread. .ocal deterioration
of water <uality in streams and
rivers is caused by the presence
of stoc(# careless waste
disposal from resorts and the
growing numbers of wal(ers
camping along streams are
other impacts.
-nother threat is the
changes to natural stream flow
regimes. (The flow regime is the
amount of water flowing down a
stream at a particular time in
comparison with other times of
the year.! - number of animals
have adapted to live in streams
and rivers and depend on
particular flow regimes for their
life cycles. =any plants living on
the ban(s of streams are also
adapted to particular flow
regimes. amming of the rivers
of the high country has changed
the natural stream flow regimes.
To protect species it is
essential to protect the habitat in
which they live. Generally the
first step towards protection is
the institution of legislation.
=uch of the high country has
been proclaimed /ational Par(
in /"&# Dictoria and the -,T.
.egislation such as the 7ational
9arks and >ildli"e Act ('GC.) in
/"&# the 7ational 9arks Act
('GC:) in Dictoria and the 7ature
Conservation 3rdinance ('G2*)
in the -,T protect habitats and
individual species through their
common aim which is
conservation of the ecosystem.
*ther legislation such as the
&lora and &auna Huarantee Act
passed in Dictoria in @C?? may
help to protect particular species
or habitats. This -ct helps to
protect species of plants and
animals on both public and
private land.
0. .hat does human land use do to the %iosphere in the !lps/
6. .hy is ha%itat change critical for some species/
<. .hat three species are confined to the 5oscius8,o alpine 8one/
>. .hat needs to happen for these species to continue to e7ist/
). "ist and descri%e the human activities that have threatened ha%itats in the
!lps.
&anger daisy on !lpine rampage
3ichard (acey
9anuary 0D2 611D
)'"H&-.5E0" hi(ing in the 5oscius4(o /ational
Par( have been urged to be on the alert for a
dangerous escapee threatening havoc across the
"nowy =ountains.
The villain is not a runaway convict# but an iridescent
orange European daisy called haw(weed.
5eith =cougall# a
epartment of
Environment and
,limate ,hange
botanist# said
haw(weed6s rapid
spread could trigger an
environmental disaster
within our lifetime.
People ma(ing a
sighting should (eep their distance# but snap a
digital photo and email it to the authorities# he said.
MIt loves mountain landscapes and it has the
frightening potential to change the appearance of
the -ustralian -lps# smothering vegetationM and
obliterating wildlife.
MThis weed could even get into the bog systems and
impact on the critically endangered southern
corroboree frog.M
"o named because the ancient Gree(s thought
haw(s ate its sap to improve their eyesight#
haw(weed may have been introduced into Tasmania
early last century before being planted in Dictorian
gardens. espite intensive campaigns# the weed
has infested @>9 Dictorian sites.
/ow it has spread into 5oscius4(o /ational Par(. r
=cougall urged anyone coming across the weed to
ta(e a picture and email it# along with details of
where it had been found# to him so it could be
trac(ed down and eradicated.
M- map location would be good#M he said# but Mit6s
most important that they do not pic( itM. Tiny barbs
on the seeds cling to clothes# hair and even cars and
truc(s.
MThin( of it as a common dandelion#M he said# adding
the seeds also blow great distances in the wind.
The weed grows so thic( it carpets the ground#
cho(ing out native plants and animals. Posters
appealing for people to report sightings have been
put up on 5oscius4(o /ational Par( wal(ing trails
and information centres. Public help# r =cougall
said# was vital.
MIt only ta(es one seed to lodge in a remote roc(
within the par( unnoticed and within a handful of
years a small population grows# and then there are
literally thousands and thousands of seeds being
dispersed to other corners of the bush.M
-nyone finding haw(weed can email location details
to mcdougall.(eithOenvironment.nsw.gov.au.
This story was found at!
http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2009/01/18/12322138
832.html
<.1
! case study investigating *)E issue in *)E of the %iophysical
components2 to illustrate ho' an understanding of %iophysical processes
contri%utes to sustaina%le management in the environment.
Issue+ -tilisation of .nowy /egion 0aters (-sing the water #
istory of the Sno'y (ountains Scheme
It was the widespread droughts of the @??:$s that prompted
tal(s of diverting the mountain rivers# as rivers such as the
snowy were draining# largely une3ploited# into the ocean.
Throughout the first half of the >:
th
century# various proposals
for the "nowy were put forward.
It wasn$t until @CAA that a dual purpose irrigation and power
scheme was initiated.
In @CAC# the ,ommonwealth Government passed the Hydro1
electric Power -ct. This -ct established the "nowy =ountains
-uthority which was responsible for designing and managing a
dual purpose scheme to provide power and irrigation water.
Hustification for the proIect was also made for Pdefence$
reasons. ,oastal power generators (eg coal1fired power
stations! were seen as prime military targets.
It too( >9 years to build Q wor( commenced in @CAC and was
completed in @C8A# on time and under budget.
=ore than @::#::: people from over B: countries wor(ed on
the "nowy "cheme between @CAC and @C8A# with the
wor(force reaching a pea( of 8#B:: in @C9C.
<.0
Identification and e7planation of the ,ey %iophysical
processes 'hich relate to the issue
Identification
The Hydrosphere has been impacted on by the construction of
the "nowy =ountains "cheme.
The "cheme was made to capture and channel the constant
and reliable source of water delivered to the mountains by the
flows and storages operating in the hydrosphere.
E7planation
The mountains catch precipitation in the form of rain and snow#
which slowly filters to the surrounding country in an e3tensive
system of rivers.
The "nowy =ountains "cheme# with its @7 dams# 8 power
stations and >>9(m of tunnels and a<ueducts uses the water
for two reasons:
o To divert water from the east to the west for irrigation for
the western side of the mountains (.ower =urray arling
)asin!
o 2or electric power generation.
The scheme follows the natural cycle of the seasons:
o .inter : precipitation falls as snow in the mountains# stored
in the snow pac(
o Spring : with the spring thaw# water storages collect the
snow melt
o Summer : water that usually flows east is diverted to the
west for irrigation and power generation
The "cheme also depends on the:
o High levels of precipitation and low evaporationJtranspiration
e3perienced in the area.
o .egacy of glaciation1 =oraines around the alpine area slow
down drainage.
o The la(es# fens# bogs formed act as reservoirs for the
snowmelt. These communities are particularly important in
regulating water flow in the mountains.
o High water holding capacity of alpine soils and vegetation
It is the operation of these (ey biophysical processes in the upper catchment of the
"nowy 0iver that has made it so suitable as a water storage and diversion scheme
<.6
"cale of operations
The si4e (scale! of the operations is large.
The "nowy =ountains "cheme is one of the great engineering
feats of the modern world and remains amongst the greatest
engineering proIects ever underta(en in -ustralian History. It is
only recently that it has been foreshadowed by the Three 0iver
"cheme in ,hina.
The "cheme is one of the most comple3 integrated water and
hydro1electric power schemes in operation in -ustralia and the
world.
It diverts the large flow of water that usually moves east so that it
flows to the west into the =urray and =urrumbidgee 0iver
systems and at the same time it produces clean# renewable
energy.
2eatures of the Sno'y (ountains "cheme
+ource< +no%! 8!dro &act +heet Module +upport notes page )
The "nowy =ountains
"cheme is recognised as one of
the great engineering feats of
the world. It too( >9 years to
build and is one of the largest
and most comple3 integrated
water and hydro1electric power
schemes in operation.
)uilt in the national interest
with the support of the /ew
"outh &ales# Dictorian# "outh
-ustralian and ,ommonwealth
governments# the "cheme
provides electricity to the
mainland eastern -ustralian grid
and much needed drought
security to -ustralia6s dry inland.
,onstruction started on @8
*ctober @CAC# when the
Governor General "ir &illiam
=c5ell# Prime =inister )en
,hiffley and the "cheme6s first
,ommissioner# "ir &illiarn
Hudson# fired the first blast at
-daminaby.
)uilt at a cost of 9.@
billion1including interest costs
accrued during construction1the
"cheme was completed on time
and under budget in @C8A.
Sno'y features
The "nowy =ountains
"cheme is located in
-ustralia6s "outhern -lps
within a catchment area of
9#@>A s<uare (ilometres#
mostly within 5oscius4(o
/ational Par(.
The "cheme has @A9 (m of
interconnected trans1
mountain tunnels and ?: (m
of a<ueducts# which collect
and divert most of the inflows
to the "nowy =ountains area.
There are @7 maIor dams with
a total storage capacity of
8#::: gigalitres (Gl!# or @B
times the volume of "ydney
Harbour. -lmost 87R of this
capacity# or 9#B:: Gl# can be
used for electricity generation
and diverted to the =urray
and =urrumbidgee irrigation
systems.
.a(e Eucumbene# the
"cheme6s largest reservoir#
has a storage capacity of
A#8C? GI or C times the
volume of "ydney Harbour.
Entitlements to the water
diverted from the "nowy 0iver
by the "cheme are shared
between Dictoria and /"& at
appro3imately >9R and 89R
respectively.
)y providing a reliable supply
of water west of the Great
ividing 0ange# the "cheme
assists in underwriting the
production of NB billion of
irrigated agricultural products
6n the =urray1arling )asin
each year.
The "cheme6s operations are
vital to river management#
including flood mitigation# flow
augmentation during drought
and the control of salinity in
the =urray 0iver
The "cheme6s seven power
stations generate an average
of 9#::: gigawatt1hours
(G&&S of electricity each
year.
&ith a large generating
capacity of B#897 megawatts
(=&!# the "cheme has the
capability of producing up to
@@ R of the total power
re<uirements of mainland
eastern -ustralia.
It provides appro3imately 87R
of the renewable energy
supplied to the mainland
eastern -ustralian grid#
displacing appro3imately A.9
million tonnes of carbon
dio3ide emissions every year.
=ore than @::# ::: people
from over B: countries wor(ed
on the "nowy "cheme
between @CAC and @C8A# with
the wor(force reaching a pea(
of 8#B:: in @C9C.
.or,ing on t'o fronts
)roadly# the "cheme fails into
two separate# but
interconnected developments:
The .nowy 1urray
2iversion which diverts the
water of the "nowy 0iver
westward from Island )end
Pondage through a
trans1mountain tunnel to Geehi
0eservoir. The water then
passes through =urray @ and
=urray > Power "tations
before being released into the
=urray 0iver for irrigation.
&ater is also collected and
stored in .a(e Hindabyne and
.a(e Eucumbene. The "nowy
=urray iversion also captures
the headwaters of the "nowy
0iver at Guthega Pondage.
This water passes through
Guthega Power "tation and is
released bac( into the "nowy
0iver to flow into Island )end
Pondage. This is (nown as the
6run of the river6 power station.
The .nowy Tu$ut
2iversion which collects the
headwaters of the
=urrumbidgee and
Eucumbene 0ivers. These
waters are diverted from .a(e
Eucumbene through a trans1
mountain tunnel to Tumut
Pond 0eservoir# which collects
water from the Tooma and
Tumut 0ivers. The water
passes through Tumut @# >
and B Power "tations located
in the Tumut Gorge and then
into )lowering 0eservoir. 2rom
here it passes through
)lowering Power "tation as it
is discharged into the Tumut
0iver by the epartment of
.and and &ater ,onservation.
The Tumut 0iver then flows
into the =urrumbidgee 0iver
for irrigation.
-t the heart of the "nowy
=ountains "cheme is .a(e
Eucumbene which receives
water from the "nowy#
Eucumbene# Tooma# Tumut and
=urrumbidgee 0ivers. .a(e
Eucumbene is the "cheme6s
largest reservoir# with a storage
capacity of A#8C? GIS or C times
the volume of "ydney Harbour
Feat"res of the *nowy 0o"ntains *cheme
1% Why is the :no,y 5ontains :cheme reco#nise$ as one o" the #reat en#ineerin# "eats o" the
,orl$=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2% What $oes the scheme provi$e= ____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3% 8o, &i# is the ,ater catchment area "or the scheme=
______________________________________
4% Within the scheme>
a! 8o, many po,er stations are there= __________________________________________
&! 8o, many $ams are there= _________________________________________________
c! What is the total stora#e capacity o" the $ams= __________________________________
$! Which is the lar#est reservoir= _______________________________________________
&! 8o, many kilometres o" interconnectin# tnnels are there= _______________________
c! 8o, many kilometres o" a2e$cts are there= __________________________________
$! 8o, is the ,ater $iverte$ "rom the :no,y <iver share$= _________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
i! What is the total #eneratin# capacity each year= _________________________________
0! What percenta#e o" total po,er re2irements o" mainlan$ eastern )stralia can the scheme
spply= _____________________________________________________________
k! What percenta#e o" rene,a&le ener#y spplie$ to the mainlan$ eastern )stralian #ri$
$oes the scheme spply= ___________________________________________________________
5% What aspects o" river mana#ement $oes the scheme assist ,ith=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6% Why is Bake Ecm&ene so important to the :no,y 5ontains :cheme=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
The Two 0ain 1arts 2f The *nowy 0o"ntains *cheme
escribe The *nowy 0"rray e#elo(ment dia!ram below.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
escribe The *nowy3T"m"t e#elo(ment dia!ram
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
<.<
Interactions 'ith other components of the %iophysical environment
The construction of the "nowy =ountains "cheme was
engineered to harness and channel the constant and reliable
water source delivered to the mountains by processes operating
in the hydrosphere.
The most obvious impact of the "cheme is on the hydrosphere.
+et because of comple3 interrelationships that e3ist in the
biophysical environment# the presence of the hydro1electric
scheme in the mountains has impacted on other components of
the biophysical environment.
<.> The sensitivity of the %iophysical environment to change
The #hange in the flo' of the Sno'y 3iver
=any aspects of the -lpine region were impacted by the "nowy
Hydro "cheme
&hat stands out and is constantly a political issue is the changes
made to the flow of the "nowy 0iver.
The "nowy 0iver was a raging torrent of a waterway.
It was considered the only P&ild$ river in -ustralia
In @C78 the "nowy 0iver was dammed to create la(e Hindabyne
The flow of the water was reduced to @R1 BR
The impact of this was that over time the "nowy 0iver
o /arrowed
o "ilted up
o )ecame infested with &illows
o )ecame infested with )lac(berry bushes
o -nd the fish (mainly trout! disappeared.
The 0iparian (river ban(! environment changed.
The "nowy 0iver shows how sensitive the environment is to
change. ,hange in one area affects somewhere else.
To alleviate the problem the government has agreed to restore
some of the flow bac( to the "nowy 0iver.
It is hoped that they will return up to >?R of the flow.
It is hoped that the ecosystem surrounding the river will return to
some of its past glory.
<.? The importance of understanding ,ey %iophysical processes for
effective management
Initial establishment of the "cheme Q harnessing the processes of
the Hydrologic ,ycle.
&hen the "nowy =ountains "cheme began# the
importance of managing the upper catchment of the
"nowy 0iver was immediately recognised.

It was realised that the long term sustainability of
harnessing the water was threatened unless the
processes of increased runoff# and soil erosion was
addressed%
The increased runoff and soil erosion was the legacy of
allowing gra4ing of cattle and sheep in the area1 which
destroyed the sensitive vegetation that held the soil and
slowed the runoff.
"oil erosion can silt up the dams and reservoirs and can
ruined the turbines in the hydro electric power stations.
5nterference in the
bios(here
+ver#ra9in#
41641*s 1744!
accelerate$ erosion
o" "ra#ile alpine
hms soils 4 1
metre soil lost!
0ana!ement
5m(lications
Nee$ to stop
erosion or
stora#e
reservoirs ,ill
"ill ,ith silt
)ction taken
3 #ra9in#
&anne$
3 END
esta&lishe$
3 e""orts to
repair &o#s
trample$ &y
stock
(anagement of ,ey processes
a) (anagement of Precipitation
The technology e3ists for cloud seeding and the "nowy
=ountains is suitable for the use of ground based generators
which would shoot silver iodide into the bases of appropriate
cloud as they rise up over the escarpment.
This has the potential to increase total precipitation by up to
@:R if it were underta(en.
- cloud seeding trial by "nowy Hydro has begun.
Diagram sho%ing $ene"its o" managing precipitation.
%) (anagement of Storages and :lo's2 and Soil Erosion2
&ater runoff is captured by dam walls and the water is stored
in reservoirs behind them until it is diverted through the
e3tensive pipes through the mountains.
The water runoff needs to be delivered to storages in a high
<uality state# free of the sediment that would otherwise fill the
reservoirs with silt# thereby reducing space.
It is essential then that sediment is minimised. Therefore
management of soil erosion is a high priority.
How is this done%
=ore
Precipitation
0unoff
=ore
storage
=ore irrigation supply
,ontinued power
generation
L L L
The -lpine region has been made off limits to gra4ing which
was the primary cause of vegetation destruction and its
conse<uence of increased runoff and soil erosion.
The "nowy Hydro ,ommission wor(s closely with the
/ational Par(s and &ildlife "ervices to restore the vegetation
cover on the high country.
)y repairing the sphagnum moss bogs# for instance# restores
infiltration and the slow release of water from the alpine area
which is so fundamental to the functioning of the rivers in the
"nowy region and their ability to cope with the massive
amount of water.
2urthermore# other human activities such as wal(ing etc are
often limited to steel grate wal(ing trac(s# and hefty fines are
in place for deliberately damaging the bog and fen
communities.
"oil erosion as result has been minimised and the reservoirs
have had minimal silting and the turbines continue to run.
-r!"ments for the *cheme -r!"ments -!ainst the *cheme
Term &efinition
!eolian Erosion
!ir (ass
!lpine
!ngle of Incidence
!spect
!tmosphere
Biophysical
Biosphere
Bog
#ir-ue
#limate
#ondensation
&enudation
Endemic
Environment
Environmental "apse
3ate (E"3)
Erosion
Evaporation
:auna
Term &efinition
:en
:lora
:luvial Erosion
Glacial Erosion
Glacial "a,e
Glacier
eath
i%ernate
umus
ydrosphere
Insolation
"atitude
"ithosol
"ithosphere
"ongitude
(igration
(oraine
)eedle Ice
)ivation
Term &efinition
*rogenesis
*rographic $plift
Peat
Periglacial
Periglacial Erosion
Permafrost
Precipitation
3unoff
Sphagnum (oss
Terracing
Through flo'
Topography
Torpor
Tors
Transpiration
Troposphere
$plift
.eather
.eathering
Term &efinition
:efer to the article C Climate change threatens s+i fieldsD and answer the following 3uestions<
1% Why $o )stralia*s sno,"iel$s "ace a #iant melt$o,n=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2% When is the impact o" #lo&al ,armin# e@pecte$ to &e "elt=
_________________________________
3% What is the pre$icte$ impact o" #lo&al ,armin# on alpine animals=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4% What is the pre$icte$ impact o" #lo&al ,armin# on alpine plants=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5% What ,ill &e the impact o" #lo&al ,armin# on ski resorts=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6% a! 8o, ,ill resorts in the lo,er areas attempt to overcome the pro&lem o" lack o" sno,=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
&! What pro&lems ,ill this create=
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3% 5ake a list o" any other impacts #lo&al ,armin# may have on the "or spheres o" the Eoscis9ko
)lpine <e#ion%
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
?lobal warming is already affecting the alpine regions of the world< 'arming has been
associated with upward mo(ement of some plant populations by # 4 m per decade on
mountain topsE and some loss of plants that formerly were restricted to high ele(ations A6-CCbE
200#&<
)lpine plants an$ animals are restricte$ to an area &et,een the treeline an$ the montain smmit%
'n )stralia there are more than 251 species o" alpine plants that #ro, only in this restricte$
ha&itat A4a Trobe Fni(ersityE 200#&% )s )stralia contines to ,arm/ the alpine environment an$
its plants an$ animals ,ill nee$ to move "rther p montains to retain the $esira&le climate
con$itions% 8o,ever as )stralia*s montains are lo,/ climate chan#e may leave the species ,ith
no,here to #o%
-han#e is alrea$y occrrin# in )stralia*s alpine re#ions% The treeline near 5ont 8otham in
Mictoria has move$ p "orty metres to an area that has not ha$ any trees "or the past t,enty("ive
years% )s the trees move into this area/ alpine plants can &e $isplace$ A4a Trobe Fni(ersityE 200#&%
With a small chan#e in the #lo&al avera#e temperatre/ the alpine environment o" 5ont Bo#on#
in Mictoria ,ill nee$ to move p the montain "rom 1351 metres to 1711 metres% '" ,armin#
contines these species ,ill have no,here to move/ as this montain is only 1741 metres hi#h
A/usbyE #=88 G 1anserghE 200#&%
)stralia*s hi#hest peak/ 5ont Eoscis9ko/ is 2226 metres hi#h an$ the alpine environment
&e#ins at 1611 metres% With climate chan#e this alpine environment ,ill nee$ to rise to 2111
metres to remain ,ithin a sita&le climate A/usbyE #=88&%
-limate chan#e ,ill see an 16 66 percent re$ction in the area o" sno, cover &y 2131 an$ a 37
76 percent re$ction &y 2131 A-ittoc+ and 'rattE 200#&% With a small chan#e in temperatre the
only places in )stralia that ,ill retain alpine ecosystems ,ill &e the tops o" 6 montains 4Bs&y
1766!% ) 3N- rise/ pre$icte$ "or the ne@t 111 years/ ,ol$ raise the sno,line level a&ove the
hi#hest peaks in the )lps ACoyneE 200#&%
Eoscis9ko National Dark
Arom 1731 to 1776 there appeare$ to &e a $ecreasin# tren$ in the nm&er o" $ays on ,hich sno,
,as recor$e$ in the :no,y 5ontains/ ,hich correlates ,ith &oth ,arm re#ional temperatres
an$ hi#her avera#e temperatres across all o" )stralia A,-'E 200#&%
The national park srron$in# )stralia*s hi#hest montain is home to less than 511 5ontain
Dy#my(Dossms Brramys parvs% Warmin# $e to climate chan#e is likely to threaten its
srvival &ecase B% parvs nee$s 31cm 1 metre o" sno, to keep ,arm $rin# ,inter
hi&ernation% :no, acts like a $oona/ keepin# the temperatre at 2N-/ an$ the pro0ecte$ $ecrease o"
sno, cover ,ill e@pose the possms to more e@treme col$%
-limate chan#e is also pre$icte$ to re$ce the possm*s availa&le ha&itat 4crrently only a&ot 4
s2are kms A,-'E 200#&% The entire climatic ha&itat o" the 5ontain Dy#my(possm ,ill &e lost
,ith only 1N- ,armin# A/rereton et al< #==5&%
-limate chan#e also threatens alpine plants/ ,ith 43 percent o" the 171 plant species in the alpine
re#ion o" 5t% Eoscis9ko i$enti"ie$ as vlnera&le to #lo&al ,armin# ACoyneE 200#&%
The "inancial vale o" e@pen$itre &y torists to the National Dark ,as ,orth K641 million in
1771 72 A>rimlE #==4&% Bsh,alkin# an$ natre appreciation &rin#s more visitors to the N:W
)lps than skiin# AC:CTE 200#& so a $ecline in alpine animals an$ plants may a""ect torism%
-ooma/ ,hich is the service centre "or the national park/ ,ill "eel the economic impacts "rom any
$ecline in torists%
ource! -limate )ction Net,ork )stralia http!//www<cana<net<au/bush/alpine<htm accessed
#6/0$/2008

Biophysical Interactions

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Biophysical Interactions

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Introduction to Senior Geography

Geography is the science which seeks to explain the

.hat is it/ .hat is it/ (Spatial) (Spatial)

.here is it/ .here is it/ (Spatial) (Spatial)

.hat action is appropriate/ .hat action is appropriate/ (Ecological) (Ecological)

Anda mungkin juga menyukai