1

PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8:
CHAPTER 8:
Alternating current
Alternating current
(6 Hours)
(6 Hours)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
2
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define Define alternating current (AC). alternating current (AC).

Sketch and use Sketch and use sinusoidal AC waveform. sinusoidal AC waveform.

rite and use rite and use sinusoidal voltage and current e!uations. sinusoidal voltage and current e!uations.
"earning #utcome:
8.1 Alternating current (1 hour)

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
3

is $e'ine$ as an electric current whose magnitude and an electric current whose magnitude and
direction change periodicall$. direction change periodicall$.

(igures 8.1a) 8.1* an$ 8.1c sho three 'or"s o' alternating
current.
%.& Alternating current (AC)
'igure %.&a: sinusoidal AC 'igure %.&a: sinusoidal AC
I
t
0
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3
0
I
0
I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
4
I
t
0
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3
0
I
0
I
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3
'igure %.&b: saw(tooth AC 'igure %.&b: saw(tooth AC
'igure %.&c: s!uare AC 'igure %.&c: s!uare AC
0
I
0
I
I
t
0
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
5

+hen an AC flows through a resistor AC flows through a resistor) there ill *e a

potential difference (voltage) potential difference (voltage) across it an$ this ,oltage is
alternating alternating as shon in (igure 8.1$.
V
t
0
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3
0
V
0
V
( ) voltage maximum peak :
0
V here
period : T
( ) current maximum peak :
0
I
'igure %.&d: sinusoidal alternating voltage 'igure %.&d: sinusoidal alternating voltage
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
6
're!uenc$ ( 're!uenc$ (f f) )

is $e'ine$ as a number of complete c$cle in one second a number of complete c$cle in one second.

Its unit is hert) ( hert) (Hz Hz) ) -R s s

1 1
.
*eriod ( *eriod (T T) )

is $e'ine$ as a time taken for one complete c$cle a time taken for one complete c$cle.

Its unit is second ( second (s s) ).

(or"ulae)
*eak current ( *eak current (I I
0 0
) )

is $e'ine$ as a magnitude of the ma+imum current a magnitude of the ma+imum current.

Its unit is ampere ( ampere (A A) ).

%.&.& ,erminolog$ in AC
f
T
1
=
(%.&) (%.&)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
7

E.uation 'or alternating current (I))

E.uation 'or alternating ,oltage (V))

%.&.- .!uations of alternating current and voltage
t I I sin
0
= (%.-) (%.-)
t V V sin
0
= (%./) (%./)
phase phase
here locity angular ve OR frequency angular :
current peak :
0
I
ge peak volta :
0
V
time : t
) 2 ( f =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
8
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define Define root mean s!uare (rms) current and voltage for root mean s!uare (rms) current and voltage for
AC source. AC source.

0se 0se the following formula, the following formula,

"earning #utcome:
8./ Root "ean s.uare (r"s) (1 hour)

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s
2
0
rms
I
I = and and
2
0
rms
V
V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
9
%.-.& 1ean or Average Current (I
av
)

is $e'ine$ as the average or mean value of current in a the average or mean value of current in a
half(c$cle flows of current in a certain direction. half(c$cle flows of current in a certain direction.

(or"ulae:
%.- 2oot mean s!uare (rms)
( )
2
0 0
av
2

I I
I = = (%.3) (%.3)
4ote: 4ote:
I
av
'or one complete c$cle is )ero one complete c$cle is )ero *ecause the current current
flows in one direction in one(half of the c$cle flows in one direction in one(half of the c$cle an$ in the
opposite direction in the ne+t half of the c$cle opposite direction in the ne+t half of the c$cle.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
10

In calculating a,erage #oer $issi#ate$ *% an AC) the "ean

(a,erage) current is not use'ul.

The instantaneous power, instantaneous power, P P $eli,ere$ to a resistance R is

The average power, average power, P P

av av
over one c$cle of AC over one c$cle of AC is gi,en *%
here is the average value of the average value of I I
2 2
over one c$cle over one c$cle an$ is
gi,en *%
There'ore
%.-.- 2oot mean s!uare current (I
rms
)
R I P
2
=
R I P
2
av
=
2
I
( )
2
rms
2
I I = (%.5) (%.5)
R I P
2
rms av
= (%.6) (%.6)
here
! ous instantane : I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
11

Since
an$ the gra#h o' I
2
against ti"e) t is shon in (igure 8./.

(ro" (igure 8./) the sha$e$ region under under the cur,e an$ above above
the $ashe$ line 'or I
0
2
"2 ha,e the sa"e are as the sha$e$ region
above above the cur,e an$ below below the $ashe$ line 'or I
0
2
"2.
Thus
thus the s.uare ,alue o' current is gi,en *% t I I sin
0
=
t I I
2
2
0
2
sin =
2
0
I
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3
2
2
0
I
t
0
2
I
'igure %.- 'igure %.-
2
2
0
2
I
I =
(%.7) (%.7)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
12

0% e.uating the e.s. (8.1) an$ (8.2)) the r"s current is

2oot mean s!uare current ( 2oot mean s!uare current (I I

rms rms
) ) is $e'ine$ as the value of the the value of the
stead$ DC which produces the same power in a resistor as stead$ DC which produces the same power in a resistor as
the mean (average) power produced b$ the AC. the mean (average) power produced b$ the AC.

The root "ean s.uare (r"s) current is the effective value effective value o' the
AC an$ can *e illustrate$ as shon in (igure 8.3.
( )
2
2
0
2
rms
I
I =
2
2
0
rms
I
I =
2
0
rms
I
I = (%.%) (%.%)
I
t
0
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3
0
I
0
I
rms
I
0
#0# $ 0 I
'igure %./ 'igure %./
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
13

is $e'ine$ as the value of the stead$ direct voltage which the value of the stead$ direct voltage which
when applied across a resistor, produces the same power when applied across a resistor, produces the same power
as the mean (average) power produced b$ the alternating as the mean (average) power produced b$ the alternating
voltage across the same resistor. voltage across the same resistor.

Its 'or"ula is

The unit o' the r"s ,oltage (#otential $i''erence) is volt (8) volt (8).
%.-./ 2oot mean s!uare voltage (V
rms
)
2
0
rms
V
V = (%.9) (%.9)
4ote: 4ote:
E.uations (8.8) an$ (8.4) are valid onl$ for a sinusoidal valid onl$ for a sinusoidal
alternating current and voltage alternating current and voltage.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
14
An AC source V%&00 sin t is connecte$ across a resistor o'
/15 . Calculate
a. the r"s current in the resistor)
*. the #ea! current)
c. the "ean #oer.
Solution : Solution :
0% co"#aring
Thus the #ea! ,oltage is
a. 0% a##l%ing the 'or"ulae o' r"s current) thus
E6a"#le 1 :
= 2&0 R
t V sin &00 = to the t V V sin
0
=
' &00
0
= V
2
0
rms
I
I = an$
R
V
I
0
0
=
2
0
rms
R
V
I =
2 2&0
&00
= (1 $ 1
rms
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
15
Solution : Solution :
*. The #ea! current o' AC is gi,en *%
c. The "ean (a,erage) #oer o' the resistor is
= 2&0 R
2
0
rms
I
I =
2
(1 $ 1
0
I
=
)) $ 1
0
= I
R I P
2
rms av
=
( ) ( ) 2&0 (1 $ 1
2
=
* ()#
av
= P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
16
(igure 8.7 shos a gra#h to re#resent alternating current #asses
through a resistor o' 15 ! . Calculate
a. the r"s current)
*. the 're.uenc% o' the AC)
c. the "ean #oer $issi#ate$ 'ro" the resistor.
E6a"#le / :
an$
(0
) ( I
) ms ( t
0
20 +0
02 $ 0
02 $ 0
,0
'igure %.3 'igure %.3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
17
Solution : Solution :
(ro" the gra#h)
a. 0% a##l%ing the 'or"ulae o' r"s current) thus
*. The 're.uenc% o' the AC is
c. The "ean #oer $issi#ate$ 'ro" the resistor is gi,en *%
= 10 10
3
R
s 10 (0 - 02 $ 0
3
0

= = T I
T
f
1
=
3
10 (0
1

= f
./ 2& = f
2
0
rms
I
I =
2
02 $ 0
rms
= I
10 (1 $ 1
2
rms

= I
R I P
2
rms av
=
( ) ( )
3
2
2
10 10 10 (1 $ 1 =

* )) $ 1
av
= P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
18
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

0se 0se phasor diagram and sinusoidal waveform to show phasor diagram and sinusoidal waveform to show
the phase relationship between current and voltage for a the phase relationship between current and voltage for a
circuit consisting of circuit consisting of

pure resistor pure resistor

pure capacitor pure capacitor

pure inductor. pure inductor.

Define Define capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and
impedance. impedance.

Anal$se Anal$se voltage, current and phasor diagrams for a voltage, current and phasor diagrams for a
series circuit consisting of series circuit consisting of

RC RC

RL RL

RCL RCL. .
"earning #utcome:
8.3 Resistance) reactance an$ i"#e$ance (/ hours)

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
19
%./.& *hasor diagram

*hasor *hasor is $e'ine$ as a vector that rotate anticlockwise about a vector that rotate anticlockwise about
its a+is with constant angular velocit$. its a+is with constant angular velocit$.

A $iagra" containing #hasor is calle$ phasor diagram phasor diagram.

It is use$ to represent a sinusoidall$ var$ing !uantit$ represent a sinusoidall$ var$ing !uantit$ such
as alternating current (AC) an$ alternating ,oltage.

It also *eing use$ to $eter"ine the phase angle phase angle (is $e'ine$ as
the phase difference between current and voltage in AC the phase difference between current and voltage in AC
circuit circuit).

Consi$er a gra#h re#resents sinusoi$al AC an$ sinusoi$al

alternating ,oltage a,e'or" as shon in (igure 8.1a.
8eanhile (igure 8.1* shos the #hasor $iagra" o' V an$ I.
%./ 2esistance, reactance and impedance
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
20

(ro" the (igure 8.1a:

Thus the #hase $i''erence is

There'ore the current I is in phase in phase ith the ,oltage V an$

constant ith ti"e.
t
0
0
I
0
V
0
I
0
V
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3

'igure %.5a 'igure %.5a 'igure %.5b: phasor diagram 'igure %.5b: phasor diagram
V
I
t I I sin
0
= t V V sin
0
=
0 = = t t
an$
4ote: 4ote:
value positive =
radian =
value negative =
"eads "eads
"ags behind "ags behind
:n antiphase :n antiphase
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
21

The .uantit% that measures the opposition of a circuit to the measures the opposition of a circuit to the
AC flows AC flows.

It is $e'ine$ *%

It is a scalar !uantit$ scalar !uantit$ an$ its unit is ohm ( ohm (

) ).

In a 9C circuit) impedance likes the resistance impedance likes the resistance.

%./.- :mpedance (Z)
rms
rms
I
V
Z =
(%.&;) (%.&;)
2
0
V
2
0
I
-R
0
0
I
V
Z =
(%.&&) (%.&&)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
22

The s%"*ol o' an AC source in the electrical circuit is shon in

(igure 8.6.

Pure resistor "eans that no capacitance and self(inductance no capacitance and self(inductance
e''ect in the AC circuit.
*hase difference between voltage *hase difference between voltage V V and current and current I I

(igure 8.2 shos an AC source connecte$ to a #ure resistor R.

%././ *ure resistor in an AC circuit
'igure %.6 'igure %.6
AC source
R
I
R
V
V
'igure %.7 'igure %.7
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
23

The alternating current #asses through the resistor is gi,en *%

The alternating ,oltage across the resistor V

R
at an% instant is
gi,en *%

There'ore the #hase $i''erence *eteen V an$ I is

In #ure resistor) the current current I I alwa$s in phase with the voltage alwa$s in phase with the voltage
V V and constant with time and constant with time.

(igure 8.8a shos the ,ariation o' V an$ I ith ti"e hile (igure
8.8* shos the #hasor $iagra" 'or V an$ I in a #ure resistor.
t I I sin
0
=
IR V
R
=
0 0
V R I = ( ) R t I sin
0
= an$
V t V V
R
= = sin
0
here tage supply vol : V
0 = = t t
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
24
:mpedance in a pure resistor :mpedance in a pure resistor

(ro" the $e'inition o' the i"#e$ance) hence

t
0
0
I
0
V
0
I
0
V
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3

'igure %.%a 'igure %.%a 'igure %.%b: phasor diagram 'igure %.%b: phasor diagram
V
I
R
I
V
I
V
Z = = =
0
0
rms
rms
(%.&-) (%.&-)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
25

Pure ca#acitor "eans that no resistance and self(inductance no resistance and self(inductance
e''ect in the AC circuit.
*hase difference between voltage *hase difference between voltage V V and current and current I I

(igure 8.4 shos an AC source connecte$ to a #ure ca#acitor C.

The alternating ,oltage across the ca#acitor V

C
at an% instant is
e.ual to the su##l% ,oltage V an$ is gi,en *%
%./.3 *ure capacitor in an AC circuit
'igure %.9 'igure %.9
AC source AC source
C
V
V
C
I
t V V V
C
sin
0
= =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
26

The charge accu"ulates at the #lates o' the ca#acitor is

The charge an$ current are relate$ *%

Hence the e.uation o' AC in the ca#acitor is
C
CV Q =
t CV Q sin
0
=
dt
dQ
I =
( ) t CV
dt
d
I sin
0
=
( ) t
dt
d
CV sin
0
=
t CV cos
0
=
0 0
I CV = an$
t I I cos
0
=
-R

+ =
2
sin
0

t I I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
27

There'ore the #hase $i''erence *eteen V an$ I is

In the #ure ca#acitor)
the ,oltage V V lags behind lags behind the current I I *%

/ /2 2 radians radians.
-R
the current I I leads leads the ,oltage V V *%

/ /2 2 radians radians.

(igure 8.15a shos the ,ariation o' V an$ I ith ti"e hile
(igure 8.15* shos the #hasor $iagra" 'or V an$ I in a #ure
ca#acitor.

+ =
2

t t
rad
2

=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
28
:mpedance in a pure capacitor :mpedance in a pure capacitor

(ro" the $e'inition o' the i"#e$ance) hence

'igure %.&;a 'igure %.&;a 'igure %.&;b: phasor diagram 'igure %.&;b: phasor diagram
0
0
I
V
Z =
t
0
0
I
0
V
0
I
0
V
T
T
2
1 T 2
T
2
3

V
I
rad
2

0 0
CV I = an$

0
0
CV
V
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
29
here X
C
is !non as capacitive (capacitative) reactance capacitive (capacitative) reactance.

Ca#aciti,e reactance is the opposition of a capacitor to the the opposition of a capacitor to the
alternating current flows alternating current flows an$ is $e'ine$ *%

Ca#aciti,e reactance is a scalar !uantit$ scalar !uantit$ an$ its unit is ohm ohm
( (

) ) .
C
X
C
Z = =

1
fC
X
C
2
1
=
f 2 =
an$
(%.&/) (%.&/)
source ! of frequency : f
capacitor t0e of e capacitanc : C
0
0
rms
rms
I
V
I
V
X
C
= = (%.&3) (%.&3)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
30

(ro" the e.. (8.13)) the relationshi# *eteen ca#aciti,e

reactance X
C
an$ 're.uenc% f can *e shon *% using a gra#h in
(igure 8.11.
f
0
C
X
f
X
C
1

'igure %.&& 'igure %.&&

Pure in$uctor "eans that no resistance and capacitance no resistance and capacitance
e''ect in the AC circuit.
*hase difference between voltage *hase difference between voltage V V and current and current I I

(igure 8.1/ shos an AC source connecte$ to a #ure in$uctor

L.
%./.5 *ure inductor in an AC circuit
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
31

The alternating current #asses through the in$uctor is gi,en *%

+hen the AC #asses through the in$uctor) the *ac! e"' cause$
*% the sel' in$uction is #ro$uce$ an$ is gi,en *%
AC source
V
I
L
L
V
'igure %.&- 'igure %.&-
t I I sin
0
=
dt
dI
L =
1

( ) t I
dt
d
L sin
0
=
t LI cos
0 1
= (%.&5) (%.&5)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
32

At an% instant) the su##l% ,oltage V e.uals to the *ac! e"'

1
in the in$uctor *ut the *ac! e"' ala%s o##ose the su##l%
,oltage V re#resents *% the negati,e sign in the e.. (8.11).Thus

There'ore the #hase $i''erence *eteen V an$ I is

In the #ure in$uctor)
the ,oltage V V leads leads the current I I *%

/ /2 2 radians radians.
-R
the current I I lags behind lags behind the ,oltage V V *%

/ /2 2 radians radians.
1
= V
t LI cos
0
=
0 0
V LI = an$
t V V cos
0
=
-R

+ =
2
sin
0

t V V
rad
2 2

+ = t t
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
33

(igure 8.13a shos the ,ariation o' V an$ I ith ti"e hile
(igure 8.13* shos the #hasor $iagra" 'or V an$ I in a #ure
in$uctor.
t
0
0
I
0
V
0
I
0
V
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3

V
I
rad
2

=
'igure %.&/a 'igure %.&/a 'igure %.&/b: phasor diagram 'igure %.&/b: phasor diagram
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
34
:mpedance in a pure inductor :mpedance in a pure inductor

(ro" the $e'inition o' the i"#e$ance) hence

here X
L
is !non as inductive reactance inductive reactance.
0
0
I
V
Z =
0 0
LI V = an$
0
0
I
LI
=
L
X L Z = =
fL X
L
2 =
f 2 =
an$
(%.&6) (%.&6)
inductor t0e of inductance 2 self : L
source ! of frequency : f
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
35

In$ucti,e reactance is the opposition of a inductor to the the opposition of a inductor to the
alternating current flows alternating current flows an$ is $e'ine$ *%

In$ucti,e reactance is a scalar !uantit$ scalar !uantit$ an$ its unit is ohm ohm
( (

) ).

(ro" the e.. (8.16)) the relationshi# *eteen in$ucti,e

reactance X
L
an$ the 're.uenc% f can *e shon *% using a
gra#h in (igure 8.17.
'igure %.&3 'igure %.&3
f
0
L
X
f X
L

0
0
rms
rms
I
V
I
V
X
L
= = (%.&7) (%.&7)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
36
A ca#acitor has a r"s current o' /1 "A at a 're.uenc% o' 65 H:
hen the r"s ,oltage across it is 17 ;.
a. +hat is the ca#acitance o' the ca#acitor<
*. I' the 're.uenc% is increase$) ill the current in the ca#acitor
increase) $ecrease or sta% the sa"e< E6#lain.
c. Calculate the r"s current in the ca#acitor at a 're.uenc% o'
715 H:.
Solution : Solution :
a. The ca#aciti,e reactance o' the ca#acitor is gi,en *%
There'ore the ca#acitance o' the ca#acitor is
E6a"#le 3 :
' 1( ./- ,0 - 10 21
rms
3
rms
= = =

V f I
C
X I V
rms rms
=
fC
X
C
2
1
=
( )
C
X
3
10 21 1(

=
= ,,#
C
X
( )C ,0 2
1
,,#

=
3 10 )+ $ 3
,
= C
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
37
Solution : Solution :
*. The capacitive reactance is inversel$ proportional to the capacitive reactance is inversel$ proportional to the

fre!uenc$ fre!uenc$) so the capacitive reactance will decrease capacitive reactance will decrease i' the
fre!uenc$ increases fre!uenc$ increases. Since the current in the capacitor is current in the capacitor is
inversel$ proportional to the capacitive reactance inversel$ proportional to the capacitive reactance) there'ore
the current will increase when the capacitive reactance current will increase when the capacitive reactance
decreases decreases.
c. =i,en
The ca#aciti,e reactance is
Hence the ne r"s current in the ca#acitor is gi,en *%
' 1( ./- ,0 - 10 21
rms
3
rms
= = =

V f I
./ (10 = f
fC
X
C
2
1
=
( ) ( )
,
10 )+ $ 3 (10 2
1

C
X
= & $ )#
C
X
C
X I V
rms rms
= ( ) & $ )# 1(
rms
I =
1(( $ 0
rms
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
38
A r"s ,oltage o' 1/./ ; ith a 're.uenc% o' 1.55 !H: is a##lie$ to a
5./45 "H in$uctor.
a. +hat is the r"s current in the circuit<
*. 9eter"ine the #ea! current 'or a 're.uenc% o' /.15 !H:.
Solution : Solution :
a. The in$ucti,e reactance o' the in$uctor is gi,en *%
Thus the r"s current in the circuit is
E6a"#le 7 :
. 10 2)0 $ 0 ./- 10 00 $ 1 '- 2 $ 12
3 3
rms

= = = L f V
fL X
L
2 =
( )( )
3 3
10 2)0 $ 0 10 00 $ 1 2

=
= +2 $ 1
L
X
L
X I V
rms rms
=
( ) +2 $ 1 2 $ 12
rms
I =
#0 $ ,
rms
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
39
Solution : Solution :
*. =i,en
The in$ucti,e reactance o' the in$uctor is gi,en *%
Thus the #ea! current in the circuit is
. 10 2)0 $ 0 ./- 10 00 $ 1 '- 2 $ 12
3 3
rms

= = = L f V
./ 10 &0 $ 2
3
= f
fL X
L
2 =
( )( )
3 3
10 2)0 $ 0 10 &0 $ 2 2

=
= &, $ (
L
X
L
X I V
0 0
=
( ) &, $ ( 2 2 $ 12
0
I =
#+ $ 3
0
= I
an$
2
rms 0
V V =
L
X I V
0 rms
2 =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
40
RC RC series circuit series circuit

Consi$er an AC source o' rms voltage rms voltage V V is connecte$ in series

to a resistor R an$ a ca#acitor C as shon in (igure 8.11a.

The rms current rms current I I #asses through the resistor and the resistor and the
capacitor is e!ual capacitor is e!ual *ecause o' the series connection series connection *eteen
*oth co"#onents.
%./.5 RC, RL and RCL series circuit
AC source AC source
R
I
R
V
V
C
V
C
'igure %.&5a 'igure %.&5a
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
41
I

The rms voltages rms voltages across the resistor resistor V V

R R
an$ the capacitor capacitor V V
C C

are gi,en *%

The #hasor $iagra" o' the RC series circuit is shon in (igure

8.11*.

0ase$ on the #hasor $iagra") the r"s su##l% ,oltage V (or total
,oltage) o' the circuit is gi,en *%
IR V
R
= an$
C C
IX V =
here
angle p0ase :

C
V
R
V
V
'igure %.&5b: phasor diagram 'igure %.&5b: phasor diagram
is an angle between the rms an angle between the rms
current current I I and rms suppl$ (or and rms suppl$ (or
total) voltage total) voltage V V o' AC circuit.
2 2
C R
V V V + = ( ) ( )
2 2
C
IX IR V + =
2
2
C
X R I V + =
(%.&%) (%.&%)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
42

Rearrange the e.. (8.18)) thus the i"#e$ance o' RC series

circuit is

(ro" the #hasor $iagra" in (igure 8.11* ) the current current I I leads leads
the suppl$ voltage the suppl$ voltage V V b$ b$

radians radians here

A #hasor $iagra" in ter"s o' R) X

C
an$ Z is illustrate$ in (igure
8.11c.
I
V
Z = an$
2
2
C
X R
I
V
+ =
2
2
C
X R Z + =
(%.&9) (%.&9)
R
C
V
V
= tan
IR
IX
C
= tan
R
X
C
= tan (%.-;) (%.-;)

C
X
Z
R
'igure %.&5c 'igure %.&5c
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
43
RL RL series circuit series circuit

Consi$er an AC source o' rms voltage rms voltage V V is connecte$ in series

to a resistor R an$ an in$uctor L as shon in (igure 8.16a.

The rms voltages rms voltages across the resistor resistor V V

R R
an$ the inductor inductor V V
L L

are gi,en *%
AC source AC source
R
I
R
V
V
L
L
V
'igure %.&6a 'igure %.&6a
IR V
R
=
an$
L L
IX V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
44

The #hasor $iagra" o' the RL series circuit is shon in (igure

8.16*.

0ase$ on the #hasor $iagra") the r"s su##l% ,oltage V (or total
,oltage) o' the circuit is gi,en *%

L
V
V
I
'igure %.&6b: phasor diagram 'igure %.&6b: phasor diagram
R
V
2 2
L R
V V V + =
( ) ( )
2 2
L
IX IR + =
2
2
L
X R I V + =
(%.-&) (%.-&)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
45

Rearrange the e.. (8./1)) thus the i"#e$ance o' RL series

circuit is

(ro" the #hasor $iagra" in (igure 8.16* ) the suppl$ voltage suppl$ voltage
V V leads the current leads the current I I the b$ the b$

radians radians here

The #hasor $iagra" in ter"s o' R) X

L
an$ Z is illustrate$ in
(igure 8.16c.
I
V
Z = an$
2
2
L
X R
I
V
+ =
2
2
L
X R Z + =
(%.--) (%.--)
R
L
V
V
= tan
IR
IX
L
= tan
R
X
L
= tan (%.-/) (%.-/)
'igure %.&6c 'igure %.&6c

L
X
Z
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
46
RCL RCL series circuit series circuit

Consi$er an AC source o' rms voltage rms voltage V V is connecte$ in series

to a resistor R) a ca#acitor C an$ an in$uctor L as shon in
(igure 8.12a.

The rms voltages rms voltages across the resistor resistor V V

R R
) the capacitor capacitor V V
C C
an$
the inductor inductor V V
L L
are gi,en *%
'igure %.&7a 'igure %.&7a
IR V
R
=
an$
C C
IX V =
AC source AC source
I
V
R
R
V
C
V
C L
L
V
L L
IX V =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
47

The #hasor $iagra" o' the RL series circuit is shon in (igure

8.12*.

0ase$ on the #hasor $iagra") the r"s su##l% ,oltage V (or total
,oltage) o' the circuit is gi,en *%
I
'igure %.&7b: phasor diagram 'igure %.&7b: phasor diagram
( )
2 2
C L R
V V V V + =
( ) ( )
2 2
C L
IX IX IR + =
( )
2
2
C L
X X R I V + =
(%.-3) (%.-3)

L
V
R
V
V
C
V
( )
C L
V V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
48

Rearrange the e.. (8./7)) thus the i"#e$ance o' RL series

circuit is

(ro" the #hasor $iagra" in (igure 8.12* ) the suppl$ voltage suppl$ voltage
V V leads the current leads the current I I the b$ the b$

radians radians here

I
V
Z = an$
( )
2
2
C L
X X R
I
V
+ =
( )
2
2
C L
X X R Z + =
(%.-5) (%.-5)
R
C L
V
V V
= tan
( )
IR
IX IX
C L

=
R
X X
C L

= tan (%.-6) (%.-6)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
49

The #hasor $iagra" in ter"s o' R) X

C
) X
L
an$ Z is illustrate$ in
(igure 8.12c.
'igure %.&7c 'igure %.&7c

L
X
Z
C
X
( )
C L
X X
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
50

is $e'ine$ as the phenomenon that occurs when the phenomenon that occurs when the
fre!uenc$ of the applied voltage is e!ual to the fre!uenc$ fre!uenc$ of the applied voltage is e!ual to the fre!uenc$
of the of the RCL RCL series circuit series circuit.

(igure 8.18 shos the ,ariation o' X

C
) X
L
) R an$ Z ith
're.uenc% f o' the RCL series circuit.
%./.6 2esonance in AC circuit
Z
f X
L

R
f
X
C
1

0
f
Z R X X
L C
4 4 4
r
f
'igure %.&% 'igure %.&%
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
51

(ro" (igure 8.18) the ,alue o' i"#e$ance is minimum is minimum Z Z

min min

hen
here its ,alue is gi,en *%
This #heno"enon occurs at the 're.uenc% f f
r r
known as known as
resonant fre!uenc$ resonant fre!uenc$.

At resonance resonance in the RCL series circuit) the i"#e$ance is is

minimum minimum Z Z
min min
thus the rms current flows rms current flows in the circuit is
ma+imum ma+imum I I
max max
an$ is gi,en *%
C L
X X = (%.-7) (%.-7)
( )
2
2
C L
X X R Z + =
0
2
min
+ = R Z
R Z =
min
R
V
Z
V
I = =
min
max
(%.-%) (%.-%)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
52
max
I

(igure 8.14 shos the r"s current I in RCL series circuit ,aries ith
're.uenc%.

At fre!uencies above or below the resonant fre!uenc$ fre!uencies above or below the resonant fre!uenc$ f f
r r
) the rms rms
current current I I is less than the rms ma+imum current less than the rms ma+imum current I I
max max
as shon in
(igure 8.14.
0
f
I
r
f
'igure %.&9 'igure %.&9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
53

The resonant 're.uenc%) f

r
o' the RCL series circuit is gi,en *%

The series resonance circuit is use$ 'or tuning a radio tuning a radio
receiver receiver.
C L
X X =
C
L

1
=
LC
1
2
=
r
2 f = an$
( )
LC
f
1
2
2
r
=
LC
f
2
1
r
= (%.-9) (%.-9)
here frequency angular resonant :
4ote: 4ote:
At resonance, the current resonance, the current I I and voltage and voltage V V are in phase are in phase.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
54
A / ( ca#acitor an$ a 1555 resistor are #lace$ in series ith
an alternating ,oltage source o' 1/ ; an$ 're.uenc% o' 15 H:.
Calculate
a. the current 'loing)
*. the ,oltage across the ca#acitor)
c. the #hase angle o' the circuit.
Solution : Solution :
a. The ca#aciti,e reactance o' the in$uctor is gi,en *%
an$ the i"#e$ance o' the circuit is
E6a"#le 1 :
./ &0 '- 12 - 1000 3- 10 2
,
= = = =

f V R C
fC
X
C
2
1
=
( ) ( )
,
10 2 &0 2
1

C
X
= 1&)2
C
X
2
2
C
X R Z + =
( ) ( )
2 2
1&)2 1000 + = Z
= 1++0 Z
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
55
Solution : Solution :
a. There'ore the current 'loing in the circuit is
*. The ,oltage across the ca#acitor is gi,en *%
c. The #hase angle *eteen the current an$ su##l% ,oltage is
( ) 1++0 12 I =
10 3+ $ ,
3
= I
C C
IX V =
( )( ) 1&)2 10 3+ $ ,
3
=
' 2 $ 10 =
C
V
./ &0 '- 12 - 1000 3- 10 2
,
= = = =

f V R C
IZ V =
R
X
C
= tan

=

1000
1&)2
tan
1
rad 01 $ 1 =

=

R
X
C
1
tan
-R

) $ &#
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
56
0ase$ on the RCL series circuit in (igure 8./5 ) the r"s ,oltages across
R) L an$ C are shon.
a. +ith the ai$ o' the #hasor $iagra") $eter"ine the a##lie$ ,oltage
an$ the #hase angle o' the circuit.
Calculate:
*. the current 'los in the circuit i' the resistance o' the resistor R is
/6 )
c. the in$uctance an$ ca#acitance i' the 're.uenc% o' the AC source
is 15 H:)
$. the resonant 're.uenc%.
E6a"#le 6 :
C
R
L
' 31( ' 1&3 ' 11&
I
'igure %.-; 'igure %.-;
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
57
Solution : Solution :
a. The #hasor $iagra" o' the circuit is
an$ the #hase angle is
' 31( - ' 11& '- 1&3 = = =
L C R
V V V

L
V
I
R
V
V
C
V
( )
C L
V V
(ro" the #hasor $iagra")
the a##lie$ ,oltage V is
( )
2 2
C L R
V V V V + =
( ) ( )
2 2
11& 31( 1&3 + =
' 2&1 = V
R
C L
V
V V
= tan

=

1&3
11& 31(
tan
1
rad )1& $ 0 =

=

R
C L
V
V V
1
tan
-R

( $ &2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
58
Solution : Solution :
*. =i,en
Since R) C an$ L are connecte$ in series) hence the current
#asses through each $e,ices is the sa"e. There'ore
c. =i,en
The in$ucti,e reactance is
thus the in$uctance o' the in$uctor is
' 31( - ' 11& '- 1&3 = = =
L C R
V V V
IR V
R
=
( )
L
X ++ $ & 31( =
++ $ & = I
( ) 2, 1&3 I =
= 2, R
L L
IX V =
./ &0 = f
= ( $ &3
L
X
( ) L &0 2 ( $ &3 =
fL X
L
2 =
. 1#0 $ 0 = L
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
59
Solution : Solution :
c. 8eanhile) the ca#aciti,e reactance is
thus the ca#acitance o' the ca#acitor is
$. The resonant 're.uenc% is gi,en *%
' 31( - ' 11& '- 1&3 = = =
L C R
V V V
( )
C
X ++ $ & 11& =
C C
IX V =
= , $ 1)
C
X
fC
X
C
2
1
=
3 10 ,2 $ 1
(
= C
( )C &0 2
1
, $ 1)

=
( ) ( )
(
10 ,2 $ 1 1#0 $ 0 2
1

LC
f
2
1
r
=
./ 3 $ 30
r
= f
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
60
E6ercise 8.1 :
1. An AC current o' angular 're.uenc% o' 1.5 15
7
ra$ s
1
'los
through a 15 ! resistor an$ a 5.15 ( ca#acitor hich are
connecte$ in series. Calculate the r"s ,oltage across the
ca#acitor i' the r"s ,oltage across the resistor is /5 ;.
A4S. : A4S. : -.; 8 -.; 8
/. A /55 resistor) a 5.21 H in$uctor an$ a ca#acitor o'
ca#acitance C are connecte$ in series to an alternating
source /15 ;) 655 H:. Calculate
a. the in$ucti,e reactance an$ ca#aciti,e reactance hen
resonance is occurre$.
*. the ca#acitance C.
c. the i"#e$ance o' the circuit at resonance.
$. the current 'los through the circuit at resonance. S!etch
the #hasor $iagra" o' the circuit.
A4S. : A4S. : -.%/ k -.%/ k , -.%/ k , -.%/ k < 9/.% n'< -;; < 9/.% n'< -;; < &.-5 A < &.-5 A
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
61
E6ercise 8.1 :
3. A ca#acitor o' ca#acitance C) a coil o' in$uctance L) a resistor
o' resistance R an$ a la"# o' negligi*le resistance are #lace$
in series ith alternating ,oltage V. Its 're.uenc% f is ,arie$
'ro" a lo to a high ,alue hile the "agnitu$e o' V is !e#t
constant.
a. 9escri*e an$ e6#lain ho the *rightness o' the la"#
,aries.
*. I' V>5.51 ;) C >5.7 () L >5.7 H) R > 15 an$ the
circuit at resonance) calculate
i. the resonant 're.uenc%)
ii. the "a6i"u" r"s current)
iii. the ,oltage across the ca#acitor.
(Advanced "evel *h$sics,7 (Advanced "evel *h$sics,7
th th
edition, 4elkon = *arker, >-, p.3-/) edition, 4elkon = *arker, >-, p.3-/)
A4S. : A4S. : 3;; ?)< ;.;;& A< & 8 3;; ?)< ;.;;& A< & 8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
62
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Appl$ Appl$

average power, average power,

instantaneous power, instantaneous power,

power factor, power factor,

in AC circuit consisting of in AC circuit consisting of R R, , RC RC, , RL RL and and RCL RCL in in
series. series.
"earning #utcome:
8.7 Poer an$ #oer 'actor (1 hour)

.
!
"
#
h
.
"
a
t
r
i
!
.
e
$
u
.
"
%
&
#
h
%
s
i
c
s

.
!
"
#
h
.
"
a
t
r
i
!
.
e
$
u
.
"
%
&
#
h
%
s
i
c
s
cos
av
IV P =
dt
dW
P =
IV
P
P
P
av
a
r
cos = =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
63
%.3.& *ower of a pure resistor

In a #ure resistor) the voltage voltage V V and current and current I I are in phase are in phase)
thus the instantaneous power instantaneous power P is gi,en *%

(igure 8./1 shos a gra#h o' instantaneous #oer P *eing

a*sor*e$ *% the resistor against ti"e t.
%.3 *ower and power factor
( ) ( ) t V t I sin sin
0 0
=
IV P =
t V I
2
0 0
sin =
0 0 0
P V I = an$
t P P
2
0
sin = (%./;) (%./;)
here po5er um) peak(maxim :
0
P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
64

The a,erage (or "ean) #oer P

av
*eing a*sor*e$ *% the resistor
is gi,en *%
t P P
2
0
sin =
*ower being absorbed *ower being absorbed
'igure %.-& 'igure %.-&
av
P
t P P
2
0 av
sin =
0 0 0 av
2
1
2
1
V I P P = =
0
P
2
0
P
t
0
P
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3
(%./&) (%./&)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
65

In a #ure ca#acitor) the current current I I leads the voltage leads the voltage V V b$ b$

/ /2 2
radians radians) thus the instantaneous power instantaneous power P is gi,en *%

(igure 8.// shos a gra#h o' instantaneous #oer P o' the

#ure ca#acitor against ti"e t.
%.3.- *ower of a pure capacitor
( )( ) t V t I sin cos
0 0
=
IV P =
t t V I cos sin
0 0
=
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0
= (%./-) (%./-)
t t t 2 sin
2
1
cos sin = an$
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
66

The a,erage (or "ean) #oer P

av
o' the #ure ca#acitor is gi,en
*%
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0
=
*ower being absorbed *ower being absorbed
'igure %.-- 'igure %.--
av
P
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0 av
=
0
av
= P
2
0
P
t
0
P
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3
2
0
P

*ower being returned to suppl$ *ower being returned to suppl$

PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
67

In a #ure in$uctor) the voltage voltage V V leads the current leads the current I I b$ b$

/ /2 2
radians radians) thus the instantaneous power instantaneous power P is gi,en *%

(igure 8./3 shos a gra#h o' instantaneous #oer P o' the

#ure in$uctor against ti"e t.
%.3./ *ower of a pure inductor
( )( ) t V t I cos sin
0 0
=
IV P =
t t V I cos sin
0 0
=
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0
=
t t t 2 sin
2
1
cos sin = an$
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
68

The a,erage (or "ean) #oer P

av
o' the #ure in$uctor is gi,en
*%
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0
=
*ower being absorbed *ower being absorbed
'igure %.-/ 'igure %.-/
av
P
t P P 2 sin
2
1
0 av
= 0
av
= P
2
0
P
t
0
P
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3
*ower being returned to suppl$ *ower being returned to suppl$
4ote: 4ote:
The ter" ?resistance@ is not use$ in #ure ca#acitor an$ in$uctor *ecause
no heat is dissipated from both devices no heat is dissipated from both devices.
2
0
P

PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
69

In an AC circuit in hich there is a resistor R) an in$uctor L an$

a ca#acitor C) the a,erage #oer P
av
is e.ual to that $issi#ate$
'ro" the resistor i.e.

(ro" the #hasor $iagra" o' the RCL series circuit as shon in
(igure 8./7)
%.3.3 *ower and power factor of R, RC, RL and
RCL series circuits
R I IV P
R
2
av
= =
(%.//) (%.//)
rms values rms values

L
V
I
R
V
V
C
V
( )
C L
V V
'igure %.-3 'igure %.-3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
70
+e get
then the e.. (8.33 ) can *e ritten as
here cos cos

is calle$ the power factor power factor o' the AC circuit) P P

r r
is
the average real power average real power an$ I I
2 2
Z Z is calle$ the apparent power apparent power.

Poer 'actor is $e'ine$ as

cos V V
R
=
V
V
R
= cos
cos
av
IV P = IZ V = an$
r
2
av
cos P Z I P = =
(%./3) (%./3)
a
r
2
r
cos
P
P
Z I
P
= = (%./5) (%./5)
here IV Z I P = =
2
a
po5er apparent :
4ote: 4ote:
(ro" the (igure 8./7) the #oer 'actor also can *e calculate$ *% using the
e.uation *elo:
IZ
IR
V
V
R
= = cos
Z
R
= cos (%./6) (%./6)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
71
A 155 ( ca#acitor) a 7.5 H in$uctor an$ a 31 resistor are
connecte$ in series ith an alternating source gi,en *% the
e.uation *elo:
Calculate:
a. the 're.uenc% o' the source)
*. the ca#aciti,e reactance an$ in$ucti,e reactance)
c. the i"#e$ance o' the circuit)
$. the #ea! current in the circuit)
e. the #hase angle)
'. the #oer 'actor o' the circuit.
E6a"#le 2 :
t V 100 sin &20 =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
72
Solution : Solution :
0% co"#aring
Thus
a. The 're.uenc% o' AC source is gi,en *%
*. The ca#aciti,e reactance is
an$ the in$ucti,e reactance is
. 0 $ ( 3- 10 100 - 3&
,
= = =

L C R
f 2 =
./ ) $ 1& = f
f 2 100 =
t V 100 sin &20 = to the t V V sin
0
=
1
0
s rad 100 '- &20

= = V
fC
X
C
2
1
=
= 100
C
X
( ) ( )
,
10 100 ) $ 1& 2
1

C
X
fL X
L
2 =
= (00
L
X
( ) ( ) 0 $ ( ) $ 1& 2 =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
73
Solution : Solution :
c. The i"#e$ance o' the circuit is
$. The #ea! current in the circuit is
. 0 $ ( 3- 10 100 - 3&
,
= = =

L C R
( )
2
2
C L
X X R Z + =
( ) ( )
2 2
100 (00 3& + =
= 302 Z
Z I V
0 0
=
( ) 302 &20
0
I =
#2 $ 1
0
= I
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
74
Solution : Solution :
e. The #hase angle *eteen the current an$ the su##l% ,oltage is
'. The #oer 'actor o' the circuit is gi,en *%
. 0 $ ( 3- 10 100 - 3&
,
= = =

L C R
R
X X
C L

= tan

=

3&
100 (00
tan
1
rad (& $ 1 =

=

R
X X
C L
1
tan
-R

3 $ +3
cos factor po5er =

3 +3 cos . =
11# $ 0 factor po5er =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
75
A //.1 "H in$uctor) a 151 resistor an$ a 3/.3 ( ca#acitor are
connecte$ in series to the alternating source /75 ;) 15 H:.
a. S!etch the #hasor $iagra" 'or the circuit.
*. Calculate the #oer 'actor o' the circuit.
c. 9eter"ine the a,erage #oer consu"e$ *% the circuit.
Solution : Solution :
a. The ca#aciti,e reactance is
an$ the in$ucti,e reactance is
E6a"#le 8 :
fC
X
C
2
1
=
= , $ )+
C
X
( ) ( )
,
10 3 $ 32 &0 2
1

C
X
fL X
L
2 =
= 0# $ #
L
X
( ) ( )
3
10 & $ 22 &0 2

=
. 10 & $ 22 3- 10 3 $ 32 - 10&
3 ,
= = = L C R
./ &0 '- 2(0 = = f V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
76
Solution : Solution :
a. Thus the #hasor $iagra" 'or the circuit is
*. (ro" the #hasor $iagra" in (a))
the i"#e$ance o' the circuit is
. 10 & $ 22 3- 10 3 $ 32 - 10&
3 ,
= = = L C R
./ &0 '- 2(0 = = f V

Z
L
X
C
X
R
( )
L C
X X
( )
2
2
L C
X X R Z + =
( ) ( )
2 2
0# $ # , $ )+ 10& + =
= 13) Z
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
77
Solution : Solution :
*. an$ the #oer 'actor o' the circuit is
c. The a,erage #oer consu"e$ *% the circuit is gi,en *%
. 10 & $ 22 3- 10 3 $ 32 - 10&
3 ,
= = = L C R
./ &0 '- 2(0 = = f V
Z
R
= cos
#&& $ 0 cos =
13)
10&
cos =
cos
av
IV P =
Z
V
I = an$
cos
2
Z
V
=
( )
( ) #&& $ 0
13)
2(0
2
=
* 313
av
= P
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
78
E6ercise 8./ :
1. An RLC circuit has a resistance o' 151 ) an in$uctance o'
81.5 "H an$ a ca#acitance o' 13./ (.
a. +hat is the #oer 'actor o' the circuit i' it is connecte$ to a
1/1 H: AC generator<
*. +ill the #oer 'actor increase) $ecrease or sta% the sa"e
i' the resistance is increase$< E6#lain.
(*h$sics, / (*h$sics, /
rd rd
edition, @ames S. alker, >37, p.%/3) edition, @ames S. alker, >37, p.%/3)
A4S. : A4S. : ;.96-< 0 think ;.96-< 0 think
/. A 1.11 ! resistor an$ a 151 "H in$uctor are connecte$ in
series to a 17./ ;)1/15 H: AC generator.
a. +hat is the r"s current in the circuit<
*. +hat is the ca#acitance@s ,alue "ust *e inserte$ in series
ith the resistor an$ in$uctor to re$uce the r"s current to hal'
o' the ,alue in #art (a)<
(*h$sics, / (*h$sics, /
rd rd
edition, @ames S. alker, >69, p.%/5) edition, @ames S. alker, >69, p.%/5)
A4S. : A4S. : /.33 mA, &;.5 n' /.33 mA, &;.5 n'
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
79
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

.+plain .+plain half(wave and full wave rectification b$ using a half(wave and full wave rectification b$ using a
circuit diagram and circuit diagram and V V- -t t graph. graph.

.+plain .+plain the smoothing of rectified output voltage b$ the smoothing of rectified output voltage b$
capacitor b$ using a circuit diagram and capacitor b$ using a circuit diagram and V V- -t t graph. graph.
"earning #utcome:
8.1 Recti'ication (1 hour)

.
!
"
#
h
.
"
a
t
r
i
!
.
e
$
u
.
"
%
&
#
h
%
s
i
c
s

.
!
"
#
h
.
"
a
t
r
i
!
.
e
$
u
.
"
%
&
#
h
%
s
i
c
s
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
80

is $e'ine$ as the process of converting alternating the process of converting alternating current to current to
direct current. direct current.

Recti'ier:

is a device that allows current to flow in one direction onl$ a device that allows current to flow in one direction onl$.

diodes diodes are usuall% use$ as recti'iers.

9io$e is sai$ to *e forward biased forward biased hen positive terminal positive terminal o' the
diode diode connecte$ to the positive terminal positive terminal o' the batter$ batter$ an$ ,ice
,ersa) hence a current current ill *e a*le to flow flow ((igure 8./1a).
%.5 2ectification
A
A
A
A
(
(
(
(
I I
9io$e
'igure %.-5a: forward biased 'igure %.-5a: forward biased
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
81

9io$e is sai$ to *e reverse biased reverse biased hen positive terminal positive terminal o'
the diode diode connecte$ to the negative terminal negative terminal o' the batter$ batter$
an$ ,ice ,ersa) hence no current current 'los ((igure 8./1*).

There are to t%#es o' recti'ication i.e.

hal'Aa,e

'ullAa,e
A
A
A
A
(
(
(
(
0 = I
'igure %.-5b: reverse biased 'igure %.-5b: reverse biased
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
82

Hal'Aa,e recti'ication "eans that onl$ one half of an AC onl$ one half of an AC
c$cle can pass through the rectifier (diode). c$cle can pass through the rectifier (diode).

(igure 8./6a shos a hal'Aa,e recti'ication circuit.

%.5.& ?alf(wave rectification
t
0
T T 2
R
V
0
V
0
V
0
V
0
V
0
V
0
V
t
0
T
T 2
V tage4 supply vol
R
V
6
V
9
R
A
0
su##l%
,oltage) V
'igure %.-6a 'igure %.-6a
'igure %.-6b 'igure %.-6b
'igure %.-6c 'igure %.-6c
'igure %.-6d 'igure %.-6d
t
0
T
T 2
D
V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
83
.+planation: .+planation:

(irst hal' c%cle ((igure 8./6*)

+hen ter"inal A is #ositi,e) $io$e is 'orar$ *iase$ an$

o''ers lo resistance such that a #ulse o' current 'los
through the circuit.

There is negligi*le ,oltage across the $io$e) V

6
((igure
8./6c).

Thus the ,oltage across the resistor) V

R
is al"ost e.ual to
the su##l% ,oltage ((igure 8./6$).

Be6t hal' c%cle ((igure 8./6*)

+hen ter"inal 0 is #ositi,e) $io$e is no re,erse *iase$ an$

has a ,er% high resistance such that a ,er% s"all current
'los through it.

The ,oltage across the $io$e) V

6
is al"ost e.ual to the
su##l% ,oltage ((igure 8./6c).

The ,oltage across the resistor) V

R
is al"ost :ero ((igure
8./6$).
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
84

An alternating ,oltage is thus recti'ie$ to gi,e $irect current

,oltage across the resistor. The current 'los through the
resistor in one $irection onl% an$ onl% hal' o' each c%cle ca*
#ass through the $io$e as shon in (igure 8./6e.
2ms value after half(wave rectification: 2ms value after half(wave rectification:

In the hal'Aa,e recti'ication) hal' o' the su##l% ,oltage is

su##resse$ an$ there'ore the "ean s.uare ,oltage is gi,en *%
t
0
T
T 2
I
0
I
0
I
2
1
8ean s.uare ,alue
a'ter recti'ication
>

8ean s.uare ,alue
*e'ore recti'ication
rect$) 5ave 0alf 7efore (
2
rect$) 5ave 0alf (
2
2
1

= V V
'igure %.-6e 'igure %.-6e
t V
2
2
0
sin
2
1
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
85

There'ore the rms voltage of the half(wave rectification rms voltage of the half(wave rectification is
gi,en *%

In the si"ilar a% as to 'in$ the r"s ,oltage o' hal'Aa,e

recti'ication) the rms current of half(wave rectification rms current of half(wave rectification is
gi,en *%
( 2 2
1
2
0
2
0
rect$) 5ave 0alf (
2
V V
V =

rect$) 5ave 0alf (

2
rms

= V V
(
2
0
V
=
2
0
rms
V
V = (%./7) (%./7)
2
0
rms
I
I = (%./%) (%./%)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
86

The hal'Aa,e recti'ication onl% allos hal' o' each AC c%cle to

#ass through the $io$e) *ut the 'ullAa,e recti'ication allows allows
both halves of each AC c$cle to pass through the diode both halves of each AC c$cle to pass through the diode.

To o*tain 'ullAa,e recti'ication) 'our $io$e are use$ an$ are

arrange$ in a 'or" !non as the diode bridge diode bridge.

(igure 8./2a shos a 'ullAa,e recti'ication circuit.

%.5.- 'ull(wave rectification
0
V
0
V
T
T 2
t
0
( ) V tage supply vol
0
V
t
0
T
T 2
R
V
'igure %.-7a 'igure %.-7a
'igure %.-7b 'igure %.-7b
'igure %.-7c 'igure %.-7c
A
R
V
V
su##l%
,oltage)
(
0
C
9
E
& &
- -
/ /
3 3
R
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
87
.+planation .+planation

(irst hal' c%cle ((igure 8./2*)

+hen ter"inal A is #ositi,e) $io$es 1 an$ / are 'orar$

*iase$ an$ con$uct the current.

The current ta!es the #ath A0C) R an$ 9E(.

9io$es 3 an$ 7 are re,erse *iase$ an$ hence $o not con$uct

the current.

The ,oltages across $io$es 1 an$ / are negligi*le) the

,oltage across the resistor V
R
is al"ost e.ual to the su##l%
,oltage ((igure 8./2c)

Be6t hal' c%cle ((igure 8./2*)

+hen ter"inal ( is #ositi,e) $io$es 3 an$ 7 are 'orar$

*iase$ an$ con$uct the current.

The #ath ta!en *% the current is (EC) R an$ 90A.

9io$es 1 an$ / are re,erse *iase$ an$ hence) $o not

con$uct the current.

The ,oltage across the resistor is again al"ost e.ual to the

su##l% ,oltage ((igure 8./2c).
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
88

0oth hal,es o' the alternating ,oltage are recti'ie$. The current
'loing through the resistor is in one $irection onl% i.e. a ,ar%ing
9C is o*taine$ as shon in (igure 8./2$.
2ms value after full(wave rectification 2ms value after full(wave rectification

Botice that the negati,e si$e o' su##l% ,oltage is 'li##e$ o,er to
*eco"e #ositi,e si$e ithout *eing su##resse$) thus the rms rms
voltage and current of full(wave rectification voltage and current of full(wave rectification are the same same
as the rms voltage and current of suppl$ voltage rms voltage and current of suppl$ voltage an$ gi,en
*%
t
0
0
I
T
T 2
I
'igure %.-7d 'igure %.-7d
2
0
rms
V
V = an$
2
0
rms
I
I =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
89

The out#ut o*taine$ 'ro" hal'Aa,e an$ 'ullAa,e recti'ications

are uni$irectional *ut ,ar%ing 9C.

Csuall% a stea$% (constant) 9C is re.uire$ 'or o#erating ,arious

electrical an$ electronic a##liances. To change a ,ar%ing 9C
into a stea$% (constant) 9C) s"oothing is necessar%.

A si"#le s"oothing circuit consists o' a ca#acitor ( ith a large

ca#acitance D16 () connecte$ #arallel to the resistor R as
shon in (igure 8./8.

The ca#acitor 'unctions as a reser,oir to store charges.

%.5./ Smoothing using Capacitor
A A
R
output
V V
R
=
C
( (
Recti'ie$ uns"oothe$
,oltage) V
I I
'igure %.-% 'igure %.-%
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
90
Smoothing of a half(wave rectified voltage Smoothing of a half(wave rectified voltage

(igure 8./4 shos an e''ects o' s"oothing a hal'Aa,e recti'ie$

,oltage.

Initiall%) the hal'Aa,e recti'ie$ in#ut ,oltage V causes the current

to 'lo through the resistor R. At the sa"e ti"e) ca#acitor C
*eco"es charge$ to al"ost the #ea! ,alue o' the in#ut ,oltage.

At A ((igure 8./4)) in#ut V ($ash line) 'alls *elo out#ut V

R
) the
ca#acitor C starts to $ischarge through the resistor R. Hence the
current 'lo is "aintaine$ *ecause o' ca#acitor@s action.
A
B
Recti'ie$ uns"ooth in#ut
,oltage) V
( )
output
V V
R
S"oothe$ ,oltage) V
R
9ischarge
Charge
t 4 time
'igure %.-9 'igure %.-9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
91

Along A0 ((igure 8./4)) V out#ut 'alls. At 0) the recti'ie$ current

again 'los to recharge the ca#acitor C to the #ea! o' the in#ut
,oltage V.

This #rocess is re#eate$ an$ hence the out#ut ,oltage V

R

across the resistor R ill loo! li!e the ,ariation shon in 'igure
8./4.
Smoothing of a full(wave rectified voltage Smoothing of a full(wave rectified voltage

(igure 8.35 shos an e''ects o' s"oothing a 'ullAa,e recti'ie$

,oltage.

1
Recti'ie$ uns"ooth in#ut
,oltage) V
( )
output
V V
R
S"oothe$ ,oltage) V
R
9ischarge
Charge
t 4 time
'igure %./; 'igure %./;
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
92

The e6#lanation o' the s"oothing #rocess li!es 'or a hal'Aa,e

recti'ie$ ,oltage.

The fluctuations of the smoothed output voltage fluctuations of the smoothed output voltage are "ust
less compare to the half(wave rectified less compare to the half(wave rectified.

The s"oothing action o' the ca#acitor is $ue to the large time large time
constant constant

) gi,en *% RC so the output voltage cannot fall output voltage cannot fall
as rapidl$ as the rectified unsmoothed input voltage as rapidl$ as the rectified unsmoothed input voltage.

There'ore a large capacitor performs greater smoothing large capacitor performs greater smoothing.

Hoe,er) an initiall% uncharged capacitor uncharged capacitor "a% cause a

su$$en surge o' current through the circuit an$ damage the damage the
diode diode.
93
PHYSICS CHAPTER 8
Next Chapter
CHAPTER 4 :
Euanti:ation o' light