PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 9:
CHAPTER 9:
Quantization of light
Quantization of light
(4 Hours)
(4 Hours)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
2
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain briefly Explain briefly Plancks quantum theory and classical Plancks quantum theory and classical
theory of energy. theory of energy.
Write and use Write and use Einsteins formulae for photon energy, Einsteins formulae for photon energy,
earning !utcome:
9. Plan!"#s $uantu% th&or' (1 hour)
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hf E = =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
3
".#.# $lassical theory of black body radiation
,la!" -o*' is *&fin&* as an ideal system that absorbs all the an ideal system that absorbs all the
radiation incident on it radiation incident on it. Th& electromagnetic %E&' radiation electromagnetic %E&' radiation
emitted by the black body emitted by the black body is !all&* black body radiation black body radiation.
Energy Energy of th& E2 ra*iation is not depend not depend on its frequency frequency
or )a*elength )a*elength.
In 9660 2a/ Plan!" )ro)os&* his th&or' that is fit (ith th&
&/)&ri%&ntal !ur1& in .igur& 9. at all (a1&l&ngths "no(n as
Plan!"#s $uantu% th&or'.
Th& &n&rg' siz& of th& ra*iation depends depends on its frequency frequency.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
6
A!!or*ing to this assu%)tions0 th& quantum of the energy quantum of the energy E E
for radiation of frequency for radiation of frequency f f is gi1&n -'
.ro% &$. (9.8)0 th& quantum quantum of th& &n&rg' E E for ra*iation is
in*ersely proportional to its )a*elength in*ersely proportional to its )a*elength.
hf E =
s J 10 63 . 6 constant s Planck' :
34
= h (h&r&
%".+' %".+'
f c =
hc
E = %".,' %".,'
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
7
Th& electron-*olt %e.' electron-*olt %e.' is a unit of energy unit of energy that !an -& *&fin&*
as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being
accelerated by a potential difference %*oltage' of # *olt accelerated by a potential difference %*oltage' of # *olt.
9nit !on1&rsion:
Photon is *&fin&* as a particle )ith 1ero mass consisting of a particle )ith 1ero mass consisting of
a quantum of electromagnetic radiation )here its energy is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation )here its energy is
concentrated concentrated.
A )hoton %a' also -& r&gar*&* as a unit of energy equal to unit of energy equal to
hf hf.
Photons tra1&l at th& speed of light speed of light in a 1a!uu%. Th&' ar&
r&$uir&* to explain the photoelectric effect explain the photoelectric effect an* oth&r
)h&no%&na that r&$uir& light to ha*e particle property light to ha*e particle property.
(h&r&
En&rg' of a )hoton is
)ro)ortional to th&
fr&$u&n!' of th& E2
(a1& (h&r&
A I
f E
Photon
(igure ".+a (igure ".+a (igure ".+b (igure ".+b
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
10
A )hoton of th& gr&&n light has a (a1&l&ngth of ;46 n%. Cal!ulat&
a. th& )hoton#s fr&$u&n!'0
-. th& )hoton#s &n&rg' in <oul& an* &l&!tron41olt.
(=i1&n th& s)&&* of light in th& 1a!uu%0 c >8.66 6
?
% s
an*
Plan!"#s !onstant0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s)
3olution : 3olution :
a. Th& fr&$u&n!' of th& )hoton is gi1&n -'
-. ,' a))l'ing th& Plan!"#s $uantu% th&or'0 thus th& )hoton#s
&n&rg' in <oul& is
an* its &n&rg' in &l&!tron41olt is
E/a%)l& :
m 10 "40
9
=
f c =
( ) f
9 #
10 "40 10 00 . 3
=
$z 10 0% . 4
14
= f
hf E =
( )( )
14 34
10 0% . 4 10 63 . 6 =
E
J 10 69 .
19
= E
10 1.60
10 69 .
19
19
= E
eV 66 . 1 = E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
11
.or a ga%%a ra*iation of (a1&l&ngth 4.@7 6
7
% )ro)agat&s in
th& air0 !al!ulat& th& &n&rg' of a )hoton for ga%%a ra*iation in
&l&!tron41olt.
(=i1&n th& s)&&* of light in th& 1a!uu%0 c >8.66 6
?
% s
an*
Plan!"#s !onstant0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s)
3olution : 3olution :
,' a))l'ing th& Plan!"#s $uantu% th&or'0 thus th& &n&rg' of a
)hoton in &l&!tron41olt is
E/a%)l& 7 :
m 10 6 . 4
1
=
hc
E =
( )( )
1
# 34
10 6 . 4
10 00 . 3 10 63 . 6
= E
J 10 31 . 4
14
= E
10 1.60
10 31 . 4
19
14
=
eV 10 69 .
%
= E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
12
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect. the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
4efine 4efine threshold frequency, )ork function and stopping threshold frequency, )ork function and stopping
potential. potential.
4escribe and sketch 4escribe and sketch diagram of the photoelectric effect diagram of the photoelectric effect
experimental set-up. experimental set-up.
Explain by using graph and equations Explain by using graph and equations the obser*ations the obser*ations
of photoelectric effect experiment in terms of the of photoelectric effect experiment in terms of the
dependence of : dependence of :
kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of
light5 light5
earning !utcome:
9.7 Th& )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t (8 hours)
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0 s
ma&
1
hf hf eV mv = =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
13
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
photoelectric current on intensity of incident light5 photoelectric current on intensity of incident light5
)ork function and threshold frequency on the types )ork function and threshold frequency on the types
of metal surface. of metal surface.
Explain Explain the failure of )a*e theory to 6ustify the the failure of )a*e theory to 6ustify the
photoelectric effect. photoelectric effect.
earning !utcome:
9.7 Th& )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t (8 hours)
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0 0
hf W =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
14
is *&fin&* as th& emission of electron from the surface emission of electron from the surface
of a metal )hen the E& radiation %light' of higher of a metal )hen the E& radiation %light' of higher
frequency strikes its surface frequency strikes its surface.
.igur& 9.8 sho(s th& &%ission of th& &l&!tron fro% th& surfa!& of
th& %&tal aft&r shining -' th& light.
Photo&l&!tron is *&fin&* as an electron emitted from the an electron emitted from the
surface of the metal )hen the E& radiation %light' strikes its surface of the metal )hen the E& radiation %light' strikes its
surface surface.
".+ 2he photoelectric effect
(igure "., (igure ".,
E2
ra*iation
- -
photoelectron photoelectron
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
&etal &etal
(ree electrons (ree electrons
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
15
ma& s
1
mv eV =
%".8' %".8'
electron t'e o( mass : m (h&r&
m
I
0
I
s
V
I , current ric P'otoelect
V , Volta)e
0
9efore re*ersing the terminal 9efore re*ersing the terminal After After
(igure ".0c (igure ".0c
Sti%ulation 9.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
20
Is *&fin&* as th& minimum energy of E& radiation required minimum energy of E& radiation required
to emit an electron from the surface of the metal to emit an electron from the surface of the metal.
Its for%ula& is
(h&r& f
0
is !all&* threshold frequency threshold frequency an* is *&fin&* as th&
minimum frequency of E& radiation required to emit an minimum frequency of E& radiation required to emit an
electron from the surface of the metal electron from the surface of the metal.
".+.+ Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect
hf E =
min 0
E W =
0 0
hf W =
an*
0 min
hf E =
%".;' %".;'
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
21
hc
W = %".<' %".<'
Element Element Work function %e.' Work function %e.'
Alu%inu% 4.8
So*iu% 7.8
Co))&r 4.;
=ol* :.
Sil1&r 4.8
2able ".+ 2able ".+
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
22
Einsteins photoelectric equation Einsteins photoelectric equation
Sin!& K
ma&
*eV
s
th&n th& &$. (9.?) !an -& (ritt&n as
(h&r& an*
0 ma&
W K E + = hf E =
0
ma&
1
W mv hf + =
ma& ma&
1
mv K =
%".=' %".='
0 s
W eV hf + = %"."' %"."'
volta)e stoppin) :
s
V
(h&r&
electron o( c'ar)e (or ma)nitu+e : e
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
23
/ote: /ote:
st
!as&:
AR
0
W hf >
0
f f >
Electron is emitted )ith maximum Electron is emitted )ith maximum
kinetic energy kinetic energy.
- -
&etal &etal
hf
0
W
- -
ma&
v
ma&
K
7
n*
!as&:
AR
0
W hf =
0
f f =
Electron is emitted but maximum Electron is emitted but maximum
kinetic energy is 1ero kinetic energy is 1ero.
- -
0 = v 0
ma&
= K
8
r*
!as&:
AR
0
W hf <
0
f f <
/o electron is emitted. /o electron is emitted.
- -
&etal &etal
hf
0
W
- -
&etal &etal
0
W
hf
(igure ".8a (igure ".8a
(igure ".8b (igure ".8b
(igure ".8c (igure ".8c
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
24
Ca*%iu% has a (or" fun!tion of 4.77 &B. Cal!ulat&
a. its thr&shol* fr&$u&n!'0
-. th& %a/i%u% s)&&* of th& )hoto&l&!trons (h&n th& !a*%iu% is
shin&* -' 9B ra*iation of (a1&l&ngth 7;: n%0
!. th& sto))ing )ot&ntial.
(=i1&n c >8.66 6
?
% s
0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s0 m
e
>9. 6
8
"g an*
e>.@6 6
9
C)
3olution : 3olution :
a. ,' using th& &$uation of th& (or" fun!tion0 thus
E/a%)l& 8 :
( ) J 10 "% . 6 10 60 . 1 . 4
19 19
0
= = W
0 0
hf W =
( )
0
34 19
10 63 . 6 10 "% . 6 f
=
$z 10 0 . 1
1%
0
= f
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
25
3olution : 3olution :
-. =i1&n
,' a))l'ing th& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0 thus
!. Th& sto))ing )ot&ntial is gi1&n -'
m 10 "%
9
=
0
ma&
1
W mv
hc
+ =
0 ma&
W K E + =
1 %
ma&
s m 10 6 . 3
= v
( ) J 10 "% . 6 10 60 . 1 . 4
19 19
0
= = W
( )( )
( )
19
ma&
31
9
# 34
10 "% . 6 10 11 . 9
1
10 "%
10 00 . 3 10 63 . 6
+ =
ma& s
1
mv eV =
ma& ma&
1
mv K =
( ) ( )( )
% 31
s
19
10 6 . 3 10 11 . 9
1
10 60 . 1 =
V
V 303 . 0 =
s
V
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
26
A -&a% of (hit& light !ontaining fr&$u&n!i&s -&t(&&n 4.66 6
4
Hz
an* ;.96 6
4
Hz is in!i*&nt on a so*iu% surfa!&0 (hi!h has a
(or" fun!tion of 7.7? &B.
a. Cal!ulat& th& thr&shol* fr&$u&n!' of th& so*iu% surfa!&.
-. 3hat is th& rang& of fr&$u&n!i&s in this -&a% of light for (hi!h
&l&!trons ar& &<&!t&* fro% th& so*iu% surfa!&C
!. D&t&r%in& th& high&st %a/i%u% "in&ti! &n&rg' of th&
)hoto&l&!trons that ar& &<&!t&* fro% this surfa!&.
(=i1&n c >8.66 6
?
% s
0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s0 m
e
>9. 6
8
"g an*
e>.@6 6
9
C)
E/a%)l& 4 :
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
27
3olution : 3olution :
a. Th& thr&shol* fr&$u&n!' is
-. Th& rang& of th& fr&$u&n!i&s that &<&!t &l&!trons is
8.8# 8.8# #> #>
#0 #0
?1 and <."> ?1 and <."> #> #>
#0 #0
?1 ?1
!. .or th& high&st K
ma&
0 ta"&
,' a))l'ing th& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0 thus
( )
0
34 19
10 63 . 6 10 6% . 3 f
=
0 0
hf W =
$z 10 %1 . %
14
0
= f
( ) J 10 6% . 3 10 60 . 1 # .
19 19
0
= = W
$z 10 90 . "
14
= f
0
ma&
1
W mv hf + =
0 ma&
W K E + =
J 10 %9 . 1
19
ma&
= K
( )( )
19
ma&
14 34
10 6% . 3 10 90 . " 10 63 . 6
+ = K
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
28
E/&r!is& 9. :
=i1&n c >8.66 6
?
% s
0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s0 m
e
>9. 6
8
"g an*
e>.@6 6
9
C
. Th& &n&rg' of a )hoton fro% an &l&!tro%agn&ti! (a1& is
7.7: &B
a. Cal!ulat& its (a1&l&ngth.
-. If this &l&!tro%agn&ti! (a1& shin&s on a %&tal0 &l&!trons
ar& &%itt&* (ith a %a/i%u% "in&ti! &n&rg' of .6 &B.
Cal!ulat& th& (or" fun!tion of this %&tal in <oul&s.
A/3. : A/3. : 88, nm5 #.=0 88, nm5 #.=0 #> #>
#" #"
@ @
7. In a )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t &/)&ri%&nt it is o-s&r1&* that no
!urr&nt flo(s (h&n th& (a1&l&ngth of E2 ra*iation is gr&at&r
than :;6 n%. Cal!ulat&
a. th& (or" fun!tion of this %at&rial in &l&!tron41olts.
-. th& sto))ing 1oltag& r&$uir&* if light of (a1&l&ngth 466 n%
is us&*.
%Physics for scientists A engineers, , %Physics for scientists A engineers, ,
rd rd
edition, 7iancoli, B#8, edition, 7iancoli, B#8,
p."<0' p."<0'
A/3. : A/3. : +.#= e.5 >."+ . +.#= e.5 >."+ .
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
29
E/&r!is& 9. :
8. In an &/)&ri%&nt on th& )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t0 th& follo(ing *ata
(&r& !oll&!t&*.
a. Cal!ulat& th& %a/i%u% 1&lo!it' of th& )hoto&l&!trons
(h&n th& (a1&l&ngth of th& in!i*&nt ra*iation is 8:6 n%.
-. D&t&r%in& th& 1alu& of th& Plan!" !onstant fro% th& a-o1&
*ata.
A/3. : A/3. : <.<, <.<, #> #>
8 8
m s m s
# #
5 ;.<+ 5 ;.<+ #> #>
,0 ,0
@ s @ s
3a1&l&ngth of E2
ra*iation0 (n%)
Sto))ing )ot&ntial0 V
s
(B)
8:6 .;6
4:6 6.966
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
30
.ariation of photoelectric current .ariation of photoelectric current I I )ith *oltage )ith *oltage V V
for th& ra*iation of different intensities different intensities -ut its frequency is frequency is
fixed fixed.
R&ason:
.ro% th& &/)&ri%&nt0 th& photoelectric current photoelectric current is directly directly
proportional proportional to th& intensity intensity of th& ra*iation as sho(n in
.igur& 9.@-.
".+., 7raph of photoelectric experiment
Cntensity +x Cntensity +x
m
I
I
V
0
s
V
Cntensity #x Cntensity #x
m
I
(igure ".;a (igure ".;a
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
31
for th& ra*iation of different frequencies different frequencies -ut its intensity is intensity is
fixed fixed.
(igure ".;b (igure ".;b
I
intensit, -i)'t
0
1
m
I
m
I
m
I
(igure ".<a (igure ".<a
I
V
0
s1
V
f f
1 1
f f
2 2
s
V
f
f
2 2
>
>
f
f
1 1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
32
R&ason:
.ro% th& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0
(igure ".<b (igure ".<b
0 s
W eV hf + =
e
W
f
e
h
V
0
s
=
= y x m c +
e
W
0
f , (re.uenc,
s
, volta)e /toppin) V
0
f
s
V
1
f
s1
V
If V V
s s
D> D>, ,
0
0 0 1 W e hf + =
hf W =
0 0
f
0
f
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
33
.or th& different metals of cathode different metals of cathode -ut th& intensity and intensity and
frequency frequency of th& ra*iation ar& fixed fixed.
R&ason: .ro% th& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0
(igure ".=a (igure ".=a
m
I
s1
V
01
W
s
V
0
W
W W
02 02
> > W W
01 01
0 s
W eV hf + =
=
e
hf
W
e
V
0 s
1
e
hf
0
W
s
V
0
E hf =
01
W
1 s
V
0
W
s
V
En&rg' of a )hoton
in E2 ra*iation
I
V
0
= y x m c +
(igure ".=b (igure ".=b
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
34
.ariation of stopping *oltage .ariation of stopping *oltage V V
s s
)ith frequency )ith frequency f f of the radiation of the radiation
for different metals of cathode different metals of cathode -ut th& intensity intensity is fixed fixed.
R&ason: Sin!& W
0
*hf
0
th&n
(igure "." (igure "."
W W
03 03
> >W W
02 02
> > W W
01 01
01
f
W W
01 01
0
f
W W
02 02
03
f
W W
03 03
f
s
V
0
0 0
f W
0 s
W eV hf + =
e
W
f
e
h
V
0
s
=
= y x m c +
If V V
s s
D> D>, ,
0
0 0 1 W e hf + =
hf W =
0 0
f
2hreshold %cut-off' 2hreshold %cut-off'
frequency frequency
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
35
Th& modern theory based on Einsteins photon theory of light modern theory based on Einsteins photon theory of light !an
&/)lain th& )h&no%&non of )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t.
It is -&!aus& Einst&in )ostulat&* that light is quanti1ed light is quanti1ed an* light is
&%itt&*0 trans%itt&* an* r&a-sor-&* as photons photons.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
39
a. 3h' *o&s th& &/ist&n!& of a thr&shol* fr&$u&n!' in th&
)hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t fa1or a )arti!l& th&or' for light o1&r a (a1&
th&or'C
-. In th& )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t0 &/)lains (h' th& sto))ing )ot&ntial
*&)&n*s on th& fr&$u&n!' of light -ut not on th& int&nsit'.
3olution : 3olution :
a. 3a1& th&or' )r&*i!ts that th& )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t shoul* o!!ur at
an' fr&$u&n!'0 )ro1i*&* th& light int&nsit' is high &nough.
Ho(&1&r0 as s&&n in th& )hoto&l&!tri! &/)&ri%&nts0 th& light %ust
ha1& a suffi!i&ntl' high fr&$u&n!' (gr&at&r than th& thr&shol*
fr&$u&n!') for th& &ff&!t to o!!ur.
-. Th& sto))ing 1oltag& %&asur&s th& "in&ti! &n&rg' of th& %ost
&n&rg&ti! )hoto&l&!trons. Ea!h of th&% has gott&n its &n&rg'
fro% a singl& )hoton. A!!or*ing to Plan!"#s $uantu% th&or' , th&
)hoton &n&rg' *&)&n*s on th& fr&$u&n!' of th& light. Th&
int&nsit' !ontrols onl' th& nu%-&r of )hotons r&a!hing a unit ar&a
in a unit ti%&.
E/a%)l& : :
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
40
In a )hoto&l&!tri! &/)&ri%&nts0 a gra)h of th& light fr&$u&n!' f is
)lott&* against th& %a/i%u% "in&ti! &n&rg' K
ma&
of th& )hoto&l&!tron
as sho(n in .igur& 9.6.
,as&* on th& gra)h0 for th& light of fr&$u&n!' ;.4 6
4
Hz0 !al!ulat&
a. th& thr&shol* (a1&l&ngth0
-. th& %a/i%u% s)&&* of th& )hoto&l&!tron.
(=i1&n c >8.66 6
?
% s
0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s0 m
e
>9. 6
8
"g an*
e>.@6 6
9
C)
E/a%)l& @ :
$z 10
14
f
#3 . 4
0 eV 1
ma&
K
0
(igure ".#> (igure ".#>
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
41
3olution : 3olution :
a. ,' r&arranging Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0
.ro% th& gra)h0
Th&r&for& th& thr&shol* (a1&l&ngth is gi1&n -'
$z 10 14 . "
14
= f
$z 10
14
f
#3 . 4
0 eV 1
ma&
K
0
0 ma&
W K hf + =
h
W
K
h
f
0
ma&
1
+
=
= y
x m c +
0 ma&
1
f K
h
f +
=
$z 10 #3 . 4
14
0
= f
0
0
f
c
=
14
#
10 #3 . 4
10 00 . 3
=
m 10 1 . 6
"
0
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
42
3olution : 3olution :
-. ,' using th& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0 thus
$z 10 14 . "
14
= f
0
ma&
1
W mv hf + =
0
ma&
1
hf mv hf + =
( )
0
ma&
1
f f h mv =
( ) ( )
14 14 34
ma&
31
10 #3 . 4 10 14 . " 10 63 . 6 10 11 . 9
1
=
v
1 %
ma&
s m 10 #0 . %
= v
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
43
E/&r!is& 9.7 :
=i1&n c >8.66 6
?
% s
0 h >@.@8 6
84
5 s0 m
e
>9. 6
8
"g an*
e>.@6 6
9
C
. A )hoto!&ll (ith !atho*& an* ano*& %a*& of th& sa%& %&tal
!onn&!t&* in a !ir!uit as sho(n in th& .igur& 9.a.
2ono!hro%ati! light of (a1&l&ngth 8@: n% shin&s on th&
!atho*& an* th& )hoto!urr&nt I is %&asur&* for 1arious
1alu&s of 1oltag& V a!ross th& !atho*& an* ano*&. Th& r&sult
is sho(n in .igur& 9.-.
,;8 nm ,;8 nm
. .
7 7
%
1
0 n2 1 I
0 V 1 V
0
(igure ".##a (igure ".##a (igure ".##b (igure ".##b
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
44
E/&r!is& 9.7 :
. a. Cal!ulat& th& %a/i%u% "in&ti! &n&rg' of )hoto&l&!tron.
-. D&*u!& th& (or" fun!tion of th& !atho*&.
!. If th& &/)&ri%&nt is r&)&at&* (ith %ono!hro%ati! light of
(a1&l&ngth 88 n%0 *&t&r%in& th& n&( int&r!&)t (ith th& V4
a/is for th& n&( gra)h.
A/3. : A/3. : #.;> #.;> #> #>
#" #"
@, ,.=8 @, ,.=8 #> #>
#" #"
@5 @5 #.8< . #.8< .
7. 3h&n E2 ra*iation falls on a %&tal surfa!&0 &l&!trons %a' -&
&%itt&*. This is )hoto&l&!tri! &ff&!t.
a. 3rit& Einst&in#s )hoto&l&!tri! &$uation0 &/)laining th&
%&aning of &a!h t&r%.
-. E/)lain (h' for a )arti!ular %&tal0 &l&!trons ar& &%itt&* onl'
(h&n th& fr&$u&n!' of th& in!i*&nt ra*iation is gr&at&r
than a !&rtain 1alu&C
!. E/)lain (h' th& %a/i%u% s)&&* of th& &%itt&* &l&!trons
is in*&)&n*&nt of th& int&nsit' of th& in!i*&nt ra*iationC
%Ad*anced e*el Physics, < %Ad*anced e*el Physics, <
th th
edition, /elkonAParker, B;, p.=,8' edition, /elkonAParker, B;, p.=,8'
45
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Next Chapter
CHAPTER 6 :
3a1& )ro)&rti&s of )arti!l&