Distillation Manual

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NA
Reliance Industries Ltd.
Patalganga Training System
Contents
Chapter No. Description Page No.
Abbreviations
1 Introduction To Distillation
2 Distillation Fundamentals :
ass Trans!er Conce"ts
# $inary System Distillation
% ulticom"onent Distillation
& Introduction To Com"le' Distillation
et(ods
) *t(er et(ods *! Distillation
).1 $atc( Distillation
).2 Crude Distillation
).# +acuum Distillation
).% T(in Film Distillation
).& Sur!ace e!!ect

, Distillation Column Internals
,.1 Tray Details
,.2 Pac-ings o"eration
,.# Tray .!!iciency
/ Distillation Column Design As"ects
/.1 Introduction
/.2 0uidelines !or
design o!
Distillation column and Internals
/.# Column Diameter
Si1ing
/.% Column Plate
2ydraulics
/.& Design 3y 4sing
PR*5II
Simulator.
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Contents (contd.)
Chapter No. Description Page No.
/.) Distillation column
De3ottlenec-ing *"tions
/., Rules o! T(um3
used in
Distillation column Design
6 Selection Criteria *! Re3oiler7 Condenser
And Control System.
6.1 Fractionator Re3oiler Selection
6.2 Fractionator
Condenser Selection
6.# Fractionator
Control Sc(emes
Selection
18 *"eration7 onitoring And
Ins"ection o! Distillation column
18.1 Start5u"
18.2 Trou3les(ooting
18.# Ins"ection
11 9uestionnaire
12 Furt(er Re!erences
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ABBREVIATION
A
3olo
: A
acti;e
acti;ity coe!!icient
angle o! do<ncomer
c(ange in ;aria3le
e:=e>L?7 !ractional entrainment7
!raction o! column a;aila3le !or ;a"or !lo<
latent (eat o! ;a"ori1ation 7 -cal:-g7 $tu:l37 $tu:l3mole etc.
limit !or con;ergence
li@uid "(ase "ac-ing "arameter
"ac-ing "arameter !or gas "(ase

<ater
:
L7
sur!ace tension7 dynes:cm
;iscosity c"
A$
A
A
: A
$
relati;e ;olatility
de
relati;e !ort( density in do<ncomer
L
li@uid density 7 g:cm
#
or l3:!t
#
P Pressure dro"7 in o! li@uid.
rd
latent (eat o! ;a"ori1ation o! <ater at #2
8
F
;
;a"or density
<
sur!ace tension o! <ater7 dynes :cm
<
<ater density
S
F
Derating !actor7
a Pac-ing sur!ace area "er unit ;olume.
A
a
acti;e area o! "late
A
a"
Clearance are under a"ron
A
c
Total column cross sectional area
A
d
Do<ncomer cross sectional area
A
(
Total (ole area
A
i
A3sor"tion !actor
A
m
Tray Area
A
n
Net area a;aila3le !or ;a"or li@uid disengagement
A
"
"er!orated area
a
<
.!!ecti;e inter!acial area o! "ac-ing "er unit ;olume.
$ oles o! 3ottom "roduct "er unit time
3
1
oles o! com"onent in 3ottom "roduct
A
o
Pressure loss coe!!icient t(roug( o"en ;al;es7 in:=!t:s?
2
.
A
*0
*;erall mass trans!er coe!!icient 3ased on ;a"or7 !t:s.
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Abbreviations contin!ed ..
L Li@uid !lo< rate "er tray "ass 7 13:(
L
!
Lengt( o! !lo< "at( across t(e tray7 !t.
L
Li@uid !lo< rate "er 3u33ling area A

$
7 135mole: =s5!t
2
?
L
o
Li@uid !lo< rate 7 135mole:(.
L
B
7L
B
*utlet <eir lengt(7 in =Note: in multi5"ass trays 7
L
B
is t(e total outlet <eir lengt(7 i.e. t(e sum o! lengt(s o! all
outlet <eirs.?
m A constant in t(e <ee"ing rate e@uation7 dimensions.
arangoni e!!ect inde'7 or 5inde' dyne:cm
n A "arameter in t(e s"ray regime clear li@uid (eig(t correlation.
N Rate o! di!!usion7 135mole:s.
N
a
Num3er o! actual trays in t(e column.
N
0
0as !ilm trans!er units.
N
L
Li@uid !ilm trans!er units.
N
min
inimum num3er o! t(eoretical stages !or t(e se"aration.
N
*0
*;erall gas trans!er units.
N
P
Num3er o! li@uid "asses "er tray.
N
Re7 (
Reynolds num3er7
N
t
num3er o! t(eoretical stages re@uired !or t(e se"arations minus t(e
sum o! t(eoretical stages "ro;ided 3y t(e re3oiler7 "artial condenser
and intermediate (eat e'c(angers.
N
;
Num3er o! ;al;e units on a tray.
*$P *"en 3alance "oint !or ;al;e trays7
P 2ole "itc( =center5to5center tray (ole s"acing?7 in .
P Pressure7 atm.
Pe Peclet num3er7
9
D
Do<ncomer li@uid load7 g"m:!t
2
9
L
Li@uid load 7 g"m:in o! outlet <eir lengt(
R Re!lu' ratio =i.e. re!lu' rate di;ided 3y distillate rate?7 molar.
R
(
2ydraulic radius in (ydraulic gradient calculation
R
+B
Ratio o! ;al;e <eig(t <it( legs to ;al;e <eig(t <it(out legs7
dimensionless.
S Se"aration "arameter7
s Tray s"acing7 in.
T tem"erature7
8
C7
8
F7 A or
8
R
t Tray dec- t(ic-ness 7in.
t
do<n
do<n time in 3atc( distillation
t
0
Residence time o! ;a"or in !ort(7 s.
T
l
inter!acial tem"erature
t
L
Residence time o! li@uid in !ort(7 sec.
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t
o"erating
o"erating time in 3atc( distillation
t
R
Do<ncomer a""arent residence time7 s.
T
re!
re!erence tem"erature
t
res
residence time in do<ncomer
t
tray
tray t(ic-ness7 inc(es
T
<
<ater tem"erature
T
y
+a"or "(ase tem"erature
4 under!lo< li@uid rate7 -g:(r
4 ;a"or ;elocity7 cm:s or !t:s
u +elocity7 !t:s
4
a
Same as u
$
u
$
Su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity7 3ased on 3u33ling area A
$
7 !t:s
4
!
+elocity o! t(e aerated mass across t(e tray7
4
!lood
!looding ;elocity
u
(
+a"or (ole ;elocity7 3ased on t(e total area o! t(e "er!orations !t:s.
u
N
Su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity at t(e !lood "oint7 3ased on t(e net area
A
N
7 !t:s.
4
n!
Su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity at t(e !lood "oint7 3ased on t(e net area
A
N
7 !t:s.
4
o"
o"erating ;elocity
4
"erm
"ermissi3le ;a"or ;elocity
4
S
Su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity 7 !t:s.
4
;a
Same as u
$.
u
;(
+a"or ;elocity t(roug( (oles o! ;al;e tray7 3ased on t(e area o!
(oles on t(e tray dec-7 !t:s.
+ ;a"or !lo< rate7 -gmoles:(r or l3moles:(r
; ;a"or ;elocity
+
L*AD
A "arameter descri3ing ;a"or load7 !t
#
:s.
+
ma'
ma'imum ;a"or !lo< rate
;
o
;a"or ;elocity t(roug( (oles 7 !t:s
;
o7 3al
;elocity <(ere ;al;e is 3alanced
+
S
Su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity7 3ased on t(e total to<er area7 m:s.
+
surge
surge ;olume in !las( drum7 !t
#
B !lo< o! "(ase co5current to L in # "(ase contactor
B Bee" rate g"m.
< Bidt(7 in.
B
L
li@uid !lo< rate 7 -g:(r 7 or l3:(r
B
+
;a"or !lo< rate 7 -g:(r7 or l3:(r
' CL:D 5 =L:D?
nDo
E : =L:D >1? in
F ole !raction o! "seudo -ey com"onent in t(e li@uid .
' Beig(t or mole !raction in li@uid
'
"seudo5e@uili3rium mole !raction in li@uid

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'7'
G
ole !raction o! a com"onent in t(e li@uid. 4nless ot(er<ise
su3scri"ted7 re!ers to t(e more ;olatile com"onent.
'
.
out
li@uid mole !raction in e@uili3rium <it( inlet gas
'
1
inter!acial mole !raction in li@uid
y ole !raction o! a com"onent in t(e ;a"or. 4nless ot(er<ise
su3scri"ted re!ers to t(e more ;olatile com"onent.
H ole !raction o! "seudo -ey com"onent in t(e ;a"or.
yI .@uili3rium mole !raction o! more ;olatile com"onent in t(e
;a"our.
y
I
out
;a"or mole !raction in e@uili3rium <it( inlet li@uid in counter
current system7 or in e@uili3rium <it( outlet li@uid in cocurrent
contactor
yJ mass !raction in ;a"or
y
1
inter!acial mole !raction in ;a"or
H
<
(umidity
1 a'ial distance in 3ed
K C(aracteristic lengt( in t(e <ee" rate e@uation7 Ft.
1 <eig(t or mole !raction in !eed
C"APTER #
INTROD$CTION TO DITI%%ATION
#.# De&inition
Distillation is a "rocess o! "(ysically se"arating a mi'ture into t<o or more "roducts t(at
(a;e di!!erent 3oiling "oints. T(e t<o "roducts are se"arated 3y "re!erentially 3oiling t(e
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more ;olatile com"onent out o! t(e mi'ture. T(ere are ;arious o"inions a3out t(e
distillation "rocess. Follo<ing are some o! t(e e'"erts comments a3out distillation
o"eration:
As <e mo;e t(roug( t(e 16/8Gs <it( !ull recognition o! t(e energy
intensi;eness o! distillation7 <e can e'"ect to see elati;ely little dis"lacement
o! distillation 3y alternati;e se"aration met(ods7 at least !or t(e large scale
"rocess t(roug("uts. T(us7 de;elo"ment o! distillation de;ices <ill continue.
T(e results <ill 3e im"ro;ed se"aration e!!iciency at lo<er "ressure dro" and
lo<er cost.
5 Dr. Lames R. Fair7 166#
Distillation is t(e most im"ortant and most ;isi3le se"aration tec(nology. T(e
s-yline o! many re!ineries and c(emical "lants is dominated 3y tall distillation
to<ers7 and it cannot 3e denied t(at t(eir s"atial arrangements o!ten amounts
to arc(itectural 3eauty. Less s"ectacular7 3ut also ;isi3le are t(e smo-estac-s
o! t(ese industrial com"le'esM t(ey re"resent t(e energy used in "rocessing7
t(e maDor "art o! <(ic( is consumed 3y distillation "rocesses.
5 Dr. Frits L. Kuider<eg7 16//
Distillation7 Aing in se"aration7 <ill remain as t(e <or-(orse se"arations
de;ice o! t(e "rocess industries. .;en t(oug( it is old in t(e art7 <it( a
relati;ely mature tec(nology su""ort 3ase7 it attracts researc( and
"ro!essional interest. Bit(out @uestion distillation <ill sail into t(e !uture <it(
clear s-ies and a strong <ind. It <ill remain t(e -ey se"aration met(od
against <(ic( alternate met(ods must 3e Dudged.
5 Dr. Lames R. Fair7 1668
#.' Introd!ction o& Disti((ation Techni)!e
#.'.# "istorica( Bac*+gro!nd
Distillation is an ancient unit o"eration7 and (as 3een <idely "racticed !or t(ousands o!
years. .arly a""lications used crude ;a"ori1ation and condensation e@ui"ment7 o!ten !or
concentrating t(e alco(olic contents o! 3e;erages. T(e !irst ;ertical columnar continuous
distillation still <as de;elo"ed 3y Cellier5$lument(al in France in 1/1#. Perrier introduced
an early ;ersion o! t(e 3u33le 5 ca" tray in .ngland in 1/22. Pac-ings <ere used as early
as 1/28 3y a tec(nologist named Clement <(o used glass 3alls in an alco(ol still. Co!!ey
de;elo"ed t(e !irst sie;e tray column in 1/#8. T(e !irst 3oo- on !undamentals o!
distillation <as La Recti!ication de lGalco(ol 3y .arnest Sorrel in 1/6#.
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During t(e !irst @uarter o! t(e t<entiet( century7 t(e a""lication o! distillation e'"anded
!rom a tool !or en(ancing t(e alco(ol content o! 3e;erages into t(e "rime se"aration
tec(ni@ue in t(e c(emical industry. T(is e'"ansion accelerated once distillation <as
recogni1ed as an e!!ecti;e means o! se"arating crude oil into ;arious "roducts. From
t(ere7 t(e a""lication o! distillation s"read into t(e maDority o! c(emical "rocesses.
Detailed descri"tions o! t(e (istory o! distillation7 include illustrations o! (istoric e'(i3its7
gi;en 3y r. For3es in 16%/ and r. Fair in16/# in t(eir se"arate 3oo-s.
Distillation is a "rocess o! "(ysically se"arating a mi'ture into t<o or more "roducts t(at
(a;e di!!erent 3oiling "oints7 3y "re!erentially 3oiling t(e more ;olatile com"onents out o!
t(e mi'ture. B(en a li@uid mi'ture o! t<o ;olatile materials is (eated7 t(e ;a"or t(at
comes o!! <ill (a;e a (ig(er concentration o! t(e mo;e ;olatile =i.e.7 lo<er53oiling5"oint?
material t(an t(e li@uid !rom <(ic( it <as e;ol;ed. Con;ersely7 i! a ;a"or is cooled7 t(e
less ;olatile =i.e.7 (ig(er53oiling5"oint? material (as a tendency to condense in a greater
"ro"ortion t(an t(e more ;olatile material.
#.'.' Advantages o& disti((ation process.
Distillation is a unit o"eration t(at (as 3een around !or a long time and continues to 3e
t(e "rimary met(od o! se"aration in "rocessing "lants7 in s"ite o! its in(erently lo<
t(ermodynamic e!!iciency. T(e "reeminence o! distillation !or t(e se"aration o! !luid
mi'tures is not accidental7 3ut !undamental7 and t(ere!ore unli-ely to 3e dis"layed. T(e
reasons are 3ot( Ainetic and t(ermodynamic.
From a Ainetic stand"oint7 mass trans!er "er unit ;olume in distillation is limited only 3y
t(e di!!usion resistanceGs on eit(er side o! t(e ;a"or5li@uid inter!ace in tur3ulent "(ases7
<it( no inerts "resent. In almost e;ery ot(er se"aration "rocess7 t(ere are inert sol;ents or
solids matrices "resent7 and t(ese lo<er mass !lu'es. Distillation7 t(ere!ore7 (as t(e
"otential !or (ig( mass trans!er rates =lo< ca"ital costs?.
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From a t(ermodynamic ;ie<"oint7 a ty"ical t(ermodynamic e!!iciency o! a distillation
system is a3out 18 "ercent. T(is can 3e en(anced i! inter5condensers and inter5re3oilers
are used. In !act7 it (as 3een s(o<n t(at conce"tually7 a distillation system can 3e de;ised
<(ic( re@uires only t(e minimum <or- o! se"aration. Alt(oug( a t(ermodynamic e!!icient
o! 18 "ercent a""ears lo<7 not many ot(er "rocesses are more e!!icient.
Distillation in general "ro;ides t(e c(ea"est and 3est met(od !or se"arating a li@uid
mi'ture to its com"onents e'ce"t <(en.
T(e di!!erence o! ;olatility 3et<een t(e com"onents is small.
A small @uantity o! (ig(53oiling5"oint com"onents is to 3e reco;ered !rom t(e
!eed. Distillation re@uires t(at t(e <(ole !eed 3e ;a"ori1ed in order to reco;er
t(is small @uantity.
A com"ound is t(ermally unsta3le e;en under ;acuum conditions.
T(e mi'ture is e'tremely corrosi;e or (ig(ly !ouling.
#., Princip(es o& Disti((ation
It is di!!icult7 "er(a"s altoget(er im"ossi3le7 to do Dustice to t(e <ide to"ic o! ;a"or5li@uid
e@uili3rium =+L.? in a modest amount o! s"ace. any te'ts are de;oted entirely to t(is
to"ic7 or e;en to !raction o! it. T(e numerous "u3lis(ed te'ts and re;ie<s can testi!y to
t(e large ;olume o! in!ormation a;aila3le.
It is also di!!icult to discuss distillation <it(out addressing some o! t(e im"lications o!
+L. to distillation design. For t(is reason7 some discussion o! +L. is included in t(is
te't. T(is discussion !ocuses on t(ose +L. "rinci"les t(at in t(e aut(orGs o"inion must 3e
understood 3y distillation "ractitioners. .'tensi;e t(eoretical discussions and data
"resentation are e'cluded7 and le!t to t(e t(ermodynamic te'ts. Discussion on "redicti;e
models and "rocedures are !ar too 3ul-y and (a;e also 3een e'cluded.
#.,.# -+va(!e and re(ative vo(ati(it.
A
i
N ole o! !raction o! com"onents i in ;a"or "(aseO =1.1?
ole o! !raction o! com"onents i in li@uid "(ase
T(e A5;alue is a measure o! t(e tendency o! com"onent i to ;a"ori1e. I! t(e A5;alue is
(ig(7 t(e com"onents tends to concentrate in t(e ;a"orM i! lo<7 it tends to concentrate in
t(e li@uid. I! t(e A5;alue is unity7 t(e com"onent <ill s"lit e@ually 3et<een t(e ;a"or and
t(e li@uid. T(e A5;alue is a !unction o! tem"erature7 "ressure7 and com"osition. At
e@uili3rium7 B(ene;er t<o o! t(ese t(ree ;aria3les are !i'ed7 so is t(e t(ird. T(e A5;alue
can t(ere!ore 3e regarded as a !unction o! "ressure and com"osition7 or tem"erature and
com"osition =or tem"erature and "ressure?.
T(e relati;e ;olatility o! com"onents i and D is de!ined as
Re;. : 88 Page No. o!

iD
N A5;alue o! com"onent i =1.2?
A5;alue o! com"onent D
Distillation is a tec(ni@ue o! se"arating com"onents according to t(eir relati;e ;olatility.
T(e relati;e ;olatility is a measure o! t(e ease o! se"aration . T(is de!inition ma-es t(e
relati;e ;olatility t(e ratio 3et<een t(e tendency to ;a"ori1e o! t(e t<o com"onents. I!
relati;e ;olatility is (ig(7 one com"onent (as a muc( greater tendency to ;a"ori1e =i.e.
more ;olatile? t(an t(e ot(er 7 and it <ill 3e easy to se"arate t(e t<o 3y ;a"ori1ing one
!rom t(e ot(er =i.e. 3y distillation. ?. *n t(e ot(er (and 7 <(en one com"onent (as as
(ig( a tendency to ;a"ori1e =i.e. is as ;olatile? as t(e ot(er relati;e ;olatility <ill a""roac(
unity7 and t(e com"onents <ill 3e di!!icult to se"arate !rom eac( ot(er 3y distillation. I!
relati;e ;olatility is unity7 eac( com"onent is as ;olatile as ot(er 7 and t(ey can not 3e
se"arated 3y distillation.
$y con;ention7 relati;e ;olatility is de!ined as t(e A5;alue ratio o! t(e more ;olatile to t(e
less ;olatile com"onent7 and t(ere!ore7 relati;e ;olatility is al<ays greater or e@ual to
unity. For 3inary system7 .@uation =1.1? and =1.2? can 3e com3ined to gi;e
A
1
y
1
=1 5 '
1
? =1.#?
172
N N
A
2
'
1
=1 5 y
1
?
T(is e@uation can 3e rearranged to gi;e

172
'
1
=1.%?
y
1
N
1 > =
172
5 1? '
1
.@uation =1.%? e'"resses t(e more ;olatile com"onent =+C? mole !raction in t(e ;a"or
as a !unction o! t(e mole !raction o! t(e +C in t(e li@uid and t(e relati;e ;olatility. T(is
relations(i" is "lotted in Figure1.1. Figure 1.1 a is a "lot called an '5y diagram. T(e ' and
y a'es s(o< t(e concentration o! t(e +C in t(e li@uid and in t(e ;a"or7 res"ecti;ely.
T(e %&
8
diagonal re"resents "oints at <(ic( ;a"or and li@uid com"ositions are t(e same.
T(e cur;e on Figure 1.1a is an e@uili3rium relations(i". Figure 1.1 a illustrates (o< t(e
+C ='
1
N 8.%& in Figure 1.1a ? is in e@uili3rium <it( ;a"or containing y
1
mole !raction
+C =y
1
N 8.,1 in Figure 1.1 a ? I! t(e ;a"or is collected and condensed one <ill end u"
<it( a mi'ture in <(ic( t(e +C mole !raction (as 3een enric(ed !rom 8.%, to 8.,1
Figure 1.1a illustrates t(e e!!ect o! relati;e ;olatility on t(e tendency o! t(e +C to
concentrate in t(e ;a"or. B(en ;olatility is (ig(7 t(e enric(ment is large. For instance7
<(en relati;e ;olatility is 187 a li@uid mi'ture containing 8.%& mole !raction o! +C is in
e@uili3rium <it( ;a"or containing 8.// mole !raction o! +C M it <ould ta-e only a !e<
ste"s to con;ert t(e li@uid mi'ture into "ure com"onents. Con;ersely7 <(en relati;e
;olatility is ;ery lo< 7 say 1.1 a li@uid mi'ture containing 8.%& mole !raction +C is an
e@uili3rium <it( ;a"or containing 8.%, mole !raction +C. 4nder t(ese conditions7 it
<ill ta-e a ;ery large num3er o! ste"s to se"arate t(e mi'ture into t(e "ure com"onents.
#.,.' Idea( and nonidea( s.ste/s
An ideal system is one <(ere t(e ;a"or o3eys t(e ideal gas la< and t(e li@uid o3eys
RaoultGs la<. An ideal gas mi'ture o3eys DaltonGs la<7 i.e.7
"
i
N '
i
P
i
=1.&?
An ideal solution o3eys RaoultGs la<7 <(ic( states t(at t(e "artial "ressure o! a
com"onent in solution is e@ual to t(e "roduct o! its mole !raction and o! t(e ;a"or
"ressure o! t(e "ure com"onentM t(us7
P
i
N y
i
PP
i
=1.)?
From .@uation =1.&? and =1.)? and t(e de!inition o! A5 ;alue =sec.1.2.1? 7 one o3tains
y
i
PP
i
A
i
N N =1.,?
'
i
P
For nonideal systems7 t(e !ugacities o! com"onent i in t(e ;a"or and in t(e li@uid "lay t(e
same role as t(e com"onents "artial "ressure in t(e ;a"or and t(e com"onent ;a"or
"ressure in t(e li@uid. T(e !ugacity can 3e regarded as a t(ermodynamic "ressure. For
e@uili3rium7 ;a"or !ugacity is e@ual to li@uid !ugacity7 i.e.7
F
;
i
N !
L
i
=1./?
#.,., E&&ect o& te/perat!re0 press!re and co/position on -+ va(!es and vo(ati(it.
T(e relati;e ;olatility is gi;en as
iD N Ai N
r
y
r
"P
r

A
D
B(ere Ratio o! ;a"or "ressure "P
r N
"P
i

"
D
P
Ratio o! acti;ity coe!!icient y
i
y
r
N y
D
and
r
is Ratio o! !ugacity coe!!icient
T(e most im"ortant term in t(e e@uations 3ot( !or A5 ;alues and relati;e ;olatility is t(e
;a"or "ressure term.
#.,.,.# E&&ect o& te/perat!re or press!re.
T(is e!!ect can 3e illustrated <it( t(e aid o! a Co' c(art =Figure 1.2a? . T(is c(art s(o<s
a stee" increase o! ;a"or "ressure <it( tem"erature . For t(is reason7 t(e A5 ;alue !or
eac( com"onent increases stee"ly <it( tem"erature. T(e Co' c(art also s(o<s t(at in
general 7 !or mem3ers o! a (omologous series7 ;a"or "ressure o! t(e less5 ;olatile
com"onent increases !aster <it( tem"erature t(an t(e ;a"or "ressure o! t(e more ;olatile
com"onents. T(is causes "
8
r
ratio o! ;a"or "ressure to diminis( as tem"erature is raised.
As t(e critical "oint is a""roac(ed7 t(e ratio "
8
r
a""roac(es unity. T(e relati;e ;olatility
decreases as tem"erature is raised 7 until it a""roac(es unity as t(e critical "oint is
a""roac(ed.
T(e a3o;e trend is ;alid !or mem3ers o! a (omologous series. For com"onents <(ic( are
not mem3ers o! a (omologous series7 t(e re;erse trend may occur o;er a limited
tem"erature range7 causing relati;e ;olatility to increase as t(e e@uili3rium tem"eratures
is raised . 2o<e;er7 as tem"erature is raised !urt(er and a""roac(es t(e critical "oint 7
relati;e ;olatility e;entually diminis(es and <ill reac( unity at t(e "seudocritical "oint o!
t(e mi'ture. At a gi;en com"osition7 t(e (ig(er t(e saturation tem"erature7 t(e (ig(er t(e
saturation "ressure. For t(is reason 7 e!!ects o! saturation tem"erature discussed a3o;e
can 3e considered as t(e e!!ect o! saturation "ressure. A study o! 3oiling "oint data in t(e
"ressure range o! 1 to 18 atmos"(eres and a <ide tem"erature range led to a sim"le and
roug( a""ro'imation o! t(e relations(i" 3et<een saturation "ressure and saturation
tem"erature !or common su3stances.
T(e e!!ect o! tem"erature =or "ressure? on relati;e ;olatility is !urt(er illustrated in Figure
1.23 . T(e diagram clearly s(o<s a reduction in relati;e ;olatility as "ressure is raised and
illustrates t(at relati;e ;olatility a""roac(es unity as t(e "seudocritical "oint o! t(e
mi'ture is a""roac(ed.
#.,.,.' E&&ect o& co/position.
T(e main e!!ect o! com"osition on A5 ;alues and relati;e ;olatilities is a result o! t(e
e!!ect o! com"osition on t(e li@uid acti;ity coe!!icient. Com"osition also (as an e!!ect on
t(e !ugacity coe!!icient. T(e latter e!!ect is generally small at lo< "ressures.
Acti;ity coe!!icients are classi!ied according to t(e nature o! t(eir de;iation !rom RaoultGs
la<. T(is de"ends on t(e (eat o! mi'ing o! t(e com"onents. I! (eat needs to 3e added to
t(e mi'ture to ac(ie;e solution 7i.e. t(e com"onents Q"re!er to 3e aloneR t(an in solution7
t(e de;iations are "ositi;e . Positi;e de;iation gi;e acti;ity coe!!icients greater
t(an unity and (ig(er A5 ;alues t(an t(ose "redicted !rom RaoultGs la<. I! (eat is e;ol;ed
on solution7 t(e re;erse a""lies Mt(e de;iations are negati;e and A5 ;alues are lo<er t(an
t(ose o3tained !rom RaoultGs la<.
T(e magnitude o! t(e de;iations !rom RaoultGs la< increases <it( t(e di!!erence in nature
3et<een t(e com"onents. T(e acti;ity coe!!icient ratio re"resents t(e main e!!ect o!
com"osition on relati;e ;olatility. B(en a system s(o<s "ositi;e de;iations7 relati;e
;olatility decreases as t(e concentration o! t(e +C increases. T(e re;erse a""lies !or
negati;e de;iation systems.
#.1 Phase diagra/s ( Te/perat!re co/position (T+ 2 ) diagra/s )
P(ase diagrams are used to descri3e 3inary systems 3y "lotting t<o out o! t(e t(ree
;aria3les 5 com"osition7 tem"erature 7 and "ressure7 at a constant ;alue o! t(e remaining
one. T(e most "o"ular o! t(ese "lots are t(e T 5' "lot and t(e '5y "lot. T(e '5y "lot <as
descri3ed earlier =Sec. 1.2.1 7 Figure 1.1?
Cur;e A$C in !igure 1.# s(o<s t(e com"osition tem"erature relations(i" !or t(e saturated
li@uid. At tem"erature T
1
and li@uid com"osition '
1
"oint $ is t(e condition at <(ic( t(e
li@uid is ready to start 3oiling. Point $ is termed t(e 3u33le "oint. B(en t(e li@uid starts
to 3oil at tem"erature T
1
="oint $?7 t(e !irst ;a"or !ormed (as a com"osition y
1
and is
t(ere!ore at its de< "oint. At t(is "oint 7 t(e ;a"or is as ric( in t(e lig(t com"onent as it
<ill e;er 3e. As tem"erature is !urt(er raised7 more o! t(e (ea;ier com"onent is 3oiled o!!.
T(e @uantity o! ;a"or !ormed increases7 3ut t(e mole !raction o! t(e lig(t com"onent in
3ot( ;a"or and li@uid dro"s. At tem"erature T
2
7 t(e li@uid com"osition is '
2
and t(e ;a"or
com"osition is y
2
. Some o! t(e initial c(arge is no< ;a"or and some is li@uid. A !urt(er
increase in tem"erature to T
#
<ill ;a"ori1e t(e rest o! t(e li@uid. T(e ;a"or com"osition
<ill no< 3e '
1
7 and t(e last dro" o! li@uid ;a"ori1ed (as a com"osition '
#
. T(e li@uid
al<ays tra;els along t(e 3u33le "oint cur;e=$.2? <(ile t(e ;a"or al<ays tra;els along t(e
de< "oint cur;e =DF0?. T(ere!ore 7 in distillation 7 3u33le "oint li@uid is al<ays in
e@uili3rium <it( de< "oint ;a"or.
T(e conce"t o! de< "oint and 3u33le "oint is use!ul in t(e construction o! '5y diagrams
=Figure1.1?. B(en 3u33le "oints and de< "oints can 3e readily calculated !or a mi'tures
o! com"onents7 t(e saturated li@uid and saturated ;a"or cur;es can 3e "lotted !or t(e
system as in Figure1.# From t(ese data7 ;alues o! ' and y can 3e o3tained !or a num3er o!
tem"eratures and used to construct t(e '5y diagram. Similarly7 3u33le "oint calculations
yields t(e e@uili3rium ;a"or com"ositions 7 gi;ing t(e ;alues o! 3ot( ' and y. T(ese can
also 3e deri;ed !rom de< "oint calculations in a similar manner.
#.3 Ca(c!(ation o& b!bb(e points and de4 points
T(e 3u33le "oint o! a mi'ture is calculated !rom

c

A
i
'
i
N 1.8 =1.6?
i N1
T(e de< "oint o! a mi'ture is calculated !rom

c
yi:A
i
N 1.8 =1.18?
i N1
T(e calculation met(od is as !ollo<s =at constant "ressure?:
1. 0uess a tem"erature.
2. Calculate A ;alues.
#. Calculate t(e sum on t(e le!t(and side o! .@uation 1.6 !or 3u33le "oint calculation. I!
smaller t(an unity7 increase tem"erature . I! greater t(en unity7 decrease tem"erature.
Re"eat ste"s 2 and # until con;erged.
Alternati;ely7 o3tain t(e le!t5(and side o! .@uation 1.18 !or de< "oint calculation. I!
smaller t(an unity7 decrease tem"erature . I! greater t(an unity increase tem"erature.
Re"eat ste"s 2 and # until con;erged.
#.5 A6eotropes
Figures 1.1 and 1.# are "(ase diagrams !or QnormalR systems. In suc( systems7 as t(e
concentration o! t(e less ;olatile com"onent increases7 so do t(e de< "oint and t(e 3u33le
"oint. I! t(e com"onents e'(i3it strong "(ysical or c(emical interaction7 t(e "(ase
diagrams may 3e di!!erent !rom t(ose s(o<n in Figure 1.1 and 1.# and more li-e t(ose
s(o<n in Figure 1.%. In suc( systems t(ere is a critical com"osition =t(e "oint o!
intersection o! t(e e@uili3rium cur;e <it( t(e %&
8
diagonal? !or <(ic( t(e ;a"or and li@uid
com"ositions are identical. *nce t(is ;a"or and li@uid com"osition is reac(ed7 t(e
com"onents cannot 3e se"arated at t(e gi;en "ressure. Suc( mi'tures are called
azeotropes.
A minimum 3oiling a1eotro"e 3oils at a tem"erature lo<er t(an eit(er o! t(e "ure
com"onents. B(en distilling a system made u" o! t(ese com"onents7 t(e to" "roduct is
t(e a1eotro"e . T(e 3ottom "roduct is t(e (ig( 3oiling "oint com"onent <(en t(e +C is
"resent at lo< concentrations. *n t(e ot(er (and 7 <(en t(e lo< 3oiling "oint com"onent
is "resent at (ig( concentrations7 t(e 3ottom "roduct is t(e +C. A ma'imum 3oiling
a1eotro"e 3oils at a tem"erature (ig(er t(an eit(er o! t(e "ure com"onents and t(ere!ore
al<ays lea;es at t(e 3ottom o! t(e column. T(e to" "roduct is (ig( 3oiling "oint
com"onent <(en t(e +C is "resent at lo< concentration. T(e to" "roduct is t(e +C
<(en it is "resent at a (ig( concentrations.
I! li@uid "(ase se"aration occurs7 t(e 3oiling tem"erature o! t(e mi'ture as <ell as t(e
;a"or "(ase com"osition remain constant until one o! t(e li@uid "(ases disa""ears. 4nder
suc( conditions7 a mi'ture o! t(e t<o li@uids <ill lea;e t(e to" o! t(e column <(ile eit(er
o! t(e com"onents <ill lea;e at t(e 3ottom7 de"ending on t(e com"osition.
#.7 !//ar. o& Disti((ation operation
In "ractice7 distillation is carried out 3y eit(er o! t<o "rinci"al met(ods. T(e !irst met(od
is 3ased on t(e "roduction o! t(e ;a"or 3y 3oiling t(e li@uid mi'ture to 3e se"arated and
condensing t(e ;a"ors <it(out allo<ing any li@uid to return to t(e still in contact <it( t(e
;a"ors. T(e second met(od is 3ased on t(e return o! "art o! t(e condensate to t(e still
under suc( conditions t(at t(is returning li@uid is 3roug(t into intimate contact <it( t(e
;a"ors on t(eir <ay to t(e condenser. T(e distillation is t(e mass trans!er de;ice <(ic(
consists o! assem3lies o! indi;idual unit called as .@uili3rium stages interconnected so
t(at materials 3eing "rocessed "ass t(roug( eac( stage in term. T(e streams mo;e
concurrently t(roug( t(e assem3ly . In eac( stage t(ey are 3roug(t into contact7 mi'ed
and t(en se"arated. T(e stream lea;ing eac( stage are usually not in e@uili3rium eit(er 3ut
are muc( closer to 3eing so t(an t(e entering system are.
In t(e distillation7 t(e enric(ment o! t(e ;a"or stream as it "asses t(roug( t(e column in
contact <it( re!lu' is called recti!ication section. To o3tain an increase in t(e
concentration o! t(e lo< 3oils in t(e ;a"or 7 t(e re!lu' must 3e ric(er in lo< 3oils t(an t(e
e@uili3rium concentration corres"onding to t(e ;a"or lea;ing t(e still. At all le;els o!
column 7 some lo< 3oilers s"ontaneously di!!ers !rom t(e li@uid into t(e ;a"or7 ;a"ori1ing
as it "asses !rom one "(ase to t(e ot(er. T(e (eat o! ;a"ori1ation o! t(e lo< 3oilers is
su""lied 3y an e@ual amount o! (eat o! condensation o! (ig(er 3oilers.
T(e (ig( 3oilers di!!use s"ontaneously !rom ;a"or to li@uid. T(e net e!!ect t(en is to
trans!er (ig( 3oiler !rom ;a"or to li@uid and to trans!er a t(ermally e@ui;alent amount o!
lo< 3oiler !rom li@uid to ;a"or. As t(e ;a"or rises in t(e column7 it 3ecomes enric(ed in
lo< 3oiler or more ;olatile com"onent. As t(e li@uid descends t(e column7 its content o!
(ig( 3oiler increases. T(e !lo< o! t(e 3ul- o! t(e lo< 3oiler is u" t(e column and t(at o!
t(e (ig( 3oiler is do<n t(e column.
From t(e distillation column7 t(e li@uid <it(dra<n !rom t(e 3ottom contains "eriodically
all t(e (ig( 3oilers and o;er(ead "roduct content lo< 3oilers. T(e e@uili3rium stages are
used to reduce lo< 3oiler content in 3ottom and (ig( 3oilers in t(e o;er(ead. In t(e
distillation column7 "urity o! t(e "roducts de"ends on t(e t(ermodynamic "ro"erties o! t(e
!luid and mass trans!er e!!iciency. In t(e su3se@uent section o! t(is manual t(e ;arious
mass trans!er mediums are discussed. Also t(e design o! t(e columns and t(e num3er o!
e@uili3rium stages are discussed in su3se@uent sections o! t(is manual. T(e ;arious
conce"ts o! design 3y using "rocess simulation is e'"lained in latter "art o! t(is manual.
T(e guidelines7 term rules and trou3les(ooting in t(e o"eration and design o! distillation
column is also e'"lained in detail in later sections.
C"APTER '
DITI%%ATION 8$NDA9ENTA% : 9A
TRAN8ER CONCEPT
'.# Introd!ction
In t(e earlier c(a"ter t(e introduction and de!inition o! distillation o"eration is discussed.
T(e !las( distillation is used most !or se"arating com"onents <(ic( 3oil at <idely di!!erent
tem"eratures. It is not e!!ecti;e in se"arating com"onents o! com"ara3le ;olatility. $y
many successi;e redistillition small amounts o! some mere "ure com"onents may !inally
3e o3tained 3ut t(is met(od is also ine!!icient !or industrial distillation <(en nearly "ure
com"onents are <anted. T(en a ty"ical continuous !ractionating column e@ui""ed <it(
t(e 3ot( recti!ying and stri""ing section is re@uired. In t(is section t(e distillation conce"ts
are descri3ed . T(e ;arious tec(ni@ues and "(ase e@uili3rium "ro"erties are discussed in
!ollo<ing section.
'.' ections o& disti((ation co(!/n
As descri3ed earlier t(e distillation column include 3ot( t(e sections ;i1. recti!ication
section and stri""ing section. T(e "late on <(ic( t(e !eed enters is called as !eed Plate.
All "lates a3o;e t(e !eed tray constitute recti!ying section and all t(e "lates 3elo< t(e !eed
tray including !eed tray itsel! constitute t(e stri""ing section. T(e !eed !lo<s do<n t(e
stri""ing section to t(e 3ottom o! t(e column in <(ic( a de!inite le;el o! li@uid is
maintained. T(e li@uid !rom t(e 3ottom is !ed to t(e still called as re3oiler <(ic( "ro;ides
t(e ;a"or to t(e stri""ing section. T(e ;a"ors rising t(roug( t(e recti!ying section are
com"letely condensed in t(e condenser and condensate is collected in t(e accumulator or
recei;er in <(ic( de!inite li@uid le;el is maintained. T(e li@uid stream <(ic( is !ed 3ac-
!rom t(e recei;er to column is called as re!lu'. It "ro;ides t(e do<n !lo<ing li@uid in t(e
recti!ying section t(at is needed to act in t(e !ollo<ing ;a"or. Bit(out t(e re!lu' no
recti!ication <ould occur in t(e recti!ying section and t(e concentration o! t(e o;er(ead
"roduct <ould not 3e greater t(an t(at o! t(e ;a"or rising !rom t(e !eed "late.
+a"or lea;ing a distillation stage is ric(er t(an t(e !eed in t(e more ;olatile com"onents.
Li@uid lea;ing t(e stage is ric(er t(an t(e !eed in t(e less ;olatile com"onents. In order to
im"ro;e t(e se"aration7 multi"le stages are used. Stri""ing stages = Figure 2.1 a ?
concentrates t(e less ;olatile com"onents in a li@uid stream. A ;a"or recycle ;a"ori1es
=Qstri"sR? t(e more ;olatile com"onents !rom t(e li@uid. To generate t(e ;a"or recycle7
(eat is su""lied to ;a"ori1e a "ortion o! t(e 3ottom stage li@uid. T(is ;a"or recycle is
termed boilup. Recti!ying stages =Figure 2.1 3? concentrates t(e more ;olatile
com"onents in a ;a"or stream. A li@uid recycle condenses t(e less ;olatile com"onents
!rom t(e rising ;a"ors. To generate t(e li@uid recycle7 cooling is a""lied to condense a
"ortion o! t(e o;er(ead ;a"or. T(e li@uid recycle is termed re!lu'.
T(e stri""ing and recti!ying stages s(o<n in Figure 2.1 a and 3 can 3e com3ined into a
single se"aration "rocess <it( internal recycle =Figure 2.1 c ?. T(is "rocess is termed
Fractionation. In a single !eed !ractionator7 stages a3o;e t(e !eed are recti!ying and t(ose
3elo< it are stri""ing = Figure 2.1 c ?. In multi5!eed !ractionator7 t(e more "recise
!unctional criterion 3elo< is used to distinguis( t(e recti!ying !rom stri""ing sections.
T(e stri""ing section (as a net do<n!lo< o! material. T(e a3o;e ;a"or ser;es only as a
recycle stream to remo;e lig(ts !rom t(e li@uid. T(ere!ore7 t(e @uantity o! li@uid e'ceeds
t(e @uantity o! t(e ;a"or in t(e stri""ing section. T(e con;erse a""lies in t(e recti!ying
section. T(is section (as a net u"!lo< o! materials7 and t(e @uantity o! ;a"or e'ceeds t(e
@uantity o! li@uid. T(e sections <(ic( (a;e a net u"!lo< o! material are called recti!ying.
T(e sections <(ic( (a;e a net do<n!lo< o! material7 are called stri""ing.
'., Disti((ation Concepts
'.,.# "eat and /ass concepts
T(e (eat and mass 3alance across t(e eac( section o! column is gi;en as : Re!er !igures
2.1 and 2.2 consider t(e o;erall 3alance across t(e distillation columns.
In N out F N $ > D mass 3alance e@uation =2.1?
T(e (eat 3alance e@uation is
F 2
"
> 9
2
N D 2
D
> $2
$
> 9
C
=2.2?
B(ere 7 F N Feed !lo<rate =-g:(r?
$ N $ottom Product =-g:(r?
D N *;er(ead "roduct or Distillate =-g:(r?
2
P
N .nt(al"y o! !eed =-cal : -g mole? 7
2
D
N .nt(al"y o! distillate =-cal : (r?
2
$
N .nt(al"y o! distillate "roduct =-cal : -gmole?
Considering t(e recti!ication section7 t(e mass and (eat 3alance e@uations are
ass 3alance e@uation +
#
> L
8
N +
1
> L
2
=2.#?
2eat 3alance e@uation +
#
2
+#
> L
8
2
L8

N +
1
2
+1
> L
2
2
L2

=2.%?
Considering t(e stri""ing section7 t(e mass and (eat 3alance e@uations are
ass 3alance e@uation +
&
>L
#
N +
%
> L
%
=2.&?
2eat 3alance e@uation +
&
2
+&
> L
#
2
L#
N +
%
2
%
; > L
%
2
%L
=2.)?
+ N ;a"or !lo< rate =-gmole:(r?
L N Li@uid !lo< rate =-gmole : (r?
T(e a3o;e sections can 3e modi!ied considering t(e com"onents as a 3inary system
T(e com"onent 3alance is gi;en as : ' is lig(t -ey com"onent
F ' ! N D ' D > $ ' $ =2.,?
'
!
N ole !raction o! +C in !eed distillate
'
D
N ole !raction o! +C in 3ottom
'
$
N ole !raction o! +C in "roduct.
Similarly t(e lig(t com"onent 3alance !or t(e recti!ication section is gi;en as
+y
n>1
N L
n
'
n
> D'
D
=2./?
Re!er Figures 2.1 and 2.2
y
n>1

N L
n
'
n
> =D:+
n
? '
D
=2.6?
+
n

'
n
N +
n
y
n>1
5 D
L
n
L
n
'
D
=2.18?
L
n
N Li@uid !lo< rate in recti!ying section =-gmole : (r?
L
m
N Li@uid !lo< rate in stri""ing section =-gmole : (r?
+
n
N +a"or !lo< rate in recti!ying section =-gmole : (r?
+
m
N +a"or !lo< rate in stri""ing section =-gmole : (r?
T(e lig(t com"onent material 3alance !or t(e stri"ing section is gi;en as C Re!er !igures
2.1 and 2.2 E
L
m
N +
m
> $
+
m
H
m
N L
m
F
m>1
5 $'
$
=2.11?
H
m
N =L
m
:+
m
? F
m>1
=B: +
m
? F
$
=2.12?
F
m>1
N =+
m
:L
m
? y
m
> =B: L
m
? F
$
=2.1#?
'.,.' 8eed condition
T(e !eed tray is considered as t(e tray <(ic( se"arates t(e stri""ing section and
recti!ication section. In t(e recti!ication section7 t(e mass and (eat 3alance is gi;en as
I! L
n
N L
n>1
N L
n>2
N .... =2.1%?
y
n>1
N =L
n
: +
n
? '
n
> =D: +
n
? '
D
=2.6?
and in t(e stri""ing section
y
m
N =L
m
: +
m
? '
m>1
5 =B : +
m
? '
<
=2.12?
At t(e !eed tray t(e mass and (eat 3alance e@uations are gi;en as
(
!
;
5 (
!
=2.1&?
9 N
(
!
;
5 (
L
!
B(ere 9 is t(e (eat re@uired to con;ert 1 mole o! !eed to t(e saturated ;a"or di;ided 3y
t(e molar latent (eat o! ;a"ori1ation . T(en mass and (eat 3alance e@uations are gi;en as :
LG N L > 9! =2.1)?
+G N + > =9 5 1?! =2.1,?
'.,., -e. co/ponents e)!i(ibri!/
T(e e@uili3rium coe!!icient is e'"ressed as t(e ratio o! mole !raction com"onent in ;a"or
to t(e mole !raction com"onent in li@uid. T(e relati;e ;olatility o! t<o com"onents is
e'"ressed as a ratio o! indi;idual e@uili3rium coe!!icients at e@ual "ressure and
tem"erature.
y
1
N -
1
'
1
=2.1/?
1 5 -
2
'
1
N
-
1
5 -
2

it gi;es
'
1
= -
1
5 -
2
? N 1 5 -
2
'
1
-
1
5 '
1
-
2
N

1 5 -
2
'
1
-
1
'
1
-
1

N
1 -
2
=2.16?
-
2
-
2
-
2
-
2

N
-
1
7 -
2
N
-
1

1
N
=2.28?
-
2
-
2
-
1

'
1
5 '
1
N 1
-
1
'1 =
5 1? N

5
1
-
1

N 1 > '1 =
5 1?
-
1

-
1
N
1 > '
1
= 5 1? =2.21?

y
1
N -
1
'
1

y
1
N
'
1
1 > '
1
= 5 1? =2.22?
In case o! multicom"onent system t(e s"eci!ications are <ritten in terms o! t<o -ey
com"onents. T(e more ;olatile lig(ter com"onent is re!erred as t(e lig(t -ey <(ere as t(e
(ea;ier less ;olatile com"onent is re!erred as a (ea;y -ey com"onent. T(e com"onents
are distri3uted 3et<een lig(t -ey and (ea;y -ey com"onents and are -no<n as distri3uted
com"onents7 and t(e com"onent more ;olatile t(en lig(t -ey or less ;olatile t(an (ea;y
-ey are called non distri3uted com"onents.
'.,.1 Constant /o(ar over&(o4 ass!/ptions.
For calculation "ur"ose t(e constant molar !lo< is assumed in t(e distillation column. It
states t(at t(e mi'ture (as a constant (eat o! ;a"ori1ation and t(at sensi3le (eat and (eat
o! mi'ing e!!ects are negligi3le. 0enerally7 constant molar o;er!lo< (old <ell !or t(e
systems <(ere t(e com"onents are similar in nature and molecular <eig(ts and <(ere (eat
o! solution e!!ects are not signi!icant.
T(en t(e e@uation !or li@uid and ;a"or across t(e trays are gi;en as :
L
n
N L
n >1
N L
n >2
N L
n >#
N 555
and +
n
N +
n

>1
N +
n >2
N +
n >#
N 555
I! (eat o! solution e!!ects are small 7 t(e ratio o! t(e molar latent (eats o! t(e "ure
com"onents "ro;ides insig(t into t(e suita3ility o! t(e assum"tion. T(e assum"tion (olds
<ell !or t(e 3en1ene toluene7 iso3utane7 normal 3utane and normal (e"tane .t(yl3en1ene
systems7 <(ere t(e latent (eat ratios are close to unity. T(e assum"tion is less satis!actory
!or t(e acetone <ater and met(ane5et(ylene systems7 <(ere t(e ratio is (ig(er. It is 3est to
adDust t(e '5y diagrams !or (eat e!!ects. T(is can 3e ac(ie;ed 3y one o! t(e !ollo<ing
tec(ni@ues :
B(en a com"uter simulation is a;aila3le7 t(e com"onent 3alance lines can 3e
constructed !rom com"ositions "rinted out 3y t(e simulation. T(e simulation
energy 3alances adDust t(e com"onent 3alance line !or (eat e!!ects. T(ese (eat
e!!ects con;ert eac( com"onent 3alance line t(us constructed into a cur;e.
4sing an 25' diagram to adDust latent (eat e!!ects. T(is a""roac( also con;erts
eac( com"onent 3alance line into a cur;e7 3ut t(e cur;e is constructed using an
25' diagram instead o! a com"uter simulation.
4sing an 25' diagram to deri;e "seudo molecular <eig(ts and "seudo latent
(eats o! ;a"ori1ation !or t(e com"onents. T(ese "seudo "ro"erties are t(en
a""lied to construct an '5y diagram.
T<o additional assum"tions are in(erent in t(e '5y diagram met(od:
1. T(e se"aration is at constant "ressure. T(is assum"tion is usually good unless t(e
column o"erates under ;acuum. For ;acuum systems7 t(e e@uili3rium cur;e
needs adDustments !or "ressure ;ariations.
2. T(e !eed stream mi'es <it( t(e !eed stage !luids "rior to any se"aration. T(is
assum"tion is good !or a single "(ase !eed7 3ut less satis!actory !or a "artially
;a"ori1ed !eed. A "artially ;a"ori1ed !eed s"lits "rior to mi'ingM t(e !eed li@uid
t(en mi'es <it( li@uid o! t(e tray 3elo<7 <(ile ;a"or mi'es <it( ;a"or o! t(e
tray a3o;e.
'.1 The ratios !sed in Disti((ation
From t(e e@uili3rium and mass 3alance it is already deri;ed t(at
+ N L > D
+
m
N L
m
5 $
F N D > $
+
m
5 +
n
N = L
m
5 L
n
? 5 F
o;erall 3alance o! com"onent
D ' D > $'
$
N F
t(e e@uations in t(e recti!ication section is gi;en !rom e@uation.=2.6? as

y
n
N
L
n

'
n>1

>
D

'
D
+
n
+
n
and mass 3alance !or stri""ing sections is gi;en !rom e@uation. =2.12?

H
m
N
L
m

'
n>1
5
$
'
$
+
m
+
m

T(e re!le' ratio is deri;ed as t(e molar !lo< ratio o! li@uid into t(e column on !irst tray to
distillate.
R N L
n
: D
t(e stri""ing ratio is de!ined as t(e molar !lo< ratio o! ;a"or into t(e column to last tray
to t(e 3ottom "roduct.

S N
+
m

$
'.3 !//ar. O& Disti((ation Concepts :
T(e continuous !ractionating column e@ui""ed <it( t(e 3ot( recti!ying and stri""ing
section is re@uired to se"arate t(e com"onents !rom a mi'ture. In t(is section t(e
distillation conce"ts are descri3ed . T(e ;arious tec(ni@ues and "(ase e@uili3rium
"ro"erties are also discussed in section. All "lates a3o;e t(e !eed tray constitute recti!ying
section and all t(e "lates 3elo< t(e !eed tray including !eed tray itsel! constitute t(e
stri""ing section. T(e li@uid stream <(ic( is !ed 3ac- !rom t(e recei;er to column is called
as re!lu'. It "ro;ides t(e do<n !lo<ing li@uid in t(e recti!ying section t(at is needed to act
in t(e !ollo<ing ;a"or. Bit(out t(e re!lu' no recti!ication <ould occur in t(e recti!ying
section and t(e concentration o! t(e o;er(ead "roduct <ould not 3e greater t(an t(at o!
t(e ;a"or rising !rom t(e !eed "late.
+a"or lea;ing a distillation stage is ric(er t(an t(e !eed in t(e more ;olatile com"onents.
Li@uid lea;ing t(e stage is ric(er t(an t(e !eed in t(e less ;olatile com"onents. In order to
im"ro;e t(e se"aration7 multi"le stages are used. T(e stri""ing and recti!ying stages can
3e com3ined into a single se"aration "rocess <it( internal recycle. T(is "rocess is termed
Fractionation. In a single !eed !ractionator7 stages a3o;e t(e !eed are recti!ying and t(ose
3elo< it are stri""ing. In multi!eed !ractionator7 t(e more "recise !unctional criterion
3elo< is used to distinguis( t(e recti!ying !rom stri""ing sections.
C"APTER ,
BINAR; ;TE9 DITI%%ATION
,.# Introd!ction
$inary distillation as t(e name suggests is t(e distillation o! t<o com"onents <it( a <ide
di!!erence in 3oiling "oints. T(e t<o com"onents are re!erred to as t(e more ;olatile
com"onent =+C? and t(e less ;olatile com"onent =L+C?. For a 3inary mi'ture <it( a
normal y5' cur;e t(e ;a"or is al<ays ric(er in +C t(an t(e li@uid !rom <(ic( it is
!ormed. T(ere are t(ree main met(ods used in distillation "ractice <(ic( all rely on t(is
3asic !act. T(e met(ods are :
1. Di!!erential distillation
2. Flas( or e@uili3rium distillation
#. Recti!ication
,.' 9ethods o& Disti((ation
,.'.# Di&&erentia( Disti((ation
In di!!erential distillation7 t(e 3inary mi'ture is (eated at a constant rate and t(e ;a"or
!ormed is remo;ed !rom t(e system. T(is results in t(e li@uid getting <ea-er in L+C7
<(ile t(e com"osition o! ;a"or "roduct c(anges continuously . In t(is met(od7 t(e ;a"or
!ormed o;er a s(ort "eriod is in e@uili3rium <it( t(e li@uid 3ut t(e total ;a"or !ormed is
not in e@uili3rium <it( t(e residual li@uid. T(e analysis o! di!!erential distillation in as
!ollo<s :
In a mi'ture o! A and $7 i! ds amount o! A containing mol !raction y o! A in ;a"ori1ed7
t(en material 3alance on A gi;es :
y ds N d=s'? N 'ds > sd'
<(ic( on integration yields:
ln s = 1 ln = m51?' > c
s
o
=m51? = m51? '
8
>c
considering e@uili3rium relations(i" !ollo<s y N m' > c

y 5'

N
S
=m 5 1?
y
8
5 '
8
S
8

From t(is e@uation amount o! li@uid to 3e distilled to get a li@uid o! desired com"osition
can 3e calculated. Assuming constant relati;e ;olatility7
'
y N
1 > = 51?'
ln S N 1 ln '=1 5 '
8
?
>
ln 1 5 '
8
S
8
= 51? '
8
=15 '? 15 '
,.'.' 8(ash or E)!i(ibri!/ Disti((ation :
T(e met(od consists in ;a"ori1ing a de!inite amount o! li@uid !eed suc( t(at t(e ;a"or is in
e@uili3rium <it( t(e li@uid.
For 3inary mi'ture o! A and $
F N + > S
<(ere F N moles: sec o! !eed o! mol !raction '
!
o! A
+ N moles: sec o! ;a"or !ormed o! mol !raction y o! A
S N moles: sec o! li@uid o! mol !raction ' o! A.
F'! N +y > S'

+ N '! 5 '
F y 5 '
y N
F
'
!

5

'
F
5 1
+ +
T(is is e@uation o! a line t(roug( "oint ='!7 '!?. +alues o! '7y must satis!y t(e e@uili3rium
data.
,.'., Recti&ication :
T(e essential merit o! recti!ication o;er t(e a3o;e t<o met(ods is t(at it ena3les ;a"or to
3e su3stantially ric( in +C t(an t(e li@uid le!t. Fractionation column !or t(is "ur"ose
allo<s successi;e ;a"ori1ation and condensation to 3e done in a single unit. T(e
!undamentals o! distillation =i.e. recti!ication? are discussed in c(a"ter 2. No<7 <e "roceed
!urt(er to calculate t(e num3er o! "lates re@uired in a distillation column.
T(e e@uations o! o"erating lines !or t(e recti!ication section and t(e stri""ing section are
as !ollo<s :
y N
L
n
'
n>1
>
D
'd

+
n
+
n
!or recti!ication section
y
m
N L
m
'
m>1
5

B
'
<

+
m
+
m
!or stri""ing section.
To calculate t(e c(ange in com"osition !rom one "late to ne't7 t(e e@uili3rium data are
used to !ind t(e com"osition o! ;a"or a3o;e li@uid. From t(e a3o;e t<o e@uations t(e
com"osition o! ;a"or and li@uid in t(e recti!ication and stri""ing sections can 3e
calculated .
,.' The 9cCabe +Thie(e 9ethod :
T(is met(od gi;es a sim"le gra"(ical solution !or t(e num3er o! stages re@uired cCa3e
5T(iele diagrams. T(e line e@uation diagram is indicated as .@uili3rium cur;e in !igure #.1
=a? . T(is cur;e is t(e locus o! all t(e e@uili3rium "oints. For a gi;en li@uid com"osition '
n
7
it gi;es t(e e@uili3rium ;a"or com"osition y
n
7 and ;ice ;ersa. An e@uili3rium stage n is
re"resented as a "oint ='
n
7 y
n
? on t(e e@uili3rium cur;e <(ere '
n
and y
n
are t(e li@uid and
;a"or com"ositions lea;ing t(e stage. %&
8
diagonal line !igure #.1 =3? . T(e e@uations o!
o"erating lines !or t(e recti!ication section and t(e stri""ing section are as !ollo<s :
y N
L
n
'
n>1
>
D
'd

+
n
+
n
=#.1? !or recti!ication section
y
m
N L
m
'
m>1
5

B
'
<

+
m
+
m
=#.2? !or stri""ing section.
To calculate t(e c(ange in com"osition !rom one "late to ne't7 t(e e@uili3rium data are
used to !ind t(e com"osition o! ;a"or a3o;e li@uid. From t(e a3o;e t<o e@uations t(e
com"osition o! ;a"or and li@uid in t(e recti!ication and stri""ing sections can 3e
calculated. T(is line is t(e locus o! all t(e "oints <(ere
y
n>1
N '
n
=#.#?
T(e e@uations o! o"erating lines are gi;en a3o;e e@uation =#.1? and =#.2?..@uations #.2
and #.1 indicate t(at t(e slo"es o! t(e com"onent 3alance lines are L:+ and L
m
: +
m
!or t(e
recti!ying and stri""ing sections7 res"ecti;ely. As L
n
S +
n
and L
m
T+
m
7 t(e slo"e o! t(e
recti!ying section com"onent 3alance line is smaller t(an unity7 <(ile t(at o! t(e stri""ing
section com"onent 3alance line is greater t(an unity. B(en latent (eat ;aries !rom stage to
stage7 so do t(e L
n
:+
n
and L
m
:+
m
ratios. For t(is reason7 <(en t(e constant molar
o;er!lo< assum"tion does not a""ly7 t(e com"onent 3alance relations(i" 3ecomes a
cur;e instead o! a straig(t line.
T(e "oint <(ere t(e recti!ying section com"onent 3alance line intersects t(e %&
8
diagonal
line satis!ies 3ot( e@uations =#.1? and =#.#?. Sol;ing t(ese simultaneously
y
n
N '
n>1
N
D'
D
N '
D

+
n
5 L
n
=#.%?
$ot( .@uation =#.1? and =#.%? are !or a column e@ui""ed <it( a total condenser in !igure
#.2 a . Since a total condenser is not an e@uili3rium stage 7 t(e !irst e@uili3rium stage is
inside t(e column. I! t(e condenser is "artial =!igure #.2 3? 7 t(en it is t(e !irst e@uili3rium
stage. In t(is case7 y
D
re"laces '
D
in e@uation. #.17 D is identical to +
1
7 and L
8
is 1ero.
Su3stituting in e@. #.1 gi;es
y
n
N y
D
T(ere!ore7 t(e recti!ying section com"onent 3alance line intersects t(e %&
8
diagonal line at
t(e "oint ' N '
D
and ' N y
D
!or a total and "artial condenser7 res"ecti;ely. T(e intersection
"oint can 3e e'"ressed as
' N y N "roduct com"osition.
A similar de;iation !or t(e stri""ing section s(o<s t(at t(e stri""ing section com"onent
3alance line intersects t(e %&
8
diagonal line at t(e "oint :
' N y N 3ottom "roduct com"osition
Intersection ta-es "lace at a "oint ='
i
7 y
i
? t(at satis!ies 3ot( e@uation. #.1. and #.2.
ulti"lying 3ot( sides o! .@uation #.1 3y +
n
and 3ot( sides o! #.2 3y +
m
and su3tracting
one !rom t(e ot(er yields.
=+
n
5 +
m
?y
i
N =L
n
5 L
m
?'
i
> D'
D
>B'
<
=#.&?
=+
n
5 +
m
?y
i
N =L
n
5 L
m
?'
i
> F1 =#.)?
Let
L
n
5 L
m

N @
=#.,?
F
Di;iding 3ot( sides o! e@uation. $y F7 and su3stituting .@uation #., gi;es
+
m
5 +

N @ 5 1 =#./?
F
su3stituting .@uation #., and #./ in .@uation #.) and di;iding 3ot( sides 3y =@ 5 1?F

y
i
N
@
'
i
5
1
@ 5 1 @ 5 1 =#.6?
.@uation #.6 re"resents t(e locus o! t(e "oints at <(ic( t(e recti!ying section com"onent
3alance line intersects t(e stri""ing section com"onent 3alance line. T(is e@uation is called
t(e @ line e@uation.
I! '
i
N 17 t(en e@uation. #.6 gi;es y
i
N '
i
N1 . T(ere!ore7 t(e @ line intersects t(e %&
8
diagonal line at t(e "oint =171?. T(e slo"e is @:=@ 5 1? as "er .@uation #.6. .@uation #.,
<(ic( de!ines @ can 3e re<ritten as :
L
n
5 L
m
N @F
From t(is e@uation7 t(e @uantity @ is t(e !raction o! t(e !eed t(at is li@uid. T(e "roduct @F
is t(e @uantity o! li@uid contained in t(e !eed. T(is @uantity Doins t(e li@uid descending
!rom t(e recti!ying section to "ro;ide t(e li@uid !or t(e stri""ing section. Similarly7 =1
5 @?F is t(e @uantity o! ;a"or in t(e !eedM t(is ;a"or Doins t(e ;a"or ascending !rom t(e
stri""ing section to "ro;ide t(e recti!ying section ;a"or !lo<. Ta3le #.1 summari1es t(e
relations(i" 3et<een @7 t(e t(ermal condition o! t(e !eed7 slo"e o! t(e @ line7 and column
!lo<. Ta3le #.2 indicate cCa3e 5 T(iele Diagram Lines.
,.1 Pinching
As t(e com"onent 3alance line a""roac(es t(e e@uili3rium cur;e7 t(e ste"s 3ecome
smaller. An in!inite num3er o! stages is re@uired to reac( t(e intersection o! t(e
com"onent 3alance line and t(e e@uili3rium cur;e. T(is intersection is termed t(e "inc(
"oint. A column is said to 3e U"inc(ingG <(en t(e com"onent 3alance line is too close to
t(e e@uili3rium cur;e. P(ysically7 t(is re"resents a situation <(ere se;eral stages are doing
;ery little se"aration and are "ractically <asted.
Ta3le #.1 Relations(i" 3et<een @7 @5line and column Flo<s
Relations(i"
3et<een
Feed condition @ 2o< to calculate @ Slo"e o! L and + and
@ line L
m
+
m

Su3cooled li@uid T1 @ N 1> C
PL
=T
$P
5 T
!
? >;e L
m
T L +
m
T +
2
+
Saturated li@uid 1 @ N 1 ' L
m
T L +
m
N +
+a"or li@uid 8S@S1 @ N molar li@uid 5;e L
m
T L +
m
S +
i'ture !raction o! !eed
Saturated ;a"or 8 @ N 8 8 L
m
N L +
m
S +
Su"er(eated S8 @ N 5C
P+
=T
!
5 T
DP
? >;e L
m
S L +
m
S +
+a"or 2
+
Ta3le #.2 cCa3e 5 T(iele Diagram Lines
Line B(at t(e line Slo"e Point t(roug( <(ic(
descri3es line "asses
1. Recti!ying section Recti!ying section L : + ='
D
7'
D
? i! total condenser
com"onent 3alance com"onent 3alances =y
D
7
yD
? i! "artial
=o"erating? line condenser
2. Stri""ing section Stri""ing section L
m
: +
m
='
$
7
'$
?
com"onent 3alance com"onent 3alance
=o"erating? line
#. @5 line Locus o! "oints o!
intersection o! recti!ying @ =171?
and stri""ing com"onent @ 5 1
3alance line
%. %&
8
diagonal line 1. Locus o! "oint o! 1.8 =878? and =1.871.8?
<(ere ' N y
2. At total re!lu' it
re"resents t(e com"onent
3alance lines
Pinc(ing in a column design does not only <aste stages7 t(ere3y leading to an o;ersi1ed
column7 3ut is also ris-y. .;en minor inaccuracies in relati;e ;olatilities and ent(al"ies
may 3ring t(e com"onent 3alance line and t(e e@uili3rium cur;e closer or e;en to cross7
earlier t(an antici"ated. T(is e'"onentially escalates t(e stage re@uirement . I! t(e
additional stages re@uired are una;aila3le7 t(e column <ill not accom"lis( t(e desired
se"aration. It is t(ere!ore im"erati;e to design a column a<ay !rom t(e "inc(ed region.
In an e'isting column7 mec(anical reasons o!ten ma-e it di!!icult to c(ange !eed location.
A "inc( can t(en 3e remedied 3y increasing re!lu' and re3oil. T(is dra<s t(e com"onent
3alance line and t(e e@uili3rium cur;e !urt(er a"art7 enlarging t(e ste"s7 and t(ere3y
"ermitting t(e re@uired se"aration to 3e ac(ie;ed <it( t(e e'isting !eed location.
Increasing re!lu' and re3oil in order to o;ercome a "inc(7 (o<e;er7 is ac(ie;ed at t(e
"enalty o! greater energy consum"tion7 (ig(er o"erating costs7 and greater ;a"or and
li@uid tra!!ic t(roug( t(e column. B(en t(e column or its (eat e'c(angers are close to a
ca"acity limit7 t(e greater ;a"or and li@uid tra!!ic may reduce column !eed (andling
ca"acity. In t(e !ield7 a sym"tom o! "inc(ing is a ;ery small tem"erature di!!erence across
many trays7 "articularly near t(e !eed. T(is sym"tom can also suggest !looding 7 dry or
ot(er<ise ine!!icient trays. A distinguis(ing !eature o! "inc(ing is t(at as re3oil and re!lu'
ratios are increased7 t(e tem"erature di!!erence 3ecomes larger and o"eration returns to
normal. Note t(at Qdry traysR is a s"eci!ic case o! "inc(ing. B(en L N 87 t(e slo"e o! t(e
com"onent 3alance line is 87 and it <ill 3ecome (ori1ontal until it meets t(e e@uili3rium
cur;e.
,.3 The I/portance o& the Re&(!2 Ratio
In!luence o! re!lu' ratio on t(e num3er o! "lates re@uired is discussed 3elo<. T(e ratio
L
n
: D o! t(e to" o;er!lo< to t(e @uantity o! "roduct is denoted 3y R7 and t(is ena3les t(e
e@uation o! t(e o"erating line to 3e e'"ressed in anot(er <ay7 <(ic( is o!ten more
con;enient. T(us7 e@uation is :
y
n
N
L
n
'
n>1
>

D
'
D
L
n
> D L
n
> D =#.1%?
y
n
N
R
'
n>1
>
R
'
D
R > 1 R > 1 =#.1&?
Any c(ange in R <ill t(ere!ore modi!y t(e slo"e o! t(e o"erating line and <ill alter t(e
num3er o! "lates re@uired !or a gi;en se"aration. I! R is -no<n 7 t(e to" line is most easily
dra<n 3y Doining "oint7 A ='
d
7 '
d
? to $=87 '
d
: =R> 1? ?. T(is met(od a;oids t(e calculation
o! t(e actual !lo<s rates L
n
7 +
n
7 <(en only t(e num3er o! "lates is to 3e estimated.
I! no "roduct7 is <it(dra<n !rom t(e still =D N 8?7 t(e column is said to o"erator under
conditions o! total re!lu' and as seen !rom e@uation t(e to" o"erating lines (as its
ma'imum slo"e o! unity7 and coincides <it( t(e line ' N y. I! t(e re!lu' ratio is reduced 7
t(e slo"e o! t(e o"erating ratio is reduced and more stages are re@uired to "ass !rom '
!
to
'
d
7 as s(o<n 3y t(e line AA in !igure #.#. Furt(er reduction in R <ill e;entually 3ring t(e
o"erating line to A. 7 <(en an in!inite num3er o! stages is needed to "ass '
d
7 to '
!
. T(is
arises !rom t(e !act t(at under t(ese conditions t(e ste"s 3ecome ;ery close toget(er at
li@uid com"ositions near '
!
7 and no enric(ment occurs !rom t(e !eed "late to t(e "late
a3o;e. T(ese conditions are -no<n as minimum re!lu' and t(e re!lu' ratio is denoted 3y
R
m
. Any small increase in R 3eyond R
m
<ill gi;e a <or-a3le system7 t(oug( a large
num3er o! "lates <ill 3e re@uired. It is im"ortant to note t(at any line suc( as A07 <(ic(
is e@ui;alent to a smaller ;alue o! R t(an R
m
re"resents an im"ossi3le condition7 since it is
im"ossi3le to "ass 3eyond "oint 0 to<ards F
!
. T<o im"ortant deductions may 3e madeM
!irst t(at t(e minimum num3er o! "lates is re@uired !or a gi;en se"aration at conditions o!
total re!lu'7 and secondly t(at t(ere is a minimum re!lu' ratio 3elo< <(ic( it is im"ossi3le
to o3tain t(e desired enric(ment 7 (o<e;er many "lates are used.
Calculation o! inimum Re!lu' Ratio R
m

Figure #.# re"resents conditions <(ere t(e @5line is ;ertical7 and t(e "oint . lies on t(e
e@uili3rium cur;e and (as co5ordinates = F
!
7H
!
?. T(e slo"e o! t(e line A. is t(en gi;en 3y:
R
m

N
'
d
5 y
!
R
m
>1 '
d
5 F!
R
m
N

'
d
5 y
!
y
!
5 '
!
=#.1)?
I! t(e @ line is (ori1ontal as in !igure #.% t(e enric(ment line !or minimum re!lu' is gi;en
3y AC7 <(ere C (as co ordinates ='
c
7y
c
? T(en:
R
m

N

'
d
5 y
c
R
m
>1 '
d
5 '
c
or7 since y
c
N '
!
R
m
N
'
d
5 y
c

N
'
d
5 '
!
y
c
5 '
c
'
!
5 '
c
=#.1,?
,.5 $nder4ood and 8ens*e E)!ations
,.5.# N!/ber o& p(ates at Tota( Re&(!2
For ideal mi'tures7 or <(ere o;er t(e concentration range concerned t(e relati;e ;olatility
can 3e ta-en as constant 7 R
m
can 3e o3tained analytically !rom t(e "(ysical "ro"erties o!
t(e system. T(us 7 i! '
nA
and '
n$
are t(e mol !ractions o! t<o com"onents A and $ in t(e
li@uid on any "late n7 t(en a material 3alance o;er t(e to" "ortion o! t(e column a3o;e
"late n gi;es as 3elo< :
+
n
y
nA
N L
n
'
=n>1?A
> D'
dA
=#.1/?
and
+
n
y
n$
N L
n
'
=n>1?$
> D'
d$
=#.16?
4nder conditions o! minimum re!lu'7 a column (as to (a;e an in!inite num3er o! "lates7 or
alternati;ely t(e com"osition on "late n is e@ual to t(at on "late n>1. Di;iding e@uation
#.1/ 3y e@uation #.16 and using t(e relations
'
=n>1?A
N '
nA
and '
=n>1?$
N '
n$
'
nA

N
y
nA

N
L
n
'
=n>1?$
> D'
dA
'
n$
'
n$
L
n
'
n$
> D'
d$
R
m

N
L
n
N
1 '
dA
5 '
d$
D min 51 '
nA
5 '
n$
=#.28?
In t(is analysis is ta-en as t(e ;olatility o! A relati;e to $. T(ere is t(ere!ore7 in general7
a di!!erent ;alue o! R
m
!or eac( "late. In order to "roduce any se"aration o! t(e !eed7 t(e
minimum rele;ant ;alue o! R
m
is t(at !or t(e !eed "late7 so t(at t(e minimum re!lu' ratio
!or t(e desired se"aration is:
Rm N
1 '
dA
5
'
d$
5 1 '
!A
'
n$
=#.21?
For a 3inary system7 t(is 3ecomes :
R
m
N
1 '
dA
=15 '
dA
?
5 1 '
!A
=15

'
!A
? =#.22?
T(is relation could 3e o3tained 3y "utting y N ':=1> = 5 1?'? e@uation #.1)
,.5.' The n!/ber o& p(ates at Tota( Re&(!2. 8ens*e<s 9ethod
For conditions in <(ic( t(e relati;e ;olatility is constant 7 Fens-e deri;ed an e@uation !or
calculating t(e re@uired num3er o! "lates !or a desired se"aration. Since no "roduct is
<it(dra<n !rom t(e still7 t(e e@uation o! t(e t<o o"erating lines 3ecome:
y
n
N '
n>1
and y
m
N '
m>1
Consider t<o com"onents A and $7 t(e concentration o! <(ic( in t(e still are '
sA
and '
'$
.
T(en t(e com"osition on t(e !irst "late is o3tained 3y :
'
A
N
y
A

N
s

'
A
'
$

1
y
$

s
'
$ s
<(ere t(e su3scri"t outside t(e 3rac-et indicates t(e "late7 and s t(e still.
For "late 2 :
'
A
N
y
A

N

17
27
#...
n517
s

'
A
'
$

n
y
$

n51
'
$ s
I! an a;erage ;alue o! is used :
'
A

N
n
a;
'
A

'
$
n

'
$ s
In most cases total condensation occurs in t(e condenser7 so t(at :
log '
A
'
$

'
$ d
'
A s
n>1 N
log
a;
=/.2&?
and n is t(e re@uired num3er o! t(eoretical "lates in t(e column.
,.7 e(ection o& Econo/ic Re&(!2 Ratio
T(e cost o! a distillation unit includes t(e ca"ital cost o! t(e column7 determined largely 3y
t(e num3er and diameter o! t(e "lates7 and t(e o"erating costs7 determined 3y t(e steam
and cooling <ater re@uirements. T(e de"reciation c(arges can 3e ta-en as a "ercentage o!
t(e ca"ital cost7 and t(e t<o toget(er ta-en as t(e o;erall c(arges.
T(e steam re@uired <ill 3e "ro"ortional to +
m
7 <(ic( can 3e ta-en as +
n
<(ere t(e !eed is
li@uid at its 3oiling "oint. From a material 3alance o;er t(e to" "ortion o! t(e column7 +
n
N D=R>1? 7 so t(at t(e steam re@uired "er mol o! "roduct is "ro"ortional to R>1 M it <ill
3e a minimum <(en R e@uals R
m
and <ill

steadily rise as R is increased. T(e relations(i"
3et<een t(e num3er o! "lates n and t(e re!lu' ratio R.
T(e reduction in t(e re@uired num3er o! "lates as R is increased 3eyond R
m
<ill tend to
reduce t(e cost o! t(e column. For a column se"arating a 3en1ene toluene mi'ture7 <(ere
'
!
N 8.,6 and '
d
N 8.66 and '
<
N 8.81 t(e num3ers o! t(eoretical "lates as gi;en 3y t(e
cCa3e T(iele met(od are gi;en 3elo< !or ;arious ;alues o! R. T(e minimum re!lu' ratio
!or t(is case is 8./1.
Re!lu' ratio R 8./1 8.6 1.8 1.1 1.2
No. o! Plates.

2& 22 16 1/
T(us7 an increase in R7 at ;alues near R
m
7 gi;es a mar-ed reduction in t(e num3er o!
"lates7 3ut at (ig(er ;alues o! R7 !urt(er increases (a;e little e!!ect on t(e num3er.
Increasing t(e re!lu' ratio !rom R
m
t(ere!ore a!!ects t(e ca"ital and o"erating cost o! a
column in t(e !ollo<ing <ays:
T(e o"erating costs rise and are a""ro'imately "ro"ortional to =R>1?
T(e ca"ital cost initially !alls since t(e num3er o! "lates !all o!! ra"idly at t(is
stage.
T(e ca"ital cost rises at (ig(er ;alues o! R7 since t(ere is t(en only a ;ery small
reduction in t(e num3er o! "lates7 3ut t(e diameter7 and (ence area7
continuously increases 3ecause t(e ;a"or load 3ecomes greater. T(e
associated condenser and re3oiler <ill also 3e larger and more e'"ensi;e.
T(e total c(arges are !ound 3y adding t(e !i'ed and o"erating c(arges as s(o<n in !igure
#.& <(ere cur;e A s(o<s t(e steam costs and $ t(e !i'ed costs. T(e !inal "icture is s(o<n
3y cur;e C <(ic( (as a minimum ;alue corres"onding to t(e economic re!lu' ratio. T(ere
is no sim"le relation 3et<een R
m
and t(e o"timum ;alue7 3ut "ractical ;alues generally lie
3et<een 1.1 and 1.& times t(e minimum7 t(oug( muc( (ig(er are sometimes em"loyed7
"articularly in t(e case o! ;acuum distillation.
It is also use!ul to note t(at7 !or a !i'ed degree o! enric(ment !rom t(e !eed to t(e to"
"roduct7 t(e num3er o! trays re@uired increases ra"idly as t(e di!!iculty o! se"aration
increases7 t(at is as t(e relati;e ;olatility a""roac(es unity. A demand !or a (ig(er "urity
o! "roduct necessitates a ;ery considera3le increase in t(e num3er o! trays7 "articularly
<(en is near unityM in t(ese circumstances only a limited im"ro;ement in "roduct "urity
may 3e o3tained 3y increasing t(e re!lu' ratio. T(e designer must 3e care!ul to consider
t(e increase in cost o! "lant resulting !rom s"eci!ication o! a (ig(er degree o! "urity t(at
may 3e o3tained <it( t(e "ro"osed "lant.
,.= !//ar. :
In 3inary distillation7 cCa3e 5T(iele met(od gi;es a gra"(ical a""roac( is calculate
num3er o! stages re@uired. In order to dra< a straig(t line on an '5y diagram7 t(e slo"e o!
t(e line and one "oint on t(e line need to 3e determined. T(e deri;ations a3o;e ena3le t(e
determination o! t(e slo"e and one "oint on t(e !ollo<ing lines:
1. T(e recti!ying section com"onent 3alance=o"erating? line.
2. T(e stri""ing section com"onent 3alance=o"erating? line.
#. T(e @5line.
In eac( case t(e "oint de!ined is t(e intersection o! t(e line <it( t(e %&
8
diagonal line. T(e
slo"es and intersection "oints o! eac( o! t(ese lines are summari1ed in Ta3le #.2. In
addition7 it (as 3een s(o<n t(at t(e recti!ying section com"onent 3alance line and t(e
stri""ing section com"onent 3alance line meet on t(e @5line.
A c(ange in re!lu' ratio =i.e. R N L
n
:D? c(anges t(e num3er o! "lates re@uired is a
distillation column. T(e in!luence o! re!lu' ratio on num3er o! "lates is s(o<n in Figure
#.#. !or t(e column under total re!lu' conditions7 minimum num3er o! "lates are re@uired.
B(ile 3elo< a minimum num3er o! "lates are im"ossi3le to o3tain t(e desired enric(ment .
(ence its im"ortant to s"eci!y t(e re!lu' ratio to decide t(e num3er "! "lates and also t(e
ca"ital cost. Figure #.& gi;es t(e economic re!lu' ratio 3ased on ca"ital and o"erating
costs.

C"APTER 1
9$%TICO9PONENT DITI%%ATION
1.# Introd!ction
ulti5com"onent distillation in;ol;es t(e distillation o! a system containing more t(an t<o
com"onents <it( a ternary system. T(e conditions o! e@uili3rium are more com"le'7 !or at
constant "ressure7 t(e mol !raction o! t<o o! t(e com"onents in t(e li@uid "(ase must 3e
gi;en 3e!ore t(e com"osition o! ;a"or in e@uili3rium can 3e determined. ol !raction in
;a"or "(ase de"ends not only on t(e mol !raction in li@uid "(ase 3ut also on t(e relati;e
"ro"ortions o! t(e ot(er t<o com"onents. To o3tain t(e e@uili3rium relations(i" !or a
multi5com"onent mi'ture7 t(e sim"le relation can 3e used
y
A
N A'
A
=%.1?
A ;alues (a;e 3een determined !or a <ide range o! (ydrocar3ons <(ic( are mentioned in
!igure %.1.
In t(is c(a"ter <e <ill !irst de;elo" t(e Fens-e e@uation7 B(ic( allo<s calculation o!
multi5com"onent se"aration at total re!lu'. T(en <e <ill s<itc( to t(e 4nder<ood
e@uations7 <(ic( allo< us to calculate t(e minimum re!lu' ratio. To "redict t(e
a""ro'imate num3er o! e@uili3rium stages <e t(en use an em"irical correlation t(at relates
t(e actual num3er o! stages to t(e num3er o! stages at total re!lu'7 t(e minimum re!lu'
ratio7 and t(e actual re!lu' ratio. T(e !eed location can also 3e a""ro'imated !rom t(e
em"irical correlation.
1.' Tota( Re&(!2: 8ens*e E)!ation

Fens-e deri;ed a rigorous solution !or 3inary and multi5com"onents distillation at total
re!lu'. T(e deri;ation assumes t(at t(e stages are e@uili3rium stages. Consider t(e multi5
com"onent distillation column o"erating at total re!lu' s(o<n in !igure7 B(ic( (as a total
condenser and a "artial re3oiler. For an e@uili3rium "artial re3oiler !or any t<o
com"onents A and $7
H
A
N V
R
F
A
H
$

R
F
$

R
=%.2?
.@uation =%51? is Dust t(e de!inition o! t(e relati;e ;olatility a""lied to t(e re3oiler.
aterial 3alance !or t(ese com"onents around t(e re3oiler are :
+
R
y
A1R
N L
N
'
A1N
5 $'
A7R
=%.#a?
and
+
R
y
$7R
N L
N
'
$N
5 $'
$7R
=%.#3?
2o<e;er7 at total re!lu' 7 $ N 8 and L
N
N +
R
. T(us t(e mass 3alances 3ecome
y
A7R
N '
A7N
7 y
$7R
N '
$7N
=at total re!lu'? =%.%?
For a 3inary system t(is naturally means t(at t(e o"erating line is t(e y N' line. Com3ining
.@uation %.2 and %.%
'
A
N 5

R
'
A

'
$ N
'
$ R
=%.&?
I! <e no< mo;e u" t(e column to stage N7 t(e e@uili3rium e@uation is
y
A

N

N

y
A
y
$ N
y
$ N
T(e mass 3alances around stage N sim"li!y to
y
A7N
N '
A7N51
and y
$7N
N '
$7N51
Com3ining t(ese e@uations7 <e (a;e
'
A

N
N

'
A
'
$ N51
'
$ N
=%.)?
T(en e@uation %.& and %.) can 3e com3ined to gi;e :
'
A

N
R
'
A
'
$ N51
'
$ R
=%.,?
<(ic( relates t(e ratio o! li@uid mole !ractions lea;ing stage N51 to t(e ratio in t(e
re3oiler. Re"eating t(is "rocedure !or stage N517 <e o3tain
'
A

N
N51
R
'
A

'
$ N52
'
$ R
=%./?
Be can alternate 3et<een t(e o"erating and e@uili3rium e@uations until <e reac( t(e to"
stage. T(e result is
'
A

N
1
7
2
7
#
7 ...
N51

R
'
A
'
$ dl
'
$ R
=%.6?
I! <e de!ine

A$
as t(e geometric a;erage relati;e ;olatility7
A$
N C
1
7
2
7
#
7 ...
N51

N
R
E
1:N

min
=%.18?
.@uation . %.6 3ecomes
'
A

N
N
A$
min
'
A

'
$ dlst
'
$ R
=%.11?
sol;ing .@uation . %.11 !or N
min
<e o3tain
ln

C
= '
A
?
dist
: = '
A
?
R
E

'
$
'
$
N
min
N
In
A$
=%.12?
<(ic( is one !orm o! t(e Fens-e e@uation. N
min
is t(e num3er o! e@uili3rium contacts
including t(e "artial re3oiler re@uired at total re!lu'. I! t(e relati;e ;olatility is constant7
.@uation %.12 is e'act. An alternati;e !orm o! t(e Fens-e e@uation t(at is ;ery con;enient
!or multi5com"onent calculations is easily deri;ed. .@uation %.12 can also 3e
<ritten as
ln
=D'
A
: D'
$
?
dlst
N
min
N =$'
A
: $'
$
?
R
. ln
A$
=%.1#?
=D'
A
?
dlst
is e@ual to t(e !ractional reco;ery o! A in t(e distillate times t(e amount o! A in
t(e !eed.
=D'
A
?
dlst
N =FR
A
?
dlst
F1
A
=%.1%?
<(ere =FR
A
?
dlst
is t(e !ractional reco;ery o! A in t(e distillate. From t(e de!inition o!
!ractional reco;ery7
=$'
A
?
R
N C1 5 ==FR
A
?
dlst
E F1
A
=%.1&?
su3stituting .@uation %.1% and %.1& and t(e corres"onding e@uations !or com"onent $
into .@uation %.1# gi;es
ln =FR
A
?
dlst
=FR
$
?
3ot
C 1 5 =FR
A
?
dlst
E C 15 =FR
$
?
3ot
N
min
N
ln
A$
=%.1)?
Note t(at in t(is !orm o! t(e Fens-e e@uation7 =FR
A
?
dlst
is t(e !ractional reco;ery o! A in t(e
distillate7 <(ile =FR
$
?
3ot
is t(e !ractional reco;ery o! $ in t(e 3ottoms. .@uation %.1) is in
a con;enient !orm or multi5com"onent system.
For multi5com"onent systems calculation <it( t(e Fens-e e@uation is straig(t !or<ard i!
!ractional reco;eries o! t(e t<o -eys7 A and $ are s"eci!ied. .@uation =%.1)? can no< 3e
used directly to !ind N
min
. T(e relati;e ;olatility can 3e a""ro'imated 3y a geometric
a;erage. *nce N
min
is -no<n 7 t(e !ractional reco;eries o! t(e non -eys can 3e !ound 3y
<riting .@uation =%.1)? !or a non5-ey com"onent7 C. And eit(er -ey com"onent. T(en
sol;e !or =FR
c
?
dlst
or =FR
c
?
3ot
B(en t(is is done 7 .@uation =%.1)? 3ecomes
C$
N
min
=FR
c
?
dlst
N

=FR
$
?
3ot

>
C$
N
min
15=FR
$
?
3ot
=%.1,?
I! t<o mole !ractions are s"eci!ied7 say '
LA
7
3ot
and '
2A7dist7
t(e multi5com"onent calculation
is more di!!icult. Be canGt use t(e Fens-e e@uation directly7 3ut se;eral alternati;es are
"ossi3le. I! <e can assume t(at all non -eys are non distri3uting7 <e (a;e
D'
LNA7 dist.
N F1
LNA7
'
LNA7 3ot
N 8 =%.1/?
.@uations =%.1/? can 3e sol;ed along <it( t(e lig(t and (ea;y -ey mass 3alances and t(e
e@uations

C

C
=D'
L7disti
? N D and =$'
L73ot
? N $ =%.16?
1N1 1N1
*nce all distillate and 3ottoms com"ositions or ;alues !or D'
L7disti
and $'
L73ot
(a;e 3een
!ound 7 .@uation %.12 and %.1# can 3e used to !ind N
min
. 4se t(e -ey com"onent !or t(is
calculation. T(e assum"tion o! non5distri3ution o! t(e non5-eys can 3e c(ec-ed <it(
.@uation %.11 and %.1,. I! t(e original assum"tion is in;alid7 t(e calculated ;alues !or
non5-ey com"ositions can 3e used to calculate t(e lig(t and (ea;y -ey com"ositions in
distillate and 3ottoms. T(en .@uation %.12 and %.1# is used again.
I! non5-eys do distri3ute7 a reasona3le !irst guess !or t(e distri3ution is re@uired. T(is
guess can 3e o3tained 3y assuming t(at t(e distri3ution o! non5-ey is t(e same at total
re!lu' as it is at minimum re!lu'. T(e distri3ution at minimum re!lu' can 3e o3tained !rom
t(e 4nder<ood e@uation and is co;ered later.
1., 9ini/!/ Re&(!2 : $nder4ood E)!ations
For 3inary system7 t(e "inc( "oint usually occurs at t(e !eed "late. B(en t(is occurs7 an
analytical solution !or t(e limiting !lo<s can 3e deri;ed t(at is also ;alid !or multi5
com"onent systems as long as t(e "inc( "oint occurs at t(e !eed stage. 4n!ortunately7 !or
multi5com"onent systems7 t(ere <ill 3e se"arate "inc( "oint in 3ot( t(e stri""ing and
enric(ing sections i! t(ere are nondistri3uting com"onents. In t(is case an alternati;e
analysis "rocedure de;elo"ed 3y 4nder<ood is used to !ind t(e minimum re!lu' ratio.
I! t(ere are nondistri3uting (ea;y non5-eys "resent7 a Q "inc( "ointR o! constant
com"osition <ill occur at minimum re!lu' in t(e enric(ing section a3o;e <(ere t(e (ea;y
non5-eys "resent7 a "inc( "oint <ill occur in t(e stri""ing section. For t(e enric(ing
section in Figure %.2 t(e mass 3alance !or com"onent is
+
min
y
1L>1
N L
min
'
1L
> D'
17 dist
=%.28?
At t(e "inc( "oint7 <(ere com"ositions are constant7
'
1L51
N '
1L
N '
1L>1
7 and y
17L51
N y
1L
N y
1L>1
=%.21?
T(e e@uili3rium e'"ression can 3e <ritten in terms o! A ;alues as
y
1L>1
N A
1
'
1L>1
=%.22?
com3ining .@uation %.28 to %.22 <e o3tain a sim"li!ied 3alance ;alid in t(e region o!
constant com"ositions.
+
min
y
1L>1
N L
min
> D'
17 dist
A
1
y
1L>1
=%.2#?
De!ining t(e relati;e ;olatility
1
N A
1
: A
2A
and com3ining terms in .@uation %.2#
+
min
y
1L>1
1 5 L
min

N
1

+
min

1
A
2A
=%.2%?
sol;ing !or t(e com"onent ;a"or !lo< rate : +
min
y
1L>1
and rearranging
1
D'
17 dist
+
min
y
1L>1
N

1
5 L
min
+
min
A
2A
=%.2&?
.@uation %.2& can 3e summed o;er all com"onents to gi;e t(e total ;a"or !lo< rate in t(e
enric(ing section at minimum re!lu'.
C c
+
min
N
=+
min
y
1L>1
? N

1
D'
17 dist

1N1

1N1

1
5 L
min
+
min
A
2A
=%.2)?
In t(e stri""ing section a similar analysis can 3e used to deri;e7
C

1
$'
173ot
5+ N
1N1

1
5 L
min

+
min
A
2A
=%.2,?
Since t(e condition in t(e stri""ing section are di!!erent t(an in t(e recti!ying section7 in
general
1
N
1
and A
2A
N A
2A
4nder<ood deri;ed generali1ed !orms o! .@uation =%.2)? and =%.2,?. <(ic( are e@ui;alent
to de!ining
L
min
L
mn
N and N
+
min
A
2A
+
IN
A
2A
=%.2/?
.@uation =%.2)? and %.2, t(en 3ecome "olynomials in and and (a;e C roots. T(e
e@uations are no<
c
+
min
N

1
=D'
17 dist
?
1N1
1
5 =%.26?
+
min
N
c

1
=$'
173ot
?
1N1
1
5 =%.#8?
I! <e assume contact molar o;er!lo< and constant relati;e ;olatilities
1
N
1
7 4nder<ood s(o<ed t(ere are common ;alues o! and

<(ic( satis!y 3ot(
e@uations. .@uation =%.28? and =%.#8? can no< 3e added.
C
+
min
5 +
min
N
1
D'
17 dist
>
1
$'
173ot
1N1

1
5
1
5 =%.#1?
<(ere

1
is no< an a;erage relati;e ;olatility. .@uation =%.#1? is easily sim"li!ied <it( t(e
o;erall column mass 3alance.
F1
1
N D'
17 dist
> $'
173ot
=%.#2?
to c
+
Feed
N +
min
5 +
min
N
1
F1
1
1N1
1
5 =%.##?
+
Feed
is t(e c(ange in ;a"or !lo< rate at t(e !eed stage. I! @ is -no<n
+
Feed
N F=1 5 @? =%.#%?
I! t(e !eed tem"erature is s"eci!ied a !las( calculation on t(e !eed can 3e used to determine
+
Feed
. .@uation %.## is -no<n as t(e !irst 4nder<ood e@uation. It can 3e used to
calculate a""ro"riate ;alues o! . .@uation %.26 is -no<n as t(e second 4nder<ood
e@uation and is used to calculate +
min
. *nce +
min
is -no<n7 L
min
is calculated !rom t(e
mass 3alance.
L
min
N +
min
5 D =%.#&?
T(e e'act met(od !or using t(e 4nder<ood e@uations de"ends on <(at can 3e assumed.
T(ree cases <ill 3e considered.
Case A. Assume all non5-eys do not distri3ute. In t(is case t(e amounts o! non5-eys in t(e
distillation <(ile t(e amounts o! t(e -eys are: P'
2NA
7
dist
N 8 and D
'LNA7 dist
N F'
LNA
D'
LNA7 dist
N =FR
LA
?
dit
F1
LA
=%.#)?
D'
2A7 dist
N C 1 5 =FR
2A
?
3ot
E F1
2A
=%.#,?
.@uation %.## can no< 3e sol;ed !or t(e one ;alue o! 3et<een t(e relati;e ;olatilities o!
t(e t<o -eys7
2A
S S
LA
. T(is ;alue o! can 3e su3stituted into .@uation %.26 to
immediately calculate +
min
. T(en
c
D N =D'
17 dist
? =%.#/?
1N1
And L
min
is !ound !rom mass 3alance .@uation %.#&
T(is assum"tion o! nondistri3uting non5-eys <ill "ro3a3ly not 3e ;alid !or slo""y
se"arations or <(en a sand<ic( com"onent is "resent. In addition7 <it( a sand<ic(
com"onent t(ere are t<o ;alues 3et<een
2A
and
LA
.
Case $: Assume t(at t(e distri3ution o! non5-eys determined !rom t(e Fens-e e@uation at
total re!lu' are also ;alid at minimum re!lu'. In t(is case t(e D'
NA7dist
;alues are o3tained
!rom t(e Fens-e e@uation as descri3ed earlier. Again sol;e .@uation %.## !or t(e ;alue
3et<een t(e relati;e ;olatilities o! t(e t<o -eys. T(is 7 t(e Fens-e ;alue o! D'
NA7 dist
and
D'
LA7 dist
;alues o3tained !rom .@uation =%.#)? and =%.#,? are used in .@uation =%.26? to
!ind +
min
T(en .@s =%.#/? and = %.#&? are used to calculate D and L
min
. T(is "rocedure is
illustrated in .'am"le %.2.
Case C: .'act solution <it(out !urt(er assum"tions. .@uation =%.##? is a "olynomial <it(
C roots. Sol;e t(is e@uation !or all ;alues o! lying 3et<een t(e relati;e ;olatilities o! all
com"onents.

LNA71
S
1
S
LNA72
S
2
S
LA
S
#
S
2A
S
%
S
2NA71

T(is gi;es C51 ;alid roots. No< <rite .@uation =%.26? C51 timesM once !or eac( ;alue o!
. Be no< (a;e C51 e@uations and C51 un-no<ns +
min.
And D'
17dist
!or all LNA and
2NA. Sol;e t(e simultaneous e@uations and t(en o3tain D !rom .@uation =%.#/? and L
min
!rom .@uation =%.#&?
T(e (ardest "art o! using t(e 4nder<ood e@uations is sol;ing .@uation =%.##? !or one or
more ;alues o! . In general .@uation =%.##? <ill 3e o! order C in <(ere C is t(e
num3er o! com"onents. Saturated li@uid and saturated ;a"or !eeds are s"ecial cases and
a!ter sim"li!ication are o! order C51 . I! t(e resulting e@uation is @uadratic t(e @uadratic
!ormula can 3e used to !ind t(e roots. *t(er<ise7 a root !inding met(od s(ould 3e
em"loyed . I! only one root7
LA
T T
2A
is desired7 a good !irst guess is to assume N
=
LA
>
2A
? :2. T(e results o! t(e 4nder<ood e@uations <ill only 3e accurate i! t(e 3asic
assum"tion o! constant relati;e ;olatility and constant molar o;er!lo< are ;alid. For small
;ariations in a geometric a;erage calculated as
1
N =
3ot
dist
?
1:2
or
1
N =
3ot
!eed
dist
?
1:#
=%.#6?
I! constant molal o;er!lo< is not ;alid7 t(e mole !ractions in .@uation =%.28? to =%.#/? can
3e re"laced 3y t(e constant latent (eat units . Since t(e constant relati;es ;olatilities are
unc(anged <(en units are c(anged7 t(e 4nder<ood e@uations are also ;alid in latent (eat
units.
0enerali1e7 t(e addition o! more com"onents does not ma-e t(is calculation more
di!!icult as long as t(e !ractional reco;eries can 3e accurately estimated. T(e ;alues o!
must 3e accurately determined since it can (a;e a maDor a!!ect on t(e calculation. Since
t(e se"aration is easy7 =L:D?
min
is @uite small in t(is case. =L:D?
min
<ill not 3e as de"endent
on t(e e'act ;alues o! as it is <(en =L:D?
min
is large.
1.1 Corre(ation 8or N!/ber O& tages At 8inite Re&(!2 Ratio >i((i(and Corre(ation.
A general s(ortcut met(od !or determining t(e num3er o! stages re@uired !or a multi5
com"onent distillation at !inite re!lu' ratios <ould 3e e'tremely use!ul. 4n!ortunately7
suc( a met(od (as not 3een de;elo"ed. 2o<e;er7 0illiland noted t(at (e could
em"irically relate7 t(e num3er o! stages N at !inite re!lu' ratio L :D to t(e minimum
num3er o! stages N
min
and t(e minimum re!lu' ratio =L:D?
min
0illiland did a series o!
accurate stage 3y stage calculations and !ound t(at (e could correlate t(e !unction =N5
N
min
? : =N>1? <it( t(e !unction CL:D =L:D?
min
E : =L:D > 1?. T(is correlation as modi!ied 3y
Liddle is s(o<n in Figure %.#. T(e data "oints are t(e results o! 0illilandGs stage 3y stage
calculation and s(o< t(e scatter in(erent in t(is correlation.
To use 0illiland correlation <e "roceed as !ollo<s:
1. Calculate N
min
!rom t(e Fens-e e@uation.
2. Calculate =L:D?
min
!rom 4nder<ood e@uation.
#. C(oose actual =L:D?. T(ose is usually done as some multi"lier =1.8& to 1.&?
times =L:D?
min

%. Calculate t(e a3scissa.
&. Determine t(e ordinate ;alue.
). Calculate t(e actual num3er o! stages7 N.
T(e 0illiland correlation s(ould only 3e used !or roug( estimates. T(e calculated num3er
o! stages can 3e o!! 3y > #8W alt(oug( t(ey are usually <it(in > ,W .T(e o"timum !eed
"late location can also 3e estimated. First use t(e Fens-e e@uation to estimate <(ere t(e
!eed stage <ould 3e at total re!lu'. T(is can 3e done 3y determining t(e num3er o! stages
re@uired to go !rom t(e !eed concentrations to t(e distillate concentrations !or t(e -eys.
T(e minimum stages re@uired is gi;en 3y :
N
F7min
N ln =F
LA
? =1
LA
?
=F
2A
?
dist
=1
2A
? =%.%8?
ln
LA 2A
No< assume t(at t(e relati;e !eed location in constant as <e c(ange t(e re!lu' ratio !rom
total re!lu' to a !inite ;alue. T(us7
N
F7min
N N
F

N
min
N =%.%1?
T(e actual !eed stage can estimated !rom .@uation =%.%1?
T(e 0illiland correlation can also 3e !it to e@uations. Liddle !it t(e 0illiland correlation to
t(ree e@uations. Let
' N CL:D?
min
: =L:D >1? T(en7
N 5 N
min

N 1.8 5 1/.&,1&' !or 8 S ' S 8.81
=%.%2a?
N > 1
<(ile !or 8.81 S ' S 8.68
N 5 N
min
N 8.&%&/2, 5 8.&61%22 > 8.882,%#

=%.%23?
N > 1 '
and !or 8.68 S ' S 1.8
N 5 N
min
N 8.1)&6& 5 8.1)&6&' =%.%2c?
N > 1
For most situations .@uation =%.%23? is a""ro"riate. As a roug( rule o! t(um3 <e can
estimate N N 2.& N
min
. T(is estimate t(en re@uires only a calculation o! N
min
and <ill 3e
use!ul !or ;ery "reliminary estimates.
1.3 $99AR;
In t(is c(a"ter <e (a;e de;elo"ed t(e !ollo<ing a""ro'imate s(ortcut met(ods !or multi5
com"onent distillation.
1. T(e Fens-e e@uation to determine t(e num3er o! stages re@uired at total re!lu' and t(e
s"lits o! non5-ey com"onents.
2. T(e 4nder<ood e@uations to determine t(e minimum re!lu' ratio !or multi5com"onent
distillation.
#. T(e 0illiland correlation to estimate t(e actual num3er o! stages in a column and t(e
o"timum !eed stage location.
C"APTER 3
INTROD$CTION TO CO9P%E? DITI%%ATION 9ET"OD
3.# Introd!ction
T(e com"onents se"arated in a 3inary or multi5com"onent mi'tures (a;e usually (ad !airly
sim"le e@uili3rium 3e(a;ior. For se"aration o! t(e less ideal mi'tures7 ;ariety o! com"le'
distillation systems are used. Sim"le distillation columns are not a3le to com"letely
se"arate mi'tures <(en a1eotro"es occur and t(e columns are ;ery e'"ensi;e <(en t(e
relati;e ;olatility is close to 1. Distillation columns can 3e cou"led <it( ot(er se"aration
met(ods to 3rea- t(e a1eotro"e. T(e e'tracti;e distillation7 a1eotro"ic distillation and t<o
"ressure distillation are met(ods !or modi!ying t(e e@uili3rium to se"arate t(ese com"le'
mi'tures.
3.' Brea*ing A6eotropes @ith Other eparators
A1eotro"ic systems normally limit t(e se"aration t(at can 3e ac(ie;ed. For an a1eotro"ic
system suc( as et(anol and <ater 7 it is not "ossi3le to get "ast t(e a1eotro"ic
concentration o! 8./6%# mole !raction et(anol <it( ordinary distillation. Some ot(er
se"aration met(od is re@uired to 3rea- t(e a1eotro"e. T(e ot(er met(od could em"loy
adsor"tion7 mem3ranes7 e'traction and so !ort(. It could also in;ol;e adding a t(ird
com"onent to t(e distillation to gi;e t(e a1eotro"ic and e'tracti;e distillation systems
discussed later in t(is c(a"ter.
T(ree <ays o! using an additional se"aration met(od to 3rea- t(e a1eotro"e are s(o<n in
Figure. T(e sim"lest7 3ut least li-ely to 3e used7 is t(e com"letely uncou"led system
s(o<n in Figure &.1=a?. T(e distillate7 <(ic( is near t(e a1eotro"ic concentration7 is sent
to anot(er se"aration de;ice7 <(ic( "roduces 3ot( t(e desired "roducts. I! t(e se"aration
is not com"lete7 a more li-ely con!iguration to used is indicated in !igure &.1=3?. T(e
incom"letely se"arated stream is recycled to t(e distillation column7 <(ic( no< o"erates
as a t<o5!eed column7 so t(e design "rocedures used !or t<o !eed columns can 3e used.
T(e arrangement s(o<n in Figure &.13 is commonly used industrially. T(e se"arator may
actually 3e se;eral se"arators. An intriguing alternati;e is t(e cou"led system s(o<n in
!igure &.1c. No< some o! t(e A "roduct is used as re!lu' to t(e distillation column. T(us
'
8
T y
1
. T(e cCa3e5 T(iele diagram !or t(is is indicated in Figure &.1 =d?. Note t(at
using a !airly "ure re!lu' stream allo<s t(e column to "roduce a ;a"or7 y
1
t(at is greater
t(an t(e a1eotro"ic concentration.
3., E2tractive Disti((ation
.'tracti;e distillation is used !or t(e se"aration o! a1eotro"es and close 3oiling mi'tures.
In e'tracti;e distillation7 a sol;ent is added to t(e distillation column. T(is sol;ent is
selected so t(at one o! t(e com"onents7 $ is selecti;ely attracted to it. Since t(e sol;ent is
usually c(osen to (a;e a signi!icantly (ig(er 3oiling "oint t(an t(e com"onents 3eing
se"arated7 t(e attracted com"onent $7 (as its ;olatility reduced. T(us t(e ot(er
com"onent 7 A 3ecomes relati;ely mo;e ;olatile and is easy to remo;e in t(e distillate. A
se"arate column is re@uired to se"arate t(e sol;ent and com"onent $.
T(ere are a ;ariety o! commercial a""lications !or e'tracti;e distillation. For e'am"le7
3utane and 3utene are se"arated using !ur!ural or !ur!ural <ater mi'tures as t(e sol;ent.
2ydroc(loric acid and nitric acid are 3ot( se"arated !rom <ater using sul"(uric acid as
sol;ent. Toluene is se"arated !rom "ara!!ins using "(enol as sol;ent. A salt or solid
sodium (ydro'ide can also 3e used as t(e Qsol;entR. T(e sol;ent does not (a;e to 3e
e'oticM <ater is used as t(e sol;ent !or se"aration o! acetone and met(anol.
A ty"ical !lo< s(eet !or se"aration o! a 3inary mi'ture is s(o<n in Figure &.2. In column
1 t(e sol;ent is added se;eral stages a3o;e t(e !eed stage and a !e< stages 3elo< t(e to"
o! t(e column. In t(e to" section7 t(e relati;ely non;olatile sol;ent is remo;ed and "ure A
is "roduced as t(e distillate "roduct. In t(e middle section7 large @uantities o! sol;ent are
"resent and com"onents A and $ are se"arated !rom eac( ot(er. It is common to use 17
&7 187 28 or e;en #8 times as muc( sol;ent as !eedM t(us7 t(e sol;ent concentration in t(e
middle section is o!ten @uite (ig(. Note t(at t(e A5$ se"aration must 3e com"lete in t(e
middle section7 3ecause any $ t(at gets into t(e to" section <ill not 3e se"arated =t(ere is
;ery little sol;ent "resent? and <ill e'it in t(e distillate. T(e 3ottom section stri"s t(e A
!rom t(e mi'ture so t(at only sol;ent and $ e'its !rom 3ottom o! t(e column.
T(e mi'ture o! sol;ent and $ are sent to t(e column t<o 7 <(ere t(ey are se"arated. I!
t(e sol;ent is selected correctly7 t(e second column can 3e @uite s(ort7 since com"onent $
is signi!icantly more ;olatile t(an t(e sol;ent. T(e reco;ered sol;ent can 3e cooled and
stored !or reuse in t(e e'tracti;e distillation column. Note t(at t(e sol;ent must 3e cooled
3e!ore entering column 17 since its 3oiling "oint is signi!icantly (ig(er t(an t(e o"erating
tem"erature o! column 1.
Column 2 is a sim"le distillation t(at can 3e designed using sim"le met(od. T(e column 17
is considera3ly more com"le'7 3ut t(e 3u33le "oint matri' met(od can o!ten 3e ado"ted.
Since t(e system is non ideal and A ;alues de"end on t(e sol;ent concentration7 a
concentration loo" is re@uired in t(e !lo< c(art. Fortunately7 a good !irst guess o! sol;ent
concentrations can 3e made. Sol;ent concentration <ill 3e almost constant in t(e middle
section o! t(e column and also in t(e 3ottom section e'ce"t !or t(e re3oiler. In t(e to"
section o! t(e column7 t(e sol;ent concentration <ill ;ery ra"idly decrease to
1ero. T(ese sol;ent concentrations <ill 3e relati;ely una!!ected 3y t(e tem"eratures and
!lo< rates. T(us t(e concentration loo" s(ould 3e t(e innermost loo". T(e A ;alues can
3e calculated <it( t(e acti;ity coe!!icients determined !rom t(e Bilson e@uation7 or ot(er
correlations. T(e concentration "ro!iles <ere rigorously calculated using a simultaneous
correction met(od7 and acti;ity coe!!icients <ere calculated <it( t(e Bilson e@uation.
T(e reason !or t(e large increase in sol;ent concentration in t(e re3oiler is easily seen i!
<e loo- at an e'treme case <(ere none o! t(e sol;ent ;a"ori1es in t(e re3oiler. T(en t(e
3oilu" is essentially com"onent $. T(e li@uid !lo< rate in t(e column can 3e s"lit u" as
L N S > $
2@
> + =&.1?
B(ere S is t(e constant sol;ent !lo< rateM $
2@
is t(e !lo< rate o! com"onent $7 <(ic(
stays in t(e li@uid in t(e re3oilerM and + is t(e !lo< rate o! t(e ;a"or7 <(ic( is essentially
"ure $. T(e 3ottoms !lo< rate consists o! t(e streams t(at remain li@uid7
$ot N S > $
2@
=&.2?
T(e mole !raction o! $ in t(e li@uid in t(e column can 3e estimated as
$
2@
> +
'
col
N
=&.#?
S > $
2@
> +
and t(e mole !raction $ in t(e 3ottom is
$
2@

'
3ot
N =&.%?
S > $
2@
For t(e usual !lo< rates t(is gi;es '
col
T T '
3ot
.
Selection o! t(e sol;ent is e'tremely im"ortant. T(e "rocess is similar to t(at o! t(e
selecting a sol;ent !or li@uid5li@uid e'traction. $y de!inition7 t(e sol;ent s(ould not !orm
an a1eotro"e <it( any o! t(e com"onents. I! t(e sol;ent does !orm an a1eotro"e7 t(e
"rocess 3ecomes a1eotro"ic distillation. 4sually7 a sol;ent is selected t(at is more similar
to t(e (ea;y -ey. T(en t(e ;olatility o! t(e (ea;y -ey <ill 3e reduced. Lists o!
e'tractants !or e'tracti;e distillation are (el"!ul in !inding a general structure t(at <ill
e!!ecti;ely increase t(e ;olatility o! t(e -eys.
Sol;ent selection can 3e aided 3y considering t(e "olarities o! t(e com"ounds to 3e
se"arated. A s(ort list o! classes o! com"ounds arranged in order o! increasing "olarity is
gi;en in Ta3le &.1. I! t<o com"ounds o! di!!erent "olarity are to 3e se"arated7 a sol;ent
can 3e selected to attract eit(er t(e least "olar or t(e most "olar o! t(e t<o. For e'am"le7
su""ose <e <is( to se"arate acetone = a -etone 3oiling at &).&
8
C? !rom met(anol =an
alco(ol 3oiling at )%.,
8
C?. T(is system !orms an a1eotro"e. Be could add a
(ydrocar3on to attract to t(e acetone7 3ut i! enoug( (ydrocar3on <ere added7 t(e
met(anol <ould 3ecome more ;olatile. A sim"ler alternati;e is to add <ater7 <(ic(
e'tracts t(e met(anol and ma-es acetone more ;olatile. T(e met(anol and <ater are t(en
se"arated in column 2. In t(is e'am"le7 <e could also add a (ig(er molecular <eig(t
alco(ol suc( as 3utanol to attract t(e met(anol.
Tab(e 3.# Increasing Polarities o! Classes o! Com"ounds :
2ydrocar3ons
.t(ers
Alde(ydes
Aetones
.sters
Alco(ols
0lycols
Bater

B(en t<o (ydrocar3ons are to 3e se"arated7 t(e larger t(e di!!erence in t(e num3er o!
dou3le 3onds t(e 3etter a "olar sol;ent <ill <or- to c(ange t(e ;olatility. For e'am"le7
!ur!ural <ill decrease t(e ;olatility o! 3utenes com"ared to 3utanes. Fur!ural =a cyclic
alco(ol is used instead o! <ater 3ecause t(e (ydrocar3ons are misci3le <it( !ur!ural.
A more detailed analysis o! sol;ent selections s(o<s t(at (ydrogen 3onding is more
im"ortant t(an "olarity. T(us more detailed analysis o! sol;ents s(ould 3e 3ased on
(ydrogen 3onding. *nce a general structure (as 3een !ound7 (omologs o! increasing
molecular <eig(t can 3e c(ec-ed to !ind <(ic( (as (ig( enoug( 3oiling "oint to 3e easily
reco;ered in column 2. 2o<e;er too (ig( 3oiling "oint is undesira3le7 3ecause t(e
sol;ent reco;ery column <ould (a;e to o"erate at too (ig( a tem"erature. T(e sol;ent
s(ould 3e com"letely misci3le <it( 3ot( com"onents o;er t(e entire com"osition range o!
t(e distillation.
It is desira3le to use a sol;ent t(at is nonto'ic7 non!lamma3le7 noncorrosi;e7 and
nonreacti;e. In addition7 it s(ould 3e readily a;aila3le and ine'"ensi;e since t(e sol;ent
ma-eu" and in;entory costs can 3e relati;ely (ig(. As usual7 t(e designer must ma-e
tradeo!!s in selecting a sol;ent . *ne common com"romise is to use a sol;ent t(at is used
else<(ere in t(e "lant or is a 3y5"roduct o! a reaction e;en i! it may not 3e t(e o"timum
sol;ent ot(er<ise. T(is can 3e "articularly use!ul i! t(e same sol;ent can 3e used !or 3ot(
an e'traction ste" and e'tracti;e distillation.
For isomer se"arations7 e'tracti;e distillation usually !ails7 since t(e sol;ent (as t(e same
e!!ect on 3ot( isomers. For e'am"le t(e 3est entrainer !or se"arating m5 and "5'ylene
increased t(e relati;e ;olatility !rom 1.82 to 1.826. An alternati;e to normal e'tracti;e
distillation is to use a sol;ent t(at "re!erentially and re;ersi3ly reacts <it( one o! t(e
isomers. T(e "rocess sc(eme <ill 3e similar to Figure &.2 <it( t(e lig(t isomer 3eing
"roduct A and t(e (ea;y isomer "roduct $. T(e !or<ard reaction occurs in t(e !irst
column7 and t(e reaction "roduct is !ed to t(e second column. T(e re;erse reaction
occurs in column 2 and t(e reacti;e sol;ent is recycled to column 1.
3.1 A6eotropic Disti((ation Processes

T(e "resence o! an a1eotro"e can 3e used to se"arate an a1eotro"ic system. T(is is most
con;enient i! t(e a1eotro"e is (eterogeneousM t(at is t(e ;a"or !rom t(e a1eotro"e <ill
condense t(e to !orm t<o li@uid "(ases t(at are immisici3le. A1eotro"ic distillation is
o!ten "er!ormed 3y adding a sol;ent or entrainer t(at !orms an a1eotro"e <it( one or 3ot(
o! t(e com"onents. $e!ore discussing t(ese more com"le' a1eotro"ic distillation systems7
let us consider t(e sim"ler 3inary systems t(at !orm a (eterogeneous a1eotro"e.
3.1.# Binar. "eterogeneo!s A6eotropes
N53utanol and <ater7 !orms a (eterogeneous a1eotro"e. For t(is ty"e o! (eterogeneous
a1eotro"e t(e t<o column systems s(o<n in Figure &.# a can "ro;ide a com"lete
se"aration. Column 1 is a stri""ing column t(at recei;es li@uid o! com"osition '
!rom
t(e li@uid5li@uid settler. It o"erates on t(e le!t (and side o! t(e e@uili3rium diagram s(o<n
in Figure &.# 3. In t(is region7 s"ecies $ is more ;olatile and t(e 3ottoms !rom column 17
is almost "ure A = '
3ot1
X 8?. T(e o;er(ead ;a"or !rom column 17 y
1
1
7 is condensed and
t(en goes to t(e li@uid5li@uid settler <(ere it se"arates into t<o li@uid "(ases. Li@uid o!
com"osition '
is re!lu'ed to column 17 <(ile li@uid o! com"osition '
is re!lu'ed to
column 2.
T(e second column o"erates on t(e rig(t (and side o! Figure &.# 37 <(ere s"ecies $ is t(e
less ;olatile com"onent. T(us t(e 3ottoms !rom t(is column is almost "ure $ = '
3ot2
X
1.8?. T(e o;er(ead ;a"or7 <(ic( is ric(er in s"ecies A 7 is condensed and sent on t(e
li@uid5li@uid se"arator. T(e li@uid5li@uid se"arator ta-es t(e condensed li@uid7 '
S ' S '

and se"arates it into t(e t<o li@uid "(ases in e@uili3rium. T(ese li@uids are used as re!lu'
to columns 1 and 2. T(e li@uid 5li@uid se"arator allo<s one to get "ast t(e a1eotro"e and
is t(ere!ore a necessary "art o! t(e e@ui"ment.
T(e o;erall e'ternal mass 3alance !or t(e t<o column system s(o<n in Figure &.# a is
F N $
1
> $
2
=&.&?
<(ile t(e e'ternal mass 3alance on com"onent $ is
F
1
N $
1
'
31
> $
2
'
3ot2
=&.)?
Sol;ing t(ese e@uations simultaneously !or t(e un-no<n 3ottoms !lo< rates n7 <e o3tain
F =1 5 '
3ot2
?
$
1
N =&.,?
='
31
5 '
32
?
F = 1 5 '
3ot1
?
$
2
N =&./?
='
3ot2
5 '
3ot1
?
Note t(at t(is result does not de"end on t(e details o! t(e distillation system. Analysis o!
stri""ing column 1 is also straig(t!or<ard. T(e 3ottom o"erating e@uation is
L L
y N ' 5 5 1 '
3ot 1
=&.6?
+
1
+
1

T(e !eed to t(is column is t(e saturated li@uid re!lu' o! com"osition '
. T(is is a ;ertical
!eed line. T(en t(e o;er(ead ;a"or y
1
1
is !ound on t(e o"erating line at '
. T(e 3ottom
o"erating e@uation !or column 2 is
L L
y N ' 5 5 1 '
3ot 2
=&.18?
+
2
+
2
T(e to" o"erating line is a 3it di!!erent. T(e easiest mass 3alance to <rite uses t(e mass
3alance en;elo"e s(o<n in Figure &.# a. T(en t(e to" o"erating e@uation is
y N
L ' > 1 5 L '
3ot1
+ 2 +
2
=&.11?
T(is is some<(at unusual 7 3ecause it includes a 3ottoms concentration lea;ing t(e !irst
column. T(e re!lu' !or t(is to" o"erating line is li@uid o! com"osition '
7
T(e cCa3e5T(iele diagram !or t(is system is s(o<n in !ig &.# 37 <(ere column 2 a""ears
u"side do<n 3ecause <e (a;e "lotted y
$
;ersus '
$1
and $ is t(e less ;olatile com"onent in
column 2. T(e t<o re!lu' streams are '
and '
and re!lu' is not at t(e usual ;alue o! y N

' N '
D
. T(e t<o das(ed lines in Figure &.# 3 s(o<n t(e route o! t(e o;er(ead streams as
t(ey are condensed to saturated li@uids and t(en sent to t(e li@uid 5li@uid se"arator.
Se;eral modi!ications o! t(e 3asic arrangement s(o<n in Figure &.# a can 3e used. I! t(e
!eed com"osition is less t(an '
7 t(en column 1 <ould 3e a com"lete column and column 2

<ould 3e Dust a stri""ing column. T(e li@uids may 3e su3cooled so t(at t(e li@uid5li@uid
se"arator o"erates 3elo< t(e 3oiling tem"erature. T(is can 3e ad;antageous7 since t(e
"artial misci3ility o! t(e system de"ends on tem"erature. B(en t(e li@uids are su3cooled7
t(e se"arator calculation must 3e done at t(e tem"erature o! t(e settler. T(en t(e re!lu'
concentrations can 3e "lotted on t(e cCa3e5T(iele diagram.
3.1.' Dr.ing Organic Co/po!nds That Are Partia((. 9iscib(e @ith @ater
For "artially misci3le systems7 a single "(ase is !ormed only <(en t(e <ater concentration
is lo< or ;ery (ig(. For e'am"le7 a small amount o! <ater can dissol;e in gasoline. I!
more <ater is "resent7 t<o "(ases <ill !orm. In t(e case o! gasoline7 t(e <ater "(ase is
detrimental to t(e engine7 and in cold climates it can !ree1e in gas lines7 immo3ili1ing t(e
car. Since t(e solu3ility o! <ater in gasoline decreases as t(e tem"erature is reduced7 it is
im"ortant to (a;e dry gasoline.
Fortunately7 t(e <ater can easily 3e remo;ed 3y distillation or a3sor"tion. During
distillation t(e <ater acts as a ;ery ;olatile com"onent7 so a mi'ture o! <ater and organics
is ta-en as t(e distillate. A!ter consideration7 t<o li@uid "(ases !orm and t(e organic "(ase
can 3e re!lu'ed. T(e system is a ty"e o! (eterogeneous a1eotro"ic system similar to
t(ose discussed in t(e "re;ious section. Drying di!!ers !rom t(e "re;ious systems since a
"ure <ater "(ase is usually not desired7 t(e relati;e solu3ilities are o!ten @uite lo<7 and t(e
<ater "(ase is sent to <aste. T(us t(e system <ill loo- li-e !igure &.% <it( single column
and a "(ase se"arator. Bit( ;ery (ig( relati;e ;olatilities one e@uili3rium stage may 3e
su!!icient and a !las( systems can 3e used. Sim"li!ied e@uili3rium t(eories are use!ul !or
"artially immisci3le li@uids. T(ere is al<ays a range o! concentrations <(ere t(e s"ecies
are misci3le e;en t(oug( t(e concentrations may 3e @uite small. For t(e <ater "(ase7 it is
reasona3le as a !irst a""ro'imation to assume t(at t(e <ater !ollo<s RaoultGs la< and t(e
organic com"onents !ollo< 2enryGs la<. T(us7
P
<
N ==+P
<
? '
< ln <17
P
org
N 2
org
'
org ln <
=&.12?
B(ere 2
org
is t(e 2enryGs la< constant !or t(e organic com"onent in t(e a@ueous "(ase7
+P
<
is t(e ;a"or "ressure o! <ater7 and '
< ln <
and '
org ln <
are t(e !raction o! <ater and
organic in t(e <ater "(ase7 res"ecti;ely. In t(e organic "(ase it is reasona3le to use
RaoultGs la< !or t(e organic com"ounds and 2enryGs la< !or t(e <ater.
P
<
N 2
<
'
< ln org77
P
org
N =+P
org
? '
org ln org
=&.1#?
B(ere 2
<
is t(e 2enryGs la< constant !or <ater in t(e organic "(ase. At e@uili3rium7 t(e
"artial "ressure o! <ater in t(e t<o "(ases must 3e e@ual. T(us7 e@uating P
<
in .@uation
=&.12? and =&.1#? and sol;ing !or 2
<
<e o3tain
=+P
<
? '
< in <
2
<
N '
< ln org
=&.1%?
sim"le mani"ulation !or t(e organic "(ase gi;e
=+P
org
? '
org ln <
2
org
N =&.1&?
'
org ln <

4sing .@uations =&.1%? and =&.1&?7 <e can calculate t(e 2enryGs la< constants !rom t(e
-no<n solu3ilities =<(ic( gi;e t(e mole !raction ? and t(e ;a"or "ressures. .@uations
=&.12? to =&.1&? are ;alid !or 3ot( drying organic com"ounds and steam distillation. T(e
ease o! remo;ing small amounts o! <ater !rom an organic com"ound t(at is immisci3le
<it( <ater can 3e seen 3y estimating t(e relati;e ;olatility o! <ater in t(e organic "(ase.

y
a<
:'
D

in or
<5 or Ln or
N
y
ore
:'
org in <

N ="
<
: "
tot
? : '
< ln org
N "
<
: '
< ln org
="
org
: "
tot
? : '
org ln org
"
org
: '
org ln org
=&.1)?
In t(e organic "(ase .@uation =&.1#? and =&.1%? can 3e su3stituted into .@uation =&.1)?
to gi;e
2
<
=+P
<
? '
< ln <
<5 org in org

N N =&.1,?
+P
org
= '
< ln org
? =+P
org
?
I! data !or t(e (eterogeneous a1eotro"e =y and '
< ln org
? is a;aila3le7
<5 org in org
is easily
estimated !rom t(e de!inition o! relati;e ;olatility. T(is <ill 3e more accurate t(an
assuming RaoultGs la<.
*rganics can 3e dried eit(er 3y continuous distillation or 3y 3atc( distillation. In 3ot(
cases t(e ;a"or <ill condense into t<o "(ases. T(e <ater "(ase can 3e <it(dra<n and
t(e organic "(ase re!lu'ed to t(e distillation system. Anot(er system <it( a single 3inary
a1eotro"e is s(o<n in Figure &.&. In t(e a1eotro"ic column7 com"onent A and t(e
entrainer !orm a minimum 3oiling a1eotro"e7 <(ic( is reco;ered as t(e distillate. T(e
ot(er com"onent $7 is reco;ered as a "ure 3ottoms "roduct. In t(is case t(e a1eotro"e
!ormed is (omogeneous7 and a <ater <as( =e'traction using <ater? is used to reco;er t(e
sol;ent !rom t(e desired com"onent <it( <(ic( it !orms an a1eotro"e. Pure A is t(e
"roduct !rom t(e <ater <as( column. A sim"le distillation column is re@uired to reco;er
t(e sol;ent !rom t(e <ater. C(emical systems using !lo< diagrams similar to t(is include
t(e se"aration o! cyclo(e'ane =A? and 3en1ene =$?7 using acetone as t(e sol;ent and t(e
remo;al o! im"urities !rom 3en1ene <it( met(anol as t(e sol;ent.
A t(ird e'am"le t(at is @uite common is t(e se"aration o! t(e et(anol <ater a1eotro"e
using a (ydrocar3on as t(e entrainer. $en1ene used to 3e t(e most common entrainer7 3ut
3ecause o! its to'icity it (as 3een re"laced 3y diet(yl et(er7 n5"entane7 and n5(e'ane. A
(eterogeneous ternary a1eotro"e is remo;ed as t(e distillate "roduct !rom t(e a1eotro"ic
distillation column. A ty"ical !lo< s(eet !or t(is system is s(o<n in Figure &.). T(e !eed
to t(e a1eotro"ic distillation column is t(e distillate "roduct !rom a 3inary et(anol5<ater
column and is close to t(e a1eotro"ic com"osition. T(e com"osition o! t(e ternary
a1eotro"e <ill ;ary slig(tly de"ending u"on t(e entrainer c(osen. For e'am"le7 <(en n5
(e'ane is t(e entrainer t(e a1eotro"e contains /& <t W (e'ane7 12 <tW et(anol7 and # <t
W <ater. T(e <ater : et(anol ratio in t(e ternary a1eotro"e must 3e greater t(an t(e
<ater: et(anol ratio in t(e !eed so t(at all t(e <ater can 3e remo;ed <it( t(e a1eotro"e
and e'cess et(anol can 3e remo;ed as "ure 3ottoms "roduct. T(e u""er layer in t(e
se"arator is 6).) <tW (e'ane7 2.6 <tW et(anol and 8.& <t W <ater <(ile t(e 3ottom
layer is ).2 <tW (e'ane ,#., <t W et(anol and 28.1 <t W <ater. T(e u""er layer !rom
t(e se"arator is re!lu'ed to t(e a1eotro"ic distillation column7 <(ile t(e 3ottom layer is
sent to a stri""ing column7 to remo;e <ater.
Selecting a sol;ent !or a1eotro"ic distillation is o!ten more di!!icult t(an !or e'tracti;e
distillation. T(ere are usually !e<er sol;ents t(at <ill !orm a1eotro"es t(at 3oil at a lo<
enoug( tem"erature to 3e easy to remo;e in t(e distillate or 3oil at a (ig( enoug(
tem"erature to 3e easy to remo;e in t(e 3ottoms. In addition7 t(e 3inary or ternary
a1eotro"e !ormed must 3e easy to se"arate. In "ractice7 t(is re@uirement is met 3y
(eterogeneous a1eotro"es and 3y a1eotro"es t(at are easy to se"arate <it( a <ater <as(.
T(e c(osen entrainer must also satis!y t(e usual re@uirements o! 3eing nonto'ic7
noncorrosi;e7 c(emically sta3le7 readily a;aila3le and ine'"ensi;e. $ecause o! t(e
di!!iculty in !inding suita3le sol;ents a1eotro"ic distillation systems <it( uni@ue sol;ents
are "atenta3le.

3.3 tea/ Disti((ation
In t(e distillation7 <ater =as steam? is intentionally added to t(e distillating organic mi'ture
to reduce t(e re@uired tem"erature and to -ee" sus"ended any solids t(at may 3e "resent.
Steam distillation may 3e o"erated <it( one or t<o li@uid "(ases in t(e column. In 3ot(
cases t(e o;er(ead ;a"or <ill condense into t<o "(ases. T(us t(e system can 3e
considered a ty"e o! a1eotro"ic distillation <(ere t(e added sol;ent is <ater and t(e
se"aration is 3et<een ;olatiles and non;olatiles. Steam distillation is commonly used !or
"uri!ication o! essential oils in t(e "er!ume industry7 !or distillation o! organics o3tained
!rom coal7 !or (ydrocar3on distillations and !or remo;ing sol;ents !rom solids in <aste
dis"osal.
For steam distillation <it( a li@uid <ater "(ase "resent7 3ot( t(e <ater and organic layers
e'ert t(eir o<n ;a"or "ressures. At 1 atm "ressure t(e tem"erature must 3e less t(an 188
8
C e;en t(oug( t(e organic material 3y itsel! mig(t 3oil at se;eral (undred degrees. T(us
one ad;antage o! steam distillation is a lo<er o"erating tem"erature. Bit( t<o li@uid
"(ases "resent and in e@uili3rium7 t(eir com"ositions <ill 3e !i'ed 3y t(eir mutual
solu3ilities. Since eac( "(ase e'erts its o<n ;a"or "ressure7 t(e ;a"or com"osition <ill 3e
constant regardless o! t(e a;erage li@uid concentration. A (eterogeneous a1eotro"e is
!ormed. As t(e amount o! <ater or organic is increased7 t(e "(ase concentrations do not
c(angeM only t(e amount o! eac( li@uid "(ase <ill c(ange. Since an a1eotro"e (as 3een
reac(ed7 no additional se"aration is o3tained 3y adding more stages. T(us only a re3oiler
is re@uired. T(is ty"e o! steam distillation is o!ten done as a 3atc( o"eration.
.@uili3rium calculations are similar to t(ose !or drying organics e'ce"t t(at no< t<o
li@uid "(ases are "resent. Since eac( "(ase e'erts it o<n "artial "ressure7 t(e total
"ressure is t(e sum o! t(e "artial "ressures. Bit( one ;olatile organic "resent7 t(is is
"
org
> "
<
N "
tot
=&.1/?
Su3stituting in .@uation =&512? and = &51#?
= +P
org
? '
;olatle ln org >
> = +P
<
? ' < in < N "
tot
=&.16?
T(e com"ositions o! t(e li@uid "(ases are set 3y e@uili3rium. I! total "ressure is !i'ed7
t(en .@uation .na3les us to calculate t(e tem"erature. *nce t(e tem"erature is -no<n
t(e ;a"or com"osition is easily calculated as :
"
1

y
1

N

"
tot
=&.28?
T(e num3er o! moles o! <ater carried o;er in t(e ;a"or is easily estimated7 since t(e ratio
o! moles o! <ater to moles organic is e@ual to t(e ratio o! ;a"or mole !ractions.
n
org N
y
;olalle
n
<

y
<
Su3stituting in e@uation =&.28? 7 t(is is
n
org N
"
org N
P
org

N
=+P?
org
'
;olatlle
n
<

"
<
"
tot 5
"
org
"
tot
5

=+P?
org
'
;olaille
I! se;eral organics are "resent7 y
org
and P
org
are t(e sums o! t(e res"ecti;e ;alues !or all
t(e organics. T(e total moles o! steam re@uired is n
<
"lus t(e amount condensed to (eat
and ;a"ori1e t(e organics. Additional se"aration can 3e o3tained 3y o"erating <it(out a
li@uid <ater "(ase in t(e column. Reducing t(e num3er o! "(ases increases t(e degrees o!
!reedom 3y one. *"eration must 3e at a tem"erature (ig(er t(an t(at "redicated 3y
e@uation =&.16? or a li@uid <ater layer <ill !orm in t(e column. T(us t(e column must 3e
(eated <it( a con;entional re3oiler and:or t(e sensi3le (eat a;aila3le in su"er(eated
steam. T(e latent (eat a;aila3le in t(e steam cannot 3e used7 3ecause it <ould "roduce a
layer o! li@uid <ater. *"eration <it(out li@uid <ater in t(e column reduces t(e energy
re@uirements 3ut ma-es t(e system com"le'.
3.5 Processes $sing Changes In Press!re
Pressure a!!ects ;a"or5li@uid e@uili3rium7 and in systems t(at !orm a1eotro"es it <ill
a!!ect t(e com"osition o! t(e a1eotro"e. For e'am"le7 t(e et(anol5<ater system (as an
a1eotro"e at 8./6%# mole !raction et(anol at 1 atm "ressure. I! t(e "ressure is reduced7
t(e a1etro"ic concentration increases. At "ressure 3elo< ,8mm2
g
7 t(e a1eotro"e
disa""ears entirely7 and t(e distillation can 3e done in a sim"le column. 4n!ortunately7
use o! t(is disa""earance o! t(e a1eotro"e !or t(e se"aration o! et(anol and <ater is not
economical 3ecause t(e column re@uires a large num3er o! stages and (as a large
diameter. 2o<e;er7 t(e "rinci"le o! !inding a "ressure <(ere t(e a1eotro"e disa""ears
may 3e use!ul in ot(er distillations. T(e e!!ect o! "ressure on t(e a1eotro"ic com"osition
and tem"erature can 3e estimated.
.;en t(oug( t(e a1eotro"e may not disa""ear7 in general7 "ressure a!!ects t(e a1eotro"ic
com"osition. I! t(e s(i!t in com"osition is large enoug(7 a t<o column "rocess using t<o
di!!erent "ressures can 3e used to com"letely se"arate t(e 3inary mi'ture. A sc(ematic o!
t(e !lo< c(art !or t(is t<o "ressure distillation "rocess is s(o<n in Figure &.,. Column 1
usually o"erates at atmos"(eric "ressure7 <(ile column 2 is usually at a (ig(er "ressure
3ut can 3e at a lo<er "ressure.
To understand t(e o"eration o! t(is "rocess7 consider t(e se"aration o! met(yl et(yl -eton
=.A? and <ater. At 1 atm t(e a1eotro"e contains #&W <ater7 <(ile at 188"sia t(e
a1eotro"e is &8W <ater. I! a !eed containing more t(an #&W <ater is !ed to t(e !irst
column7 t(e 3ottoms <ill 3e "ure <ater. T(e distillate !rom t(is atmos"(eric column <ill
3e t(e #&W a1eotro"e. B(en t(is a1eotro"e is sent to t(e (ig( "ressure column7 an
a1eotro"e containing &8W <ater comes o!! as t(e distillateM t(is distillate is recycled to
column 1. Since t(e !eed = t(e #&W a1eotro"e? contains less <ater t(an t(is distillate7 t(e
3ottoms !rom column 2 is "ure .A. Note t(at t(e <ater is less ;olatile in column 1 and
t(e .A is less ;olatile in column 2. T(e cCa3e5 T(iele diagram !or one o! t(e
columns <ill (a;e t(e e@uili3rium cur;e and t(e o"erating lines 3elo< t(e y N ' line.
ass 3alances !or t(e system s(o<n in Figure &., are o! interest. T(e e'ternal mass
3alances are identical to .@uation =&.&? and =&.)?. T(us7 t(e 3ottoms !lo< rates are gi;en
3y .@uations =&.,? and =&./?. Alt(oug( t(e "rocesses s(o<n in Figure &.# and &., are
;ery di!!erent7 t(ey loo- t(e same to t(e e'ternal mass 3alances. Di!!erences in t(e
"rocesses 3ecome e;ident <(en 3alances are <ritten !or indi;idual columns. For instance7
!or column 2 t(e mass 3alances are
D
1
N D
2
> $
2
=&.2#?
and
D
1
'
dist 1
N D
2
'
dist 2
> $
2
'
3ot2
=&.2%?
sol;ing t(ese e@uations simultaneously and t(en inserting t(e ;alues in .@uation =&./?7 <e
o3tain
$
2
= '
3ot2
5 '
dist 1
? 1 5 '
31
'
3ot2
5 '
dist1
D
2
N
'dist1 5 'dist2
N F
'
3ot2
5 '
3ot1

'
dist1
5 '
dist2

=&.2&?

T(is is o! interest since D
2
is t(e recycle !lo< rate. As t(e t<o a1eotro"e concentrations
at t(e t<o di!!erent "ressures a""roac( eac( ot(er7 '
dist1
5 '
dist2
<ill 3ecome small.
According to .@uation =&.2&?7 t(e recycle !lo< rate D
2
3ecomes large. T(is increases
3ot( o"erating and ca"ital costs and ma-es t(is "rocess too e'"ensi;e i! t(e s(i!t in t(e
a1eotro"e concentration is small.
3.7 Disti((ation @ith Che/ica( Reaction
Distillation columns are occasionally used as c(emical reactors. T(e ad;antage o! t(is
a""roac( is t(at distillation and reaction can ta-e "lace simultaneously in t(e same ;essel
and t(e "roducts can 3e remo;ed to dri;e t(e re;ersi3le reaction to com"letion. T(e most
common industrial a""lication is !or t(e !ormation o! esters !rom a car3o'ylic acid and an
alco(ol. Reaction in a distillation column may also 3e undesira3le <(en one o! t(e desired
"roducts decom"oses. Distillation <it( reaction is use!ul !or re;ersi3le reactions.
.'am"les <ould 3e reactions suc( as :
A N C
A N C > D
A > $ N C > D
T(e "ur"ose o! t(e distillation are to se"arate t(e "roduct=s? !rom t(e reactant=s? to dri;e
t(e reactions to t(e rig(t7 and to reco;er "uri!ied "roduct=s?. De"ending on t(e
e@uili3rium "ro"erties o! t(e system7 di!!erent distillation con!igurations can 3e used as
s(o<n in Figure &./. Figure &./ a s(o<s t(e case <(ere t(e reactant is less ;olatile t(an
t(e "roduct. I! se;eral "roducts are !ormed7 no attem"t is made to se"arate t(em in t(is
system. T(e 3leed is used to "re;ent t(e 3uildu" o! non;olatile im"urities or "roducts o!
secondary reactions. I! t(e !eed is more ;olatile t(an t(e desired "roduct7 t(e arrangement
s(o<n in Figure &./ 3 can 3e used. T(is column is essentially at total re!lu' e'ce"t !or a
small 3leed7 <(ic( may 3e needed to remo;e ;olatiles or gases.
Figures &./ c7 d and e all s(o< systems <(ere t<o "roducts are !ormed and t(e "roducts
are se"arated !rom eac( ot(er and !rom t(e reactants in t(e distillation column. In !igure
&./ c t(e reactant=s? are o! intermediate ;olatility 3et<een t(e t<o "roducts. T(en t(e
reactants <ill stay in t(e middle o! t(e column until t(ey are consumed7 <(ile t(e "roducts
are continuously remo;ed7 dri;ing t(e reaction to t(e rig(t. I! t(e reactants are not o!
intermediate ;olatility7 some o! t(e reactants <ill a""ear in eac( "roduct stream. T(e
alternati;e sc(emes s(o<n in Figures &./ d and &./ e <ill o!ten 3e ad;antageous !or t(e
reaction.
A > $ N C > D
In t(ese t<o !igures7 s"ecies A and C are relati;ely ;olatile <(ile s"ecies $ and D and
relati;ely non;olatile. Since reactants are !ed in at o""osite ends o! t(e column7 t(ere is a
muc( larger region <(ere 3ot( reactants are "resent. T(us7 t(e residence time !or t(e
reaction <ill 3e larger in Figures &./ d and e t(an in Figure &./ c7 and (ig(er yields can 3e
e'"ected. T(e systems s(o<n in Figure &./ c and d (a;e 3een used !or ester!ication
reactions suc( as mentioned 3elo< :
Acetic acid > .t(anol .t(yl acetate > Bater
and
Acetic acid > et(anol et(yl acetate > Bater
B(en a reaction occurs in t(e column7 t(e mass and energy 3alance e@uations must 3e
modi!ied to include t(e reaction terms. T(e general mass 3alance e@uation !or stage D can
3e modi!ied to
+r;D > LD'D 5 +
D51
y
D51
5 L
D>1
'
D>1
N F
D
1
D
> r
D
=&.2)?
B(ere t(e reaction term r
D
is "ositi;e i! t(e com"onent is a "roduct o! t(e reaction. To
use .@uation =&.2)?7 t(e a""ro"riate rate e@uation must 3e used !or r
D
. In general7 t(e
reaction rate <ill de"end on 3ot( t(e tem"erature and t(e li@uid com"ositions.
A sam"le o! com"osition and tem"erature "ro!iles !or t(e esteri!ication o! acetic acid and
et(anol is s(o<n in Figure &.6 !or t(e distillation system o! !igure &./C. T(e distillation
column is num3ered <it( 1# stages including t(e total condenser =No.1? and t(e "artial
re3oiler =No. 1#?. Reaction can occur on e;ery stage o! t(e column and in 3ot( t(e
condenser and t(e re3oiler. Feed is introduced to stage ) as a saturated li@uid. T(e !eed
is mainly acetic acid and et(anol <it( a small amount o! <ater. A re!lu' ratio o! 18 is
used. T(e to" "roduct contains most o! t(e et(yl acetate "roduced in t(e reaction "lus
et(anol and a small amount o! <ater. All o! t(e nonreacted acetic acid a""ears in t(e
3ottoms along <it( most o! t(e <ater and a signi!icant !raction o! t(e et(anol. Reaction is
o3;iously not com"lete.
A some<(at di!!erent ty"e o! distillation <it( reaction is Q catalytic distillationR . In t(is
"rocess 3ales o! catalyst are stac-ed in t(e column. T(e 3ales ser;e 3ot( as t(e catalyst
and as t(e column "ac-ing. T(is "rocess is used commercially !or "roduction o! met(yl
tert53utyl et(er =T$.? !rom t(e li@uid "(ase reaction o! iso3utylene and met(anol. T(e
(eat generated 3y t(e e'ot(ermic reaction is used to su""ly muc( o! t(e (eat re@uired !or
t(e distillation.
3.= $99AR;

In t(is c(a"ter a1eotro"ic and e'tracti;e distillation systems "lus distillation <it(
simultaneous c(emical reaction are co;ered <(ic( can 3e summari1ed as:
1. Analy1e 3inary distillation system using ot(er se"aration sc(emes to 3rea- t(e
a1eotro"e.
2. T(e "ur"ose o! e'tracti;e distillation7 selection o! a suita3le sol;ent t(e e'"ected
concentration "ro!iles.
#. A1eotro"ic distillation <it( an added sol;ent including steam distillation.
C"APTER 5
OT"ER 9ET"OD O8 DITI%%ATION
5.# Batch Disti((ation
5.#.# Introd!ction
In "re;ious sections7 conditions (a;e 3een considered in <(ic( t(ere (as 3een a
continuous !eed to t(e still and a continuous <it(dra<al o! "roducts !rom t(e to" and
3ottom. In many instances "rocess are carried out in 3atc(es7 and it is more con;enient to
distill eac( 3atc( se"arately. In t(ese cases t(e <(ole o! t(e 3atc( is run into t(e 3oiler o!
t(e still and on (eating t(e ;a"or is "assed into t(e !ractionation column7 as indicated in
Figure ).1. As <it( continuous distillation7 t(e com"osition o! t(e to" "roduct <ill
de"end on t(e still com"osition7 t(e num3er o! "lates in t(e column and on t(e re!lu' ratio
used. B(en t(e still is o"erating7 since t(e to" "roduct <ill 3e relati;ely ric( in t(e more
;olatile com"onent7 t(e li@uid remaining in t(e still <ill 3ecome steadily <ea-er in t(is
com"onent. As a result7 t(e "urity o! t(e to" "roduct <ill steadily !all. T(us t(e still may
3e c(arged <it( S
1
moles o! a mi'ture containing a mole !raction '
s1
o! t(e more ;olatile
com"onent. Initially7 <it( a re!lu' ratio R
1
7 t(e to" "roduct (as a com"osition '
d1
. I! a!ter
a certain inter;al o! time t(e com"osition t(en7 i! t(e re!lu' ratio is increased to a ne<
;alue R
2
7 it <ill 3e "ossi3le to o3tain t(e same com"osition at t(e to" as 3e!ore7 alt(oug(
t(e com"osition in t(e still is <ea-ened to '
s2
. T(is met(od o! o"erating a 3atc( still
re@uires a continuous increase in t(e re!lu' ratio to maintain a constant @uality o! t(e to"
"roduct.
An alternati;e met(od o! o"eration is to <or- <it( a constant re!lu' ratio and allo< t(e
com"osition o! t(e to" "roduct to !all. For e'am"le7 i! a "roduct o! com"osition 8.6 <it(
res"ect to t(e more ;olatile com"onent is re@uired7 t(e com"osition initially o3tained may
3e 8.6&7 and distillation is allo<ed to continue until t(e com"osition (as !allen to some
;alue 3elo< 8.67 say 8./2. T(e total "roduct o3tained <ill t(en (a;e t(e re@uired
com"osition7 "ro;ided t(e amounts o! a gi;en "urity are correctly c(osen.
*ne o! t(e added merits o! 3atc( distillation lies in t(e !act t(at more t(an one "roduct
may 3e o3tained. T(us7 a 3inary mi'ture o! alco(ol and <ater may 3e distilled to o3tain
initially a (ig( @uality alco(ol. As t(e com"osition in t(e still <ea-ens <it( res"ect to
alco(ol a second "roduct may 3e remo;ed !rom t(e to" <it( a reduced concentration o!
alco(ol. In t(is <ay it is "ossi3le to o3tain not only t<o di!!erent @uality "roducts7 3ut to
reduce t(e alco(ol in t(e still to a minimum ;alue. T(is met(od o! o"eration is
"articularly use!ul !or (andling small @uantities o! multi5com"onet organic mi'tures7
since it is "ossi3le to o3tain t(e di!!erent com"onents at reasona3le degree o! "urity7 one
a!ter t(e ot(er. To o3tain t(e ma'imum reco;ery o! a ;alua3le com"onent7 t(e c(arge
remaining in t(e still a!ter t(e !irst distillation may 3e added to t(e ne't 3atc(.
5.#.' Operation at Constant Prod!ct Co/position
Su""ose a column <it( !our ideal "lates 3e used to se"arate a mi'ture o! et(yl alco(ol
and <ater7 Initially t(ere are in t(e still S
1
moles o! li@uor o! mol !raction F
'1
<it(
res"ect to t(e more ;olatile com"onent =alco(ol?. T(e to" "roduct is to contain a mol
!raction F
s
and t(is necessitates a re!lu' ratio R
1
. Su""ose t(e distillation is to 3e
continued until t(ere are S
2
moles in t(e still7 o! mol !raction F
'2
T(en7 !or t(e same
num3er o! "lates t(e re!lu' ratio <ill (a;e 3een increased to R
2
. I! t(e amount o! "roduct
o3tained is D
3
moles7 3y a material 3alance:
S
1
'
S1
5 S
2
'
S2
N D
3
'
d

S
1
5 S
2 N
D
3
S
1
'
S1
=S
1
5 D
3
?'
s2
N D
3
'
d

S
1
'
S1
5 S
1
'
S2
N D
3
'
d
5 D
3
'
s2

'
S1
5 '
S2
a
D
3
N S
1
N S
1
=).1?
'
d
5 '
s2
3
<(ere a and 3 are as s(o<n in Figure ).2. I! is t(e interce"t on t(e H5a'is !or any
o"erating line t(en:
'
d
'
d
N 7 or R N 5 1 =).2?
R > 1
T(ese e@uations ena3le t(e !inal re!lu' ratio to 3e !ound !or any desired end concentration
in t(e still7 and also gi;e t(e total @uantity o! distillate o3tained. B(at is im"ortant7 in
com"aring t(e o"eration at constant re!lu' ratio <it( t(at at constant "roduct com"osition
is t(e di!!erence in t(e total amount o! steam used in t(e distillation !or a gi;en @uantity D
3
o! "roduct.
I! t(e re!lu' ratio R is assumed to 3e adDusted continuously to -ee" t(e to" "roduct at
constant @uality t(en at any moment t(e re!lu' ratio is gi;en 3y R N dL
3
: dD
3
. During
t(e course o! t(e distillation7 t(e total re!lu' li@uor !lo<ing do<n t(e column is gi;en 3y :
L3 RNR2
dL
3
N RdD
3
=).#?
8 RNR1
To "ro;ide re!lu' dL
3
re@uires t(e remo;al o! (eat dL
3
in t(e condenser7 <(ere is t(e
latent (eat "er mol. T(us7 t(e (eat to 3e su""lied in t(e 3oiler 9
R
to "ro;ide t(ese re!lu'
during t(e distillation is gi;en 3y :

L3 RNR2
9
R
N dL
3
N RdD
3
=).%?
8 RNR1
T(is e@uation can 3e integrated gra"(ically i! t(e relation 3et<een R and D
3
is !irst !ound.
For any desired ;alue o! R7 '
s
may 3e o3tained 3y dra<ing t(e o"erating line and mar-ing
o!! t(e ste"s corres"onding to t(e gi;en num3er o! stages. T(e amount o! "roduct D
3
is
t(en o3tained !rom e@uation ).1 and 7 i! t(e corres"onding ;alues o! R and D
3
are "lotted7
gra"(ical integration <ill gi;e t(e ;alue o! RdD
3
.
T(e minimum re!lu' ratio R
m
may 3e !ound !or any gi;en still concentration '
s
as "er
normal met(od.
5.#., Operation at Constant Re&(!2 Ratio

I! t(e same column as 3e!ore is o"erated at a constant re!lu' ratio R7 t(e concentration o!
t(e +C in t(e to" "roduct <ill continuously !all. *;er a small inter;al o! time dt7 t(e
to" "roduct com"osition <ill !all !rom '
'
to '
d
5 ds
d
. I! in t(is time t(e amount o! "roduct
o3tained is dD
3
7 a material 3alance on t(e more ;olatile com"onent gi;es:
d'
'
ore ;olatile com"onent remo;ed in "roduct N dD
3
( '
d
5 ) = ).&?
2
=neglecting second5order terms? N '
d
dD
3
and '
d
dD
3
N d=S'
s
? =).)?
$ut dD
3
N 5dS7
5 '
d
dS N 5 SDA
s
5 '
s
dS
Sd'
s
N dS='
d
5 '
s
? =).,?
T(e rig(t (and side o! t(is e@uation can 3e integrated 3y "lotting 1:='
d
5 '
s
? ;s. F
s.
T(is
<ill ena3le t(e ratio o! t(e initial to !inal @uantity in t(e still to 3e !ound !or any desired
c(ange in '
s7
and (ence t(e amount o! distillate D
3
. T(e (eat to 3e su""lied to "ro;ide t(e
re!lu' <ill no< 3e 9
R
N RD
3
and (ence t(e re3oil (eat re@uired "er mol o! "roduct can
3e com"ared <it( t(at !rom t(e !irst met(od.
5.' Cr!de Disti((ation
T(e crude distillation column7 toget(er <it( its ancillaries7 is t(e Q-eystoneR "rocess unit
in all re!ineries. Its "ur"ose is to distill crude oil into ;arious !ractions <(ic( 3ecome
!eeds !or do<nstream "rocessing units and "roducts. As s(o<n in Figure ).# on t(e
!ollo<ing "age7 t(e num3er o! "roducts and "rocess units <(ic( originate !rom t(e crude
column are many. T(is 3loc- !lo< <as de;elo"ed to demonstrate t(e di;ersity o! re!ining
tec(nology and is not intended to re"resent a s"eci!ic re!ining sc(eme.
T(e crude distillation column re"resents a con!iguration c(aracteristic o! t(e ty"e o!
(ydrocar3on se"aration used in a num3er o! re!inery "rocess units. .'am"les include t(e
main column in a Fluid Crac-ing unit and t(e "roduct !ractionate in a 2ydrocrac-ing unit.
T(e same calculation tec(ni@ues de;elo"ed in t(is section are 3eing used <it(in t(e
industry to design ot(er Qcrude5ty"eR !ractionating columns.
T(e term Qcrude5ty"eR distillation generally re!ers to a distillation system in <(ic( all o!
t(e (eat re@uired to ;a"ori1e t(e distillate "roducts is "ut into t(e !eed. 4sually7 <e t(in-
o! a !ractionation system in <(ic( "art o! t(e (eat re@uired to ma-e t(e se"aration is "ut
into t(e !eed to t(e column and t(e remainder 3y means o! a re3oiler at t(e column
3ottom. ost Qcrude5ty"eR !ractionators ma-e multi"le "roducts <it( one or more
sidecut "roducts =generally li@uid? 3et<een t(e o;er(ead and 3ottom "roducts. T(e
sidecut "roducts are o!ten sent to t(e sidecut stri""ers = eit(er steam stri""ers or re3oiled
stri""ers? !or lig(t ends remo;al and t(e stri""ed ;a"ors are returned to t(e crude column.
Sidecut stri""ers are an integral "art o! t(e crude !ractionation unit. A sc(ematic o! a t<o
sidecut "roduct Qcrude ty"eR distillation column is s(o<n in Figure ).%
5., Vac!!/ disti((ation
+acuum distillation is a ;alua3le "rocessing met(od o!ten used to se"arate or "uri!y (ig(
3oiling "oint materials7 or t(ose t(at are t(ermally sensiti;e. T(ese include materials t(at
decom"ose or "olymeri1e at ele;ated tem"eraturesM acrylate monomers and !la;or
com"ounds are e'am"les. Deciding <(en to use ;acuum distillation7 and <(ic( o! its
;arious ;ersions to use7 suc( as t(in5!ilm "rocesses or 3atc( distillation7 is not easy.
In "ractice7 (ig( ;acuum distillation terminology is im"recise7 im"lying di!!erent "(ysical
conditions to ;arious "eo"le. Q2ig( +acuumR <ill 3e ta-en (ere to mean "ressures 3elo<
& mm 2g. Introduction scale "rocesses7 t(e term molecular distillation usually re!ers to
se"arations at 8.# to 8.88# mm 2g. PressureM a related system7 uno3structed5"at(
distillation7 usually occurs at 8.&58.82 mm 2g. $ot( t(ese tec(ni@ues are more
accurately descri3ed as e;a"oration "rocesses.
C(emists s"ea- o! t(e mean !ree "at( o! a molecule as a measure o! t(e distance it can
tra;el 3e!ore stri-ing anot(er molecule or t(e <all o! a container. In molecular
e;a"oration7 t(e mean !ree "at( o! e;a"orating molecule is greater t(en t(e distance
3et<een t(e e;a"orating =(ot? sur!ace and t(e condensing =cold? sur!ace and t(e ;a"or
"at( is uno3structed. In an uno3structed5"at( e;a"oration7 only t(e latter condition is
true. *!ten t(oug(7 t(e only di!!erence 3et<een t(e molecular and uno3structed "at(
distillation is o"erating "ressure.
5.1 hort paths0 thin &i(/s disti((ation
T(e less "recise term7 s(ort5"at( distillation7 is sometimes a""lied to 3ot( molecular and
uno3structed5"at( "rocesses7 re!erring to t(e closeness o! t(e e;a"orating and condensing
sur!aces. Finally7 <(en t(e material to 3e distilled is a""lied as a t(in layer on a (eated
sur!ace7 t(e term t(in !ilm distillation is sometimes used.
Predicting t(e t(eoretical "er!ormance o! a (ig( ;acuum distillation is made more com"le'
3y t(e lac- o! ;a"or li@uid e@uili3rium =+L.? data7 and t(e non5e@uili3rium 3e(a;ior o!
mi'tures at t(ese "ressures. A ty"ical 3oiling "oint cur;e !or a t(ermally sensiti;e
com"ound is s(o<n in Figure M as "ressure decreases7 t(e 3oiling "oint is also decreases.
In our e'"erience7 t(e rule o! t(um3 t(at eac( &8W decrease in "ressure lo<ers t(e 3oiling
"oint 3y 18
8
C 3ecomes increasingly less ;alid at "ressure 3elo< 188 micrometers =8.1
mm 2g.?. In addition7 t(e de"arture !rom +L. increases as t(e o"erating "ressure !alls.
Se"aration e!!iciency =i.e. t(e ratio o! distillate "er num3er o! t(eoretical stages or "asses.?
in distillation "rocesses generally decreases <it( decreasing o"erating "ressure =#5)?. $ut7
3ecause distillation tem"eratures also generally go do<n as "ressure goes do<n7
se"aration e!!iciency is usually 3eing sacri!iced <(en distilling t(ermally sensiti;e material.
T<o in(erent contri3uting !actors to t(e lo<er se"aration e!!iciency o! (ig( ;acuum
distillations are lo< ;a"or density and (ig( ;a"or ;elocity. T(ese !actors (inder t(e
esta3lis(ment o! "(ysical e@uili3rium 3et<een t(e li@uid and ;a"or "(ases7 t(e -ey !actor
go;erning se"aration e!!iciency.
T(e e!!ects o! t(ese !actors are o!ten com"ounded 3y engineering5design elements in t(e
molecular and uno3structed5"at( e;a"orators. In t(ese systems7 a ;a"or molecule (as u"
to a &8W "ro3a3ility o! esca"ing <it(out interacting again <it( t(e li@uid sur!ace. In
3atc( distillation e@ui"ment o"erating at t(e same "ressure =see Figure &.#?7 a ne<ly
;a"ori1ed molecule may return to t(e li@uid sur!ace as muc( as 17888 times 3e!ore
esca"ing into t(e ;a"or "(ase.
5.3 !r&ace e&&ects
As o"erating "ressure are reduced 3elo< 1mm 2g7 sur!ace concentration e!!ects 3ecome
muc( more signi!icant7 as s(o<n in Figure &.1. In ste" A o! Figure &.17 more ;olatile
molecules esca"e !rom t(e li@uid "(ase into t(e ;a"or "(ase7 lea;ing t(e li@uid sur!ace
layer de"leted o! t(ese molecules and !a;oring t(e esca"e7 in ste" $7 o! t(e less ;olatile
com"onents.
$ecause o! t(e non5e@uili3rium nature o! many (ig( ;acuum distillations7 t(e conce"ts o!
t(eoretical "lates7 stages or ot(er common distillation terminology do not a""ly.
De!initions o! "otentially more use!ul "redictors o! se"aration7 suc( as t(eoretical
molecular "lates7 (a;e 3een "ro"osed7 3ut not <idely ado"ted. T(is again may 3e due to
t(e lac- o! +L. data at ;ery lo< "ressures.
Column "ac-ing7 i! used7 must 3e designed s"eci!ically !or t(e intended o"erating
conditions. 2ig(5@uality7 lo<5"ressure5dro" structured "ac-ing is o!!ered 3y se;eral
manu!actures. In our e'"erience t(ese are use!ul in ;acuum distillations at "ressures o! &
mm 2g and (ig(er7 3ut cause large "ressure dro"s at lo<er o"erating "ressures. T(is
necessitates a "ot tem"erature t(at may 3e unacce"ta3ly (ig( !or t(ermally sensiti;e
materials. For e'am"le7 a "ressure dro" o! 1 mm 2g <(ile distilling at & mm 2g may 3e
acce"ta3le7 3ut not i! t(e desired o"erating "ressure is 8.1 mm 2g.
+ery (ig( ;acuum systems o!ten (a;e eit(er no "ac-ing or "ro"rietary7 custom5designed
"ac-ing. Li-e<ise7 con;entional re!lu' distri3utors7 intended to !acilitate "ro"er li@uid
distri3ution o;er t(e "ac-ing7 may cause unacce"ta3ly (ig( "ressure dro"s <(en used in
;ery (ig( ;acuum distillations. T(e increased ;a"or ;elocity and mean !ree "at(s o! ;a"or
molecules at ;ery lo< "ressures allo< su3stantially lo<er o"erating tem"eratures t(an in
atmos"(eric or e;en con;entional ;acuum distillations. Conse@uently7 more e!!icient
condenser designs are usually necessary.
At "ressure 3elo< & mm 2g7 t(e c(oice 3et<een large5scale distillation "rocesses is
"rimarily 3et<een t(in5!ilm e;a"oration and 3atc( distillation7 "rocesses is "rimarily
3et<een t(in5!ilm e;a"oration and 3atc( distillation7 and is 3est determined 3y considering
se"aration re@uirements7 ;ersatility and "rocess economics. T(in5!ilm e@ui"ment o"erated
at ;ery lo< "ressures !alls into t(e category o! continuous molecular and uno3structed5
"at( e;a"oration and is intentionally designed to o"erate under e'treme non5e@uili3rium
conditions =Figure &.% and &.&?.
In t(ese systems7 t(e geometry o! t(e re3oiler and condenser7 as <ell as t(e "ro'imity o!
t(ese com"onents7 !a;ors e;a"oration rat(er t(an distillation. Accordingly7 se"aration o!
;olatile !orm non;olatile is t(e ideal a""lication !or t(in !ilm "rocesses. $atc( distillation
e@ui"ment t(at is designed !or "ressures 3elo< & mm 2g. ay also 3e molecular or
uno3structed5"at( in nature7 in <(ic( case e'treme none@uili3rium conditions also "re;ail.
Con;entional 3atc( distillation systems7 <it( modi!ications7 are also used in (ig( ;acuum
a""lications. 0enerally7 t(ese consist o! systems in <(ic( t(e geometry is similar to t(at
o! ty"ical 3atc( distillation e@ui"ment7 3ut <it( modi!ications designed to "ermit lo<
"ressure o"eration. T(ese system ty"ically o"erate se;eral orders o! magnitude closer to
e@uili3rium t(an do molecular or uno3structed5"at( systems. T(ey tend to 3e more
a""ro"riate !or distillations re@uiring se"aration o! ;olatile com"onents.
$atc( distillation systems o!!er t(e a3ility to ta-e cuts at ;arious distillate com"ositions7
allo<ing t(e "roduction o! relati;ely !i'ed "roduct com"osition <(en !eed com"ositions
;ary. T(is !eature is ideally suited to t(e accurate trac-ing o! ra< materials and "roduct
lots re@uired !or 0ood anu!acturing Practice=0P? standards !or "(armaceutical and
intermediates.
Tem"eratures and "ressure can also 3e ;aried during 3atc( distillations7 "ermitting t(e
stri""ing o! ;olatile com"onents or contaminates in t(e same "ot as t(e "roduct. T(in
!ilm "rocesses7 (o<e;er can generally accommodate (ig(er ;iscosity !eeds t(an 3atc(
"rocesses7 and since t(e t(in !ilm "rocess is continuous7 it can "roduce a greater
t(roug("ut. $ecause o! t(is t(roug("ut7 t(in !ilm e;a"orations are generally more cost
e!!ecti;e t(an 3atc( distillations7 "ro;iding t(at multi"le "asses t(roug( t(e !ormer are not
re@uired to reac( !inal "roduct @uality. T(in5!ilm e@ui"ment is a;aila3le !or o!!5t(e5s(el!
"urc(ase7 3ut re@uires considera3le maintenance. T(e a;aila3ility o! 3atc( e@ui"ment
ca"a3le o! o"eration at ;ery lo< "ressure is generally restricted to custom !a3rication.
5.5 $99AR;
In sum7 t(ese guidelines co;er most (ig( ;acuum se"aration cases:
A lo<er "ressure t(an necessary s(ould not 3e used7 as 3ot( se"arations e!!iciency and
t(roug("ut decrease <it( decreasing o"erating "ressure.
I! t(e "rimary re@uirement is to se"arate ;olatile com"onents as a single stream !rom
lo< ;olatility 3ottoms7 a molecular or uno3structed5"at( "rocess eit(er t(in !ilm or
3atc(7 is a""ro"riate.
I! se"aration o! a ;olatile "roduct !rom ;olatile im"urities is re@uired7 con;entionally
con!igured 3atc( distillation is usually t(e 3est c(oice.
T(e "ractice o! adding a "ac-ed column to a t(in !ilm e;a"orator "artially de!eats t(e
design "ur"ose o! t(e e;a"orator and 3ecause o! t(e e'treme non5e@uili3rium
c(aracteristics o! t(e re3oiler section o! t(e e;a"orator7 re@uires e;en more "ac-ing.
Conse@uently7 t(e "ressure dro" increases7 re@uiring (ig(er tem"eratures t(an
con;entional 3atc( systems o"erating at similar "ressures.
C"APTER 7
DITI%%ATION CO%$9N INTERNA%
7.# TRA;
7.#.# Introd!ction
Distillation may 3e carried out in "late columns in <(ic( eac( "late constitutes a single
stage7 or in "ac-ed columns <(ere mass trans!er is 3et<een a ;a"our and li@uid in
continuous counter current !lo<. Plate column <ill 3e ta-en !irst7 and "ac-ed columns <ill
3e considered later in Section ,.2.
T(e num3er o! t(eoretical stages re@uired to e!!ect a re@uired se"aration. And t(e
corres"onding rates !or t(e li@uid and ;a"our "(ases7 can 3e determined 3y t(e
"rocedures descri3e earlier. To translate t(ese @uantities into an actual design t(e
!ollo<ing !actors must 3e considered.
=A? T(e ty"e o! "late or tray.
=$? T(e ;a"our ;elocity7 <(ic( is t(e maDor !actor in determining t(e diameter o!
t(e column.
=C? t(e "late s"acing7 <(ic( is t(e maDor !actor !i'ing t(e (eig(t o! t(e column
<(en t(e num3er o! stages is -no<n.
Design met(ods <ill 3e discussed later7 3ut it is !irst necessary to consider t(e range o!
trays a;aila3le and some o! t(eir im"ortant !eatures.
7.#.' T.pes o& Tra.s
T(e main re@uirement o! a tray is t(at it s(ould "ro;ide intimate mi'ing 3et<een t(e li@uid
and ;a"our streams7 t(at it s(ould 3e suita3le !or (andling t(e desired rates o! ;a"our and
li@uid <it(out e'cessi;e entrainment or !looding7 t(at it s(ould 3e sta3le in o"eration7 and
t(at it s(ould 3e reasona3ly easy to erect and maintain. In many cases "articularly <it(
;acuum distillation7 it is essential to arrange !or t(e dro" in "ressure o;er t(e tray to 3e a
minimum.
T(e arrangements !or t(e li@uid !lo< o;er t(e tray de"end largely on t(e ratio o! li@uid to
;a"our !lo<. T(ere layouts are s(o<n in Figure ,.17 o! <(ic( t(e cross5!lo< is muc( t(e
most !re@uently used.
=a? Cross-Flow. Normal7 <it( good lengt( o! "at( gi;ing good o""ortunity !or mass
trans!er.
=3? Reverse. Do<ncomers muc( reduced in area7 and ;ery long li@uid "at(. Suita3le !or
lo< li@uid5;a"our ratios.
=c? Double-pass. Li@uid !lo< s"lits into t<o directions7 so t(at t(is system <ill (andle (ig(
li@uid5;a"our ratios.
T(e li@uid re!lu' !lo< across eac( tray and enters t(e do<ncomers ;ia a <eir7 t(e (ig( o!
<(ic( largely determines t(e amount o! li@uid on t(e tray. T(e do<ncomers e'tends
3eneat( t(e li@uid sur!ace on t(e tray 3elo<7 t(us !orming a ;a"our !lo<s u"<ards
t(roug( risers into ca"s7 or t(roug( sim"le "er!orations in t(e tray.
Follo<ing are t(e main ty"es o! trays
The bubble-cap tray.
T(is (as 3een t(e most <idely used tray 3ecause o! its range o! o"eration 7 3ut it is
no< tending to 3e su"erseded 3y ne<er ty"es7 suc( as t(e ;al;e tray. T(e general
construction is s(o<n in Figure ,.2. T(e indi;idual ca"s are mounted on risers and
(a;e rectangular or triangular slots cut around t(eir sides. T(e ca"s are (eld in
"osition 3y some !orm o! s"ider7 and t(e areas o! t(e riser and t(e annual s"ace
around t(e riser s(ould 3e a3out e@ual. Bit( small trays7 t(e re!lu' "asses to t(e tray
3elo< o;er t<o or t(ree circular <eirs7 and <it( larger trays t(roug( segmental
do<ncomers.
Sieve or perforated trays.
T(ese are muc( sim"ler in construction 7 <it( small (oles in t(e tray. T(e li@uid !lo<
across t(e tray and do<n t(e segmental do<ncomers . Figure ,.# indicates t(e
general !orm o! tray layout.
Valve trays.
T(ese may 3e regarded as a across 3et<een 3u33le5ca" and sie;e trays. T(e
construction is similar to t(at o! ca" ty"es7 3ut t(ere are no risers and no slots . it is
im"ortant to note t(at <it( most ty"es o! ;al;e tray t(e o"ening may 3e ;aried 3y t(e
;a"our !lo<7 so t(at t(e trays can o"erate o;er a <ide range o! !lo<rates. $ecause o!
t(eir !le'i3ility and "rice7 t(ey are to re"lace 3u33le5ca" trays. Figure ,.% s(o<s a
ty"ical tray.
T(ese t(ree tray ty"es (a;e a common !eature in t(at all (a;e se"arate do<ncomers !or
t(e "assage o! li@uid !rom eac( tray to t(e one 3elo<. T(ere is anot(er class o! tray <(ic(
(as no se"arate do<ncomers and yet it still em"loys a tray ty"e o! contraction gi;ing a
(ydrodynamic "er!ormance 3et<een t(at o! a "ac-ed and a "late column. T<o e'am"les
o! de;ice are -ittel "late and a Tur3ogrid tray

.
7.#., P(ate T.pe Detai(s
T(ere "rinci"al ty"es o! cross5!lo< tray are used7 classi!ied according to t(e met(od used
to contact t(e ;a"our and li@uid.
7.#.,.#. ieve p(ate ( per&orated p(ate)
T(is is indicated in Figure ,.&. T(is is t(e sim"lest ty"es o! cross5!lo< "late7 t(e ;a"our
"asses u" t(roug( "er!orations in t(e "lateM and t(e li@uid is retained on t(e "late 3y t(e
;a"our !lo<. T(ere is no "ositi;e ;a"our li@uid seal7 and at lo< !lo<5rates li@uid <ill Q
<ee"R t(roug( t(e (oles7 reducing t(e "late e!!iciency. T(e "er!orations are usually small
(oles7 3ut larger (oles and slots are used
7.#.'.'. B!bb(e+ cap p(ates
T(is is indicated in Figure ,.). In <(ic( t(e ;a"our "asses u" t(roug( s(ort "i"es7 called
risers7 co;ered 3y a ca" <it( a serrated edge7 or slots. T(e 3u33le5ca" "late is t(e
traditional7 oldest7 ty"e o! cross5!lo< "late7 and many di!!erent designs (a;e 3een
de;elo"ed. Standard ca" designs <ould no< 3e s"eci!ied !or most a""lications. T(e most
signi!icant !eature o! t(e 3u33le5ca" "late is t(at t(e use o! risers ensures t(at a le;el o!
li@uid is maintained on t(e tray at all ;a"our !lo<5rates.
7.#.'.,. Va(ve p(ates (&(oating cap p(ates)
Va(ve "lates are "ro"rietary designs. T(ey are essentially sie;e "lates <it( large
diameter (oles co;ered 3y mo;a3le !la"s7 <(ic( li!t as t(e ;a"our !lo< increases. As t(e
area !or ;a"our !lo< ;aries <it( t(e !lo<5rate7 ;al;e "lates can o"erate e!!iciently at
lo<er !lo<5rate t(an sie;e "lates : t(e ;al;e "lates can o"erate e!!iciently at lo<er !lo<5
"lates t(an sie;e "lates : t(e ;al;es closing at lo< ;a"or rates . Some ;ery ela3orate ;al;e
designs (a;e 3een de;elo"ed7 3ut t(e sim"le ty"e s(o<n in Figure ,., is satis!actory !or
most a""lications.
7.#.,.' %i)!id &(o4n pattern
Cross5!lo< trays are also classi!ied according to t(e num3er o! li@uid "asses on t(e "late.
T(e design s(o<n in Figure ,./ a. is a single5"ass "late. For lo< li@uid !lo< rates re;erse
!lo< "lates are usedM Figure ,./ 3 In t(is ty"e t(e "late is di;ided 3y a lo< central
"artition7 and inlet and outlet do<ncomers are on t(e same side o! t(e "late. ulti"le5
"ass "lates7 in <(ic( t(e li@uid stream is su35di;ided 3y using se;eral do<ncomers7 are
used !or (ig( li@uid !lo<5rates and large diameter columns: A dou3le5"ass "late is s(o<n
in Figure ,./ c.
7.#.1 e(ection o& p(ate t.pe
,.1.%.1 8actors &or the co/parison
T(e "rinci"al !actors to consider <(en com"aring t(e "er!ormance o! 3u33le5ca"7 sie;e
and ;al;e "lates areM cost7 ca"acity7 o"erating range7 e!!iciency and "ressure dro".
Cost : $u33le5ca" "lates are a""recia3ly more e'"ensi;e t(an sie;e or ;al;e "lates.
T(e relati;e cost <ill de"end on t(e material o! construction usedM !or mild steel t(e
rations7 3u33le5ca" : ;al;e : sie;e7 are a""ro'imately #.8:1.&:1.8
Ca"acity : T(ere is little di!!erence in t(e ca"acity rating o! t(e t(ree ty"es = t(e
diameter o! t(e column re@uired !or a gi;en !lo<5rate ?M t(e ran-ing is sie;e7 ;al;e7
3u33le5ca".
*"erating range : T(is is t(e most signi!icant !actor. $y o"erating range is meant t(e
range o! ;a"our and li@uid rates o;er <(ic( t(e "late <ill o"erate satis!actorily=t(e
sta3le o"erating range?. Some !le'i3ility <ill al<ays 3e re@uired in an o"erating
"lant to allo< !or c(anges in "roduction rate7 and to co;er start5u" and s(ut5do<n
conditions. T(e ratio o! t(e (ig(est to t(e lo<est !lo< rates is o!ten re!erred to as
t(e Q turn5do<nR ratio. $u33le5 ca" "lates (a;e a "ositi;e li@uid seal and can
t(ere!ore o"erate e!!iciently at ;ery lo< ;a"our rates.
,.1.%.2 Advantages o& ieve tra. over B!bb(e Cap tra..
Sie;e "lates rely on t(e !lo< o! ;a"our t(roug( t(e (oles to (old t(e li@uid on t(e "late7
and cannot o"erate at ;ery lo< ;a"our rates. $ut7 <it( good design7 sie;e "lates can 3e
designed to gi;e a satis!actory o"erating rangeM ty"ically7 !rom &8 "er cent to 128 "er
cent o! design ca"acity. +al;e "lates are intended to gi;e greater !le'i3ility t(an sie;e
"lates at a lo<er cost t(an 3u33le5ca"s.
.!!iciency : T(e ur"(ee e!!iciency o! t(e t(ree ty"es o! "late <ill 3e ;irtually t(e
same <(en o"erating o;er t(eir design !lo< range7 and no real distinction can 3e made
3et<een t(em.
Pressure dro" : T(e "ressure dro" o;er t(e "lates can 3e an im"ortant design
consideration7 "articularly !or ;acuum columns. T(e "late "ressure dro" <ill de"ends
on t(e detailed design o! t(e "late 3ut7 in general7 sie;e "lates gi;e t(e lo<est "ressure
dro"7 !ollo<ed 3y ;al;es7 <it( 3u33le5ca"s gi;ing t(e (ig(est.
T(e Sie;e "lates are t(e c(ea"est and are satis!actory !or most a""lications. +al;e "lates
s(ould 3e considered i! t(e s"eci!ied turn5do<n ratio cannot 3e met <it( sie;e "lates.
$u33le5ca"s s(ould only 3e used <ere ;ery lo< ;a"our =gas? rates (a;e to 3e (andled and
a "ositi;e li@uid seal is essential at all !lo<5rates.
7.#.3 P(ate constr!ction
T(e mec(anica design !eatures o! sie;e "lates are descri3ed in t(is section. T(e same
general instruction is also used !or 3u33le5ca" and ;al;e "lates. Details o! t(e ;arious
ty"es o! 3u33le5ca" used7 and t(e "re!erred dimensions o! standard ca" designs7 can 3e
!ound in t(e 3oo-s 3y smit(=16)#? and Lud<ig= 16,6? . T(e manu!acturesG design
manuals s(ould 3e consulted !or details o! ;al;e "late designM 0litsc( =16,8? and -oc(
=16)8?. T<o 3asically di!!erent ty"es o! "late construction are used. Large5diameter
"lates are normally constructed in sections7 su""orted7 on 3eams. Small "lates are
installed in t(e column as a stac- o! "re5assem3led "lates.
7.#.3.# ectiona( constr!ction
A ty"ical "late is s(o<n Figure ,.6. T(e "late sections are su""orted on a rig(t <elded
round t(e ;essel <all7 and on 3eams. T(e 3eams and rig( are a3out &8 mm <ide7 <it( t(e
3eams set at around 8.) m s"acing. T(e 3eams are usually angle or c(annel sections7
constructed !rom !olded s(eet. S"ecial !asteners are used so t(e section can 3e
assem3led !rom one side only. *ne section is designed to 3e remo;a3le to act as a
man<ay. T(is reduces t(e num3er o! man<ays needed on t(e ;essel7 <(ic( reduces t(e
;essel cost. T(e Diagrams and "(otogra"(s o! sie;e "lates and $u33le ca" "late sections
are s(o<n ,.18 a 7 37 and ,.11 a and 3.
7.#.3.' tac*ed p(ates ( cartridge P(ates )
T(e stac-ed ty"e o! construction is used <(ere t(e column diameter is too small !or a
man to enter to assem3le t(e "lates7 say less t(an 1.2 m =%!t?..ac( "late is !a3ricated
com"lete <it( t(e do<ncomer7 and Doined to t(e "late a3o;e and 3elo< using scre<ed
rods =s"acers?M see Figure ,.12. T(e "lates are installed in t(e column s(ell as an
assem3ly=stac-? o! ten7 or so7 "lates. Tall columns (a;e to 3e di;ided into !langed sections
so t(at "late assem3lies can 3e easily installed and remo;ed. T(e <eir7 and do<ncomer
su""orts7 are usually !ormed 3y turning u" t(e edge o! t(e "late.
T(e "late are not !i'ed to t(e ;essel <all7 as t(ey are <it( sectional "lates7 so t(ere is no
"ositi;e li@uid seal at t(e edge o! t(e "late7 and and a small amount o! lea-age <ill
occur In some designs t(e "late edges are turned u" round t(e circum!erence to ma-e
3etter contact at t(e <all. T(is can ma-e it di!!icult to remo;e t(e "lates !or cleaning and
maintenance7 <it(out damage.
7.#.5 Do4nco/ers
T(e segmental7 or c(ord do<ncomer7 s(o<n in Figure ,.1# is t(e sim"lest and c(ea"est
!orm o! construction and is satis!actory !or most "ur"oses. T(e do<ncomer c(annel is
!ormed 3y a !lat "late7 called an a"ron7 <(ic( e'tends do<n !rom t(e outlet <eir. T(e
a"ron is usually ;ertical7 3ut may 3e slo"ed to increase t(e "late area a;aila3le !or
"er!oration. I! a more "ositi;e seal is re@uired at t(e do<ncomer at t(e outlet7 an inlet
<eir can 3e !itted or a recessed seal "an used circular do<ncomers ="i"es? are sometimes
used !or small li@uid !lo<5rates.
B(ere a side5stream is <it(dra<n !rom t(e column t(e "late design must 3e modi!ied to
"ro;ide a li@uid seal at t(e ta-e5o!! "i"e. A ty"ical do<ncomer and <eir layout is s(o<n
in Figure ,.1#. B(en t(e !eed stream is li@uid <ill 3e normally introduced into t(e
do<ncomer leading o! t(e !eed "late7 and t(e "late s"acing increased at t(is "oint.
7.' Pac*ing Operation
T(e Pac-ing material selection is "rimarily 3ased on t(e corrosion resistance. Car3on
steel "ac-ing are usually t(e !irst c(oice !or noncorrosi;e ser;ices. Com"ared to ceramic
and "lastic7 CS or SS is used as material o! construction.
7.'.# C(assi&ication
Pac-ings are generally di;ided into t(ree classes:
Random or dum"ed "ac-ings. T(ese are discrete "ieces o! "ac-ing o! a s"eci!ic
geometrical s(a"e <(ic( are Qdum"edR or randomly "ac-ed into t(e column s(ell.
Structured or systematically arranged "ac-ings . T(ese are crim"ed layers o! <ire
mes( or corrugated s(eets. Sections o! t(ese "ac-ings are stac-ed in t(e column.
0rids T(ese are also systematically arranged "ac-ings7 3ut instead o! <ire5mes( or
corrugated s(eets t(ese use an o"en5lattice structure.
Random "ac-ings are 3y !ar t(e most common in commercial "ractice. Structured
"ac-ings are less common7 3ut t(eir s(are o! t(e "ac-ing mar-et (as ra"idly gro<n o;er
t(e last decade. T(e a""lication o! grids is limited "rimarily to (eat trans!er and <as(
ser;ices and:or <(ere a (ig( !ouling resistance is re@uired .
7.'.' Pac*ing obAectives
7.'.'.#. ObAectives 8or 9a2i/i6ing E&&icienc.
1. To ma'imi1e t(e s"eci!ic sur!ace area7 i.e.7 t(e sur!ace area "er unit ;olume : T(is
ma'imi1es ;a"or5li@uid contact area7 and t(ere!ore7 e!!iciency . A corollary is t(at
!or random "ac-ing 7 e!!iciency generally increases as t(e "article si1e is decreasedM !or
structured "ac-ings7 e!!iciency generally increases as t(e s"ace 3et<een adDacent layers
is decreased7 and !or grid7 e!!iciency generally increases as t(e lattice o"enings are
narro<ed. Re!er !igure ,.1%.
2. To s"read t(e sur!ace area uni!ormly : T(is im"ro;es ;a"or5li@uid contact7 and
t(ere!ore7 e!!iciency. For instance7 a Rasc(ig ring and a Pall
ring (as a su"erior

s"read o! sur!ace area and is t(ere!ore muc( more e!!icient.
#. To "romote uni!orm distri3ution o! ;a"or and li@uid t(roug(out t(e "ac-ed 3ed:
4ni!orm distri3ution im"ro;es "ac-ing e!!iciency. For instance7 random "ac-ing
"articles t(at Q interloc-R <it(7 or QnestG inside ot(er "articles can lead to c(anneling
and t(ere!ore to lo<er e!!iciency.
%. To !reely drain any li@uid7 so t(at stagnant li@uid "oc-ets are minimi1ed : Stagnant
li@uid contri3utes little to mass trans!er and <astes "ac-ing sur!ace.
&. To ma'imi1e <etting o! "ac-ing sur!aces : De<etting o! "ac-ing sur!aces at lo< li@uid
rates reduces e!!iciency and restricts turn do<n . Alt(oug( t(e <etting c(aracteristics
are "rimarily a !unction o! t(e "ac-ing material7 t(e si1e and geometry o! t(e "ac-ing
are also im"ortant.
7.'.'.' ObAectives 8or 9a2i/i6ing Capacit.
1. To ma'imi1e t(e ;oid s"ace "er unit column ;olume : T(is minimi1es resistance to
;a"or u"!lo<7 and t(ere!ore7 en(ances "ac-ing ca"acity. A corollary is t(at !or
random "ac-ing7 ca"acity increases <it( "article si1eM !or structured "ac-ings7 ca"acity
increases <it( t(e s"ace 3et<een adDacent layers7 and !or grids7 ca"acity increases as
t(e lattice o"enings are <idened. Com"aring to t(e !irst o3Decti;e !or ma'imi1ing
e!!iciency7 t(is corollary states t(at t(e "ac-ing si1e t(at ma'imi1es ca"acity also
minimi1es e!!iciency. A trade5o!! t(ere!ore e'istsM t(e ideal si1e o! "ac-ing is a
com"romise 3et<een ma'imi1ing e!!iciency and ma'imi1ing ca"acity. Re!er Figure
,.1%.
2. To minimi1e !riction : T(is !a;ors an o"en s(a"e t(at (as good aerodynamic
c(aracteristics. For instance7 t(e "all ring is !ar more o"en to gas !lo< com"ared to
t(e Rasc(ig ring and t(ere!ore7 (as greater ca"acity.
#. To ensure uni!orm resistance to ;a"or and li@uid !lo< t(roug(out t(e 3ed :
Concentrated "oc-ets o! aerodynamic resistance can lo<er t(e e!!ecti;e to<er cross5
section area7 t(us reducing ca"acity.
%. To "ermit easy disengagement o! ;a"or !rom li@uid : T(is is im"ortant in (ig(
"ressure ser;ices and (ig(5li@uid5!lo<5rate ser;ices. +a"or disengagement is di!!icult
<(en t(e o"ening a;aila3le to li@uid do<n!lo< is narro< = e.g.7 as in narro<5 c(annel
structured "ac-ings ?
7.'.'., Other ObAectives
1. To ma'imi1e resistance to mec(anical de!ormation and:or 3rea-age and7 es"ecially7 to
de!ormation under t(e <eig(t o! t(e 3ed : For instance7 t(e "artition in t(e center o!
t(e Lessing ring gi;es it a Su"erior resistance to de!ormation and 3rea-age t(an t(at o!
t(e Rasc(ig ring.
2. To minimi1e cost : Pac-ing cost7 as <ell as t(e re@uirements !or "ac-ing su""ort and
column !oundations7 generally rise <it( <eig(t "er unit ;olume o! "ac-ing. A
corollary is t(at "ac-ing 3ecome c(ea"er as t(e "article si1e increases =random
"ac-ing?7 as t(e s"ace 3et<een layers increases =structured "ac-ing? or as t(e lattice
o"ening <iden =grids?.
#. To ma'imi1e !ollo<ing resistance : Pac-ing 3ecomes more !ouling resistant as t(e
"article si1e increases =random "ac-ing? or t(e s"ace 3et<een layers increases
=structured "ac-ing? or t(e lattice o"ening <idens=grids?. 0eometric s(a"es t(at resist
tra""ing o! sediment or "olymer are ad;antageous.
%. To minimi1e li@uid (oldu" =<(ere degradation or "olymeri1ation is encountered? :
T(e more li@uid is (eld at (ig( tem"eratures 7 t(e more it degrades and "olymeri1es.
&. To minimi1e deterioration in ser;ice: Pac-ing geometry and si1e a!!ect t(e sensiti;ity
o! a "ac-ing to corrosion7 erosion7 c(emical attac- and migration t(roug( t(e su""ort
grids o"ening.
). To minimi1e damage during a3normal o"eration : Pac-ing geometry and si1e a!!ect
t(e a3ility o! a "ac-ed 3ed to <eat(er "ressure surges or to catc( !ire at s(utdo<n
=<(en containing ad(ered "yro"(oric material or coated <it( (ot !lamma3le li@uid?.
7.'., T.pes o& rando/ pac*ings
2istorically7 t(ere <ere t(ree generations o! e;olution in random "ac-ings. T(e !irst
generation =168, to t(e 16&8s? "roduced t<o 3asic sim"le s(a"es t(e Rasc(ig ring and t(e
$erl saddle7 t(at 3ecome t(e ancestors o! modern random "ac-ings. T(ese "ac-ing (a;e
all 3een su"erseded 3y more modern "ac-ing and are seldom used in modern distillation
"ractice.
T(e second generation =late 16&8s to t(e early 16,8s? "roduced t<o "o"ular geometryGs5
t(e "all ring7 <(ic( e;ol;ed !rom t(e Rasc(ig ring7 and t(e Intalo' saddle7 <(ic(
e;ol;ed !rom t(e $erl saddle. T(e second generation "ac-ings are still "o"ular and
e'tensi;ely used in modern distillation "ractice.
T(e t(ird generation =t(e mid 16,8s until "resent? (as "roduced a multitude o! "o"ular
geometrics7 most o! <(ic( e;ol;ed !rom t(e "all ring and Intalo' saddle.
7.'.,.# 8irst >eneration Rando/ Pac*ings
a? Rasc(ig rings =Figure ,.1& a?. T(ese are t(e oldest7 c(ea"est7 and "re;iously most
<idely used "ac-ings !irst "atented 3y Dr. Rasc(ig in 0ermany in 168,. T(e (eig(t o!
t(e ring is e@ual to its diameter. T(e rings are cut !rom "i"es7 3ut in case o! metal t(ey
may also 3e rolled !rom metal stri"s.
3? Lessig rings =Figure ,.1& 3?. T(ese are similar to Rasc(ig rings7 3ut a "artition is added
across t(e center o! t(e ring to increase t(e sur!ace area. T(e "artition strengt(ens t(e
ring7 3ut t(e im"ro;ement in e!!iciency due to t(e larger area is minor.
c? $erl saddles =Figure ,.1& c?. T(ese are t(e original ty"e o! saddle "ac-ing. T(ey (a;e
a smaller !ree gas s"ace t(an Rasc(ig and Lessing rings7 3ut t(eir aerodynamic s(a"e is
3etter7 gi;ing a lo<er "ressure dro" and (ig(er ca"acity t(an Rasc(ig and Lessing
rings.
7.'.,.' econd+ >eneration Rando/ Pac*ings
a? Intalo'Y saddles =Figure ,.1) a?.

De;elo"ed 3y t(e Norton Com"any7 t(ey su"erseded t(e $erl saddles. T(e s(a"e o!
t(e $erl saddle <as modi!ied in t(e Intalo'Y so t(at adDacent elements do not 3lan- o!!
any signi!icant "ortion o! t(e <etting li@uid7 t(us a;oiding stagnant "ools o! li@uid7
tra""ing o! gas 3u33les and ;iolent c(anges in t(e direction o! t(e gas. T(ese !actors
result in a (ig(er ca"acity7 (ig(er e!!iciency and lo<er "ressure dro" t(an $erl saddles.
Intalo'Y saddles are a;aila3le in ceramic only !rom t(e Norton com"any.
Pac-ings t(at are normally considered e@ui;alent to t(e Intalo'Y saddles are mar-eted
under t(e trade names o! Fle'isaddlesZ 3y Aoc( .ngineering Com"any7 Inc.M and
No;alo'Y saddles 3y Laeger "roducts7 Inc. Rausc(ert Industries7 Inc.7 also mar-ets a
"ac-ing similar to t(e Intalo'Y saddles.
3? Su"er Intalo'Y To<er "ac-ing =Figure ,.1) 3 and c ?.
T(is "ac-ing <as de;elo"ed 3y t(e Norton Com"any. T(e smoot( edges o! t(e
Intalo'Y saddles <ere scallo"ed in t(e Su"er Intalo'Y and (oles <ere inserted. T(ese
c(anges "romote drainage o! li@uid7 eliminate stagnant "oc-ets and "ro;ide more o"en
area !or ;a"or rise. T(e Su"er Intalo'Y are used to (a;e (ig(er ca"acity and (ig(er
e!!iciency com"ared to t(e Intalo'Y saddle. Su"er Intalo'Y saddles are a;aila3le in
ceramic and "lastic !rom t(e Norton com"any. Plastic "ac-ings t(at are normally
considered e@ui;alent to t(e Su"er Intalo'Y are mar-eted under t(e trade names o!
Fle'isaddleZ 3y Aoc( .ngineering Com"any7 Inc.M $allastZ saddles 3y 0litsc( Inc.M
and No;alo'Y saddles 3y Laeger "roducts7 Inc.
c? PallY rings. = Re!er ,.1) d and e ?
$ASF de;elo"ed t(e PallY ring 3y cutting <indo<s in t(e Rasc(ig ring and 3ending
t(e <indo< tongues in<ard. T(is o"ened u" t(e ring7 lo<ered its !riction7 and
im"ro;ed "ac-ing area distri3ution7 <etting7 and distri3ution o! li@uid. PallY rings
(a;e (ig(er ca"acity and e!!iciency and lo<er "ressure dro" t(an t(e "ac-ings
descri3ed so !ar. PallY rings are a;aila3le in metal and "lastic and are mar-eted 3y t(e
Norton Com"anyM Laeger Products7 Inc.M and 3y Rausc(ert Industries Inc. Pac-ings t(at
are normally considered e@ui;alent to t(e PallY rings are mar-eted under t(e trade
names o! Flei'ringY 3y -oc( .ngineering Com"any7 Inc.7 and $allastZ ring 3y
0litsc(7 Inc. A ceramic PallY ring is also a;aila3le and is mar-eted 3y Laeger Products7
Inc.7 and Rausc(ert Industries7 Inc. T(e ceramic PallY ring (as not 3een "o"ular and
tests 3y $illet s(o< t(at its "er!ormance is in!erior to t(at o! t(e ceramic Intalo'Y
saddle.
d? 2y5"a-Z
To<er "ac-ing =Figure ,.1) ! ?. Similar to t(e PallY ring7 2y5"a-Z (as more internal
tongues in an e!!ort to im"ro;e t(e s"read o! sur!ace area. T(e resulting claimed
e!!iciency im"ro;ement <as traded o!! !or greater ca"acity 3y ma-ing t(e ring slig(tly
larger t(an t(e e@ui;alent PallY ring. Com"ared to t(e PallY ring7 2y5Pa-Z (as 3een
s(o<n to gi;e 3etter ca"acity at an e@ui;alent e!!iciency. 2y5Pa-Z is a;aila3le in
metals only and is mar-eted 3y t(e Norton Com"any. Pac-ings t(at are normally
considered e@ui;alent to 2y5Pa-Z are mar-eted under t(e trade names o! A5PACZ
3y Aoc( .ngineering Co.7 Inc.7 and $allast5"lusZ 3y 0litsc(7 Inc.
7.'.,., Third+>eneration Pac*ings

a? Intalo'Y etal To<er Pac-ing =ITPY? =Figure ,.1, a ?.
ITPY com3ines t(e (ig( ;oid !raction and t(e <ell5distri3uted sur!ace area o! t(e
PallY ring <it( t(e lo< aerodynamic drag o! t(e saddle s(a"e. Com"ared to t(e PallY
ring7 it "ro;ides a more o"en s(a"e and im"ro;ed li@uid s"eared7 <(ile incor"orating
ade@uate mec(anical strengt( and entanglement resistance . ITPY is a;aila3le in
metals only. It is mar-eted e'clusi;ely 3y t(e Norton Com"any.
3? CascadeY ini5Rings =CRY? =Figure ,.1, 3 and ,.1/ a ?.
T(ese rings are similar to t(e PallY ring7 3ut (a;e an as"ect ratio =(eig(t to diameter
ratio? o! 1:#7 com"ared to 1:1 in t(e PallY ring. T(e lo<er as"ect ratio orients t(e
"articles <it( t(eir o"en s(a"e side !acing t(e ;a"or !lo<7 t(us reducing !riction7 and
e'"osing more sur!ace to mass trans!er =)?. CRY is a;aila3le in metal7 "lastic and
ceramics. It is mar-eted e'clusi;ely 3y 0litsc(7 Inc. T(e CRY Tur3o is a metallic
;ariation o! t(e CRY t(at (as "er!orated <alls and tongues. Com"ared to t(e
normal CRY7 t(is ;ariation a""ears to slig(tly im"ro;e 3ot( t(e ca"acity and t(e
e!!iciency.
c? C(em"a-Z or Le;a"a- =L+AY?
Cutting a PallY ring in (al! creates t(is "ac-ing. T(e cutting e'"oses and acti;ates t(e
concealed PallY ring tongues7 "romoting ;a"or5li@uid contact7 mi'ing and li@uid
s"read. C(em"a-Z is a;aila3le in metal !rom Nutter .ngineering Cor"oration and in
"lastic and ot(er nonmetals !rom C(emetics International.
d? Nutter RingsZ
Nutter ringsZ retain t(e lo< aerodynamic drag o! t(e saddle s(a"e7 <(ile o!!ering a
more o"en structure <it( im"ro;ed li@uid s"read. T(e ri35and5(oo" design minimi1es
nesting and interloc-ing and ac(ie;es ade@uate mec(anical strengt( =/?. Nutter
RingsZ are a;aila3le in metal and "lastic. T(ey are mar-eted e'clusi;ely 3y Nutter
.ngineering Cor"oration.
e? 2cA"Z =Figure ,.1, c ?
T(is "ac-ing is a modi!ied PallY ring <it( a more o"en structure and an en(anced
arrangement o! internal dri" ta3s. It is stated to 3e ideal !or use in (ig(5li@uid5rate
systems. 2cA"Z is a;aila3le in metal e'clusi;ely !rom Aoc( .ngineering Co. Inc.
!? FL.FIAFZ =Figure ,.1# D ?.
T(is "ac-ing is an o"en saddle <it( <ell s"read sur!ace area. FL.FIAFZ is
a;aila3le in metal e'clusi;ely !rom Aoc( .ngineering Com"any7 Inc.
g? 2i!lo<Y ring =Figure ,.1, e and ,.1/ 3 ?. Resem3ling t(e PallY ring 3ut <it( <ider
o"enings7 t(e 2i!lo<Y ring s(i!ts sur!ace !rom t(e <all to t(e center o! t(e ring and
reduces resistance to ;a"or !lo<. T(e 2i!lo<Y ring is a;aila3le in metal7 "lastic7 and
ceramics !rom Rausc(ert Industries7 Inc.
(? Laeger Tri5"ac-sY =Figure ,.1, ! and g ?.
T(is "ac-ing re"laces t(e cylindrical s(a"e o! t(e PallY ring 3y a s"(erical s(a"e. T(is
"ro;ides more ;oid s"ace and 3etter distri3ution o! acti;e sur!ace t(an t(e "allY ring
and minimi1e interloc-ing. Laeger Tri5Pac-sY are a;aila3le in metal =also re!erred to as
etal Laeger To"5Pa-Y?and "lastic =also re!erred to as 2ac-etteY? !rom Laeger
Products7 Inc.
i? N*R PACY =NSB?rings
Re"lacing t(e solid <alls o! t(e PallY ring 3y <ide o"enings in t(e N*R PACY is at
t(e e'"anse o! losing some sur!ace area. T(e result is a "ac-ing t(at (as =#711? (ig(
ca"acity at t(e "rice lo<er e!!iciency. N*R PACY rings are a;aila3le in "lastic !rom
Nutter .ngineering Cor"oration and !rom Laeger Products7 Inc.
D? Intalo'Y Sno<!la-eZ "ac-ing
T(e lo< as"ect ratio =(eig(t to diameter?7 e;en lo<er t(an t(at o! CRY7 orients t(e
Sno<!la-eZ "articles <it( t(eir o"en side !acing t(e ;a"or !lo<. T(is reduces !riction
and "ermits good li@uid drainage !rom t(e ri3s o! t(e "ac-ing. Intalo'Y Sno<!la-eZ
"ac-ing is a;aila3le in "lastic !rom t(e Norton Com"any.
-? LANPACZ
T(is "ac-ing (as a (ollo< "oly(edron s(a"e constructed on an intricate net<or- o!
ri3s7 !ilaments7 rods7 struts7 and "ointed !ingers7 all cross lin-ed and uni!ormly s"aced
t(roug(out an o"en5structural !rame<or-. T(is design gi;es an o"en structure <it( a
(ig( sur!ace area7 ;oid o! nesting and interloc-ing. %ANPACZ is a;aila3le in "lastic
e'clusi;ely !rom Lantec Products7 Inc.
l? IPACZ = Figures ,.1, g ?
T(is is anot(er com"le'5s(a"ed "ac-ing =com"ared to LANPACZ ?. It gi;es as o"en
a structure <it( an e;en (ig(er and 3etter distri3uted sur!ace area =12?. IPACZ is
a;aila3le in metal and "lastic e'clusi;ely !rom Lantec "roducts7 Inc.
m? *t(ers. iscellaneous random "ac-ings are s(o<n in Figure ,.1/
7.'.1 Co/parison o& rando/ pac*ings &ro/ di&&erent generations
Figure ,.1% is a "lot o! t(e s"eci!ic sur!ace area =sur!ace area "er unit ;olume? against t(e
"ac-ing !actor !or metallic "ac-ings !rom eac( o! t(e t(ree "ac-ing generations. T(e
s"eci!ic sur!ace area is a enoug( indicator o! "ac-ing e!!iciencyM t(e (ig(er it is7 t(e more
e!!icient t(e "ac-ing. Pac-ing !actors are indicators o! ca"acity M t(e lo<er t(e "ac-ing
!actor7 t(e (ig(er t(e ca"acity. Pac-ing !actors are discuss in detail. Figure ,.1% is 3ased
on t(e !ollo<ing a""ro'imations:
1. S"eci!ic sur!ace areas <ere ta-en !rom "erry or Stringle. B(en t(e ;alue gi;en 3y
Perry di!!ered !rom t(at o! Stringle !or t(e same "ac-ing7 an a;erage ;alue used. For
most t(ird5generation "ac-ings7 s"eci!ic sur!ace areas <ere gi;en neit(er 3y Perry nor
3y Stringle and <ere o3tained !rom t(e "ac-ing su""lier literature.
2. For Rasc(ig rings7 "ac-ing !actors <ere ta-en !rom Perry and Stringle.
Due to t(e a""ro'imations7 Figure ,.1% is unsuita3le !or com"arati;e e;aluation among
di!!erent t(ird5generation "ac-ings. Re!erences to t(e manu!acturers (a;e t(ere!ore 3een
omitted. T(e ;alues "lotted on Figure ,.1% <ere ar3itrarily connected 3y straig(t lines.
Figure ,.1% s(o<s t(at at a constant ca"acity =i.e. a constant "ac-ing !actor?7 eac(
generation o! "ac-ing en(anced t(e s"eci!ic sur!ace area. Similarly7 at a constant s"eci!ic
area7 "ac-ing ca"acity increased !rom generation to generation. T(is signi!ies
im"ro;ements in eit(er ca"acity or e!!iciency or 3ot( !rom one generation to t(e ne't.
T(e im"ro;ements !orm t(e !irst to t(e second generation (a;e 3een maDor Mt(ose !rom t(e
second to t(e t(ird generation (a;e 3een !ar less "ronounced. T(e im"ro;ements !rom
second to t(ird generation a""ear to 3e more noticea3le in smaller t(an in larger "ac-ings.
Figure ,.1% also s(o<s t(at not all t(ird5generation "ac-ings increase ca"acity and
e!!iciency com"ared to second5generation "ac-ings. For instance7 data !or one t(ird
generation "ac-ing !all rig(t on t(e line !or t(e second generation "ac-ings. T(ere is
some uncertainty7 as data re"orted !or some t(ird5generation "ac-ings are 3ased on
limited tests.
7.'.3 tr!ct!red Pac*ings Boost To4er Capacit.
Since t(e /8s7 t(ere (as 3een a gro<ing trend to<ards t(e more e!!icient structural
"ac-ings !or ;acuum and atmos"(eric columns used in distillation and a3sor"tion
"rocesses. ore and more c(emical "lants are s<itc(ing o;er to structured "ac-ings !or
3ot( ne< columns and also !or re;am"ing e'isting ones. Structured "ac-ings7 (a;e <ide
a""lications and t(eir 3ene!its are illustrated <it( t(e (el" o! !our case studies. A
com"arison 3et<een ;arious ty"es o! column internals7 (el"s t(e reader Dudge t(e
ad;antages o! structured "ac-ings.
Per!ormance o! structured "ac-ing is <ell "ro;en o;er con;entional to<er internals suc(
as Trays and Random "ac-ings7 mainly !or ;acuum and atmos"(eric columns. Structured
"ac-ings (a;e a lo<er "ressure dro" and (ig(er se"aration e!!iciency com"ared to
con;entional to<er internals li-e trays and random "ac-ings7 !or distillation and
a3sor"tion. T(e lo<er "ressure dro" allo<s (ig( li@uid and gas loading <it(out
increasing t(e "ressure and (ence7 t(e tem"erature o! t(e column 3ottoms. Retro!itting
e'isting columns <it( structured "ac-ings can increase distillation ca"acity 3y 2852&W in
;acuum or atmos"(eric ser;ice. T(e retro!itting in;ol;es remo;ing t(e trays and installing
structured "ac-ings. Suc( retro!its also lead to increase in se"aration e!!iciency.
7.'.3.# Advantages o& tr!ct!red Pac*ings
Some o! t(e s"ecial !eatures o!!ered 3y structured "ac-ings are:
2ig(er num3er o! t(eoretical stages "er meter.
.'tremely lo< "ressure dro" "er t(eoretical stage
2ig( o"erating range o! gas and li@uid !lo<s
Lo< (old u" and s(orter residence time o! li@uid
Resistant to !ouling
Less !oaming
.'tremely relia3le scale u" !rom "ilot scale to commercial scale. =Pac-ings due
to in(erent c(aracteristics renders t(e NTS almost inde"endent o! t(e column
diameter?
2ig( turn do<n ratios
7.'.3.' App(ications o& tr!ct!red Pac*ings
Structured "ac-ings (a;e <ide a""lications 3ecause o! t(e ad;antages mentioned earlier.
T(ey (a;e 3een "ro!ita3ly em"loyed <(ene;er cases suc( as t(e !ollo<ing are
encountered:
1. Smaller "ressure dro" is desired7 e.g.7 !or o"erating t(e column at reduced
tem"eratures !or (eat sensiti;e materials etc.
2. Re;am"ing an e'isting column7 e.g.7 to increase t(e t(roug("ut and : or increase
t(e se"aration "er!ormance.
#. Reduction in energy consum"tion7 e.g.7 reducing re!lu' ratio7 =steam
consum"tion? and 3y using (eat "um" !or ;a"or recom"ression.
%. Need to increase "roduct "urity <(ere t(e (eig(t or ot(er limitations e'ists.
&. To a;oid (old u" : in;entory in t(e column <(ile (andling (ig( ;alue lo< ;olume
"roduct.
). ulti"ur"ose columns and ot(ers <(ere <ide ;ariations in li@uid : gas loads are
antici"ated.
,. B(en ;ery large num3er o! t(eoretical stages are re@uired e.g.7 ":o5'ylene
se"aration re@uires o;er 288 t(eoretical stages7 a single column o! structured
"ac-ing <ill su!!ice instead o! t<o <it( ot(er ty"es7 resulting in enormous sa;ing
in installation costs.
7.'.3., Case t!dies
Some o! t(e earlier mentioned 3ene!its can 3e 3est illustrated <it( t(e (el" o! t(e
!ollo<ing case studies.
Case+ I
Re;am"ing an e'isting tray column <it( ella"a- 2&8H !or se"arating
et(yl3en1ene and styrene. T(e main ad;antages are:
Increasing to<er ca"acity 3y &8 5 1#8W
Reduction in re!lu' ratio as t(e se"aration "er!ormance <as im"ro;ed
signi!icantly.
Reduction in "olymeri1ation o! styrene monomer due to lo<er 3ottom
tem"erature and s(orter residence time.
Case+ II
Re;am"ing o! distillation columns !or t(e se"aration o! cyclo(e'anone:
Cyclo5(e'anol7 an intermediate !or ca"rolactum "roduction. As t(e se"aration
"er!ormance <as im"ro;ed su3stantially7 t(e re!lu' ratio <as reduced 3y more
t(an &8W7 resulting in a reduction o! &8W in energy consum"tion in t(e !orm o!
steam sa;ings and t(e "ay3ac- !or t(e re;am" <as only a !e< mont(s.
Case+III
Re;am"ing o! distillation columns !or 3en1ene: toluene se"aration. .'isting
/88mm diameter. Toluene and 2288mm diameter. $en1ene columns (a;ing ;al;e
trays <ere success!ully retro!itted !or one o! t(e Indian Re!ineries. Ca"acity
increase is a3out )8W7 i.e.7 !rom earlier le;el o! #88 t"d to ne< le;el o! %/8 t"d o!
total "rocessing ca"acity. For 3ot( t(e columns to" "ressure <as around 1.#
-g:cm
2
a.
Case IV tr!ct!red Pac*ing in "igh Press!re Co(!/ns
T(e (ydrodynamic 3e(a;ior o! ;a"or and li@uid is di!!erent in ;acuum to<ers and
in (ig( "ressure columns. In a ;acuum to<er t(e ;a"or ;elocity is (ig( =F5Factor
#? and t(e s"eci!ic li@uid road is relati;ely small. T(e li@uid !lo<s along t(e
"ac-ing sur!ace in a !ilm and t(e ;a"or is radially mi'ed 3y t(e structure o! t(e
"ac-ing.
In a (ig( "ressure column t(e ;a"or ;elocity is in t(e range o! Cm:s =F5Factor less
t(an 8.&? 3ut t(e s"eci!ic li@uid load is no< u"to 188 m
#
:m
2
(. T(ese
considerations are not ;ery !a;ora3le !or "ac-ing in (ig( "ressure columns. $ut7
no< a days signi!icant "rogress (as 3een made in under5standing t(e limitations o!
"ac-ing in (ig( "ressure distillations. Pro"er internals are essential. Paying care!ul
attention to internals is crucial !or o3taining good e!!iciency "er!ormance. Bit(
res"ect to internals7 rele;ant "oints in (ig( "ressure ser;ice are :
4sing (ig( "er!ormance li@uid distri3utors t(at (a;e 3een s"ecially
designed !or (ig( "ressure ser;ice.
as-ing sure to install an e!!ecti;e gas distri3utor.
Aee"ing t(e de"t( o! t(e 3ed smaller t(an t(at !or con;entional
distillation.
Placing internals 3et<een t(e 3eds t(at <ill e!!ecti;ely collect7 remi'
and redistri3ute t(e "(ases.
T(e e!!ecti;eness o! t(ese actions in "ro;iding good "er!ormance <it(
structured "ac-ing in (ig( "ressure ser;ice is s(o<n in !ollo<ing case
(istory.
7.'.3.1 Per&or/ance o& tr!ct!red Pac*ing in Press!re Co(!/ns
In small diameter columns t(e num3er o! stages <ere also increased 3y a ella"a-
re;am". T(e greater a<areness to t(e 3ene!its o!!ered 3y structured "ac-ing in ;acuum
and moderate "ressure columns led to t(eir greater usage in recent times7 and is e'"ected
to gro< e;en more and more "eo"le are disco;ering its su"erior "er!ormance
c(aracteristics. No<adays e;en !or (ig( "ressure a""lications7 t(e ris-s o! retro!itting
trays <it( structured "ac-ing is reducing due to signi!icant "rogress made in
understanding t(e c(aracteristics o! "ac-ings in (ig( "ressure distillation.
7., Tra. E&&icienc.
7.,.# Introd!ction
T(e num3er o! ideal stages re@uired !or desired se"aration may 3e calculated 3y one o! t(e
met(ods "re;iously discussed7 3ut in "ractice it is normally !ound t(at more trays are
re@uired t(an ideal stages. T(e o;erall e!!iciency o! t(e column gi;en e@uation. =,.1? may
;ary !rom #85188W. T(e main reason !or loss in e!!iciency is t(at t(e -inetics !or t(e rate
o! a""roac( to e@uili3rium and t(e !lo< "attern on "late may not "ermit e@uili3rium
3et<een ;a"or and li@uid to 3e attained . Some em"irical e@uations (a;e 3een de;elo"ed
!rom <(ic( ;alues o! e!!iciency may 3e calculated and t(is a""roac( is o! considera3le
;alue in gi;ing a general "icture o! t(e "ro3lem.
7.,.' Tra. E&&icienc. 8!nda/enta(s
De&initions
*;erall column e!!iciency is de!ined 3y
.
oc
N N
t
: N
a
=,.1?
<(ere N
t
N T(eoretical num3er o! trays
N
a
N Actual num3er o! trays
*nce t(e tray e!!iciency is -no<n 7 t(e num3er o! actual trays can 3e o3tained !rom
.@uation =,.1? <(en N
t
is calculated. Since e!!iciency ;ary !rom one section to anot(er7 it
is 3est to a""ly .@uation =,.1? se"arately !or eac( section=e.g. recti!ying and stri""ing?.
In "ractice7 e!!iciency data and "rediction met(ods are o!ten too crude to gi;e a good
3rea-do<n 3et<een t(e e!!iciencies o! di!!erent sections and .@uation =,.1? is a""lied
o;er t(e entire column.
Alternati;e de!initions o! tray e!!iciency are sometimes used. Loc-et re;ie<ed t(e "ros
and cons o! se;eral e!!iciency de!initions. 2e cited t(e IndustryGs e'"erience t(at t(e more
rigorous and t(eoretically correct a de!inition is7 t(e more di!!icult it is to use . For
instance7 t(e standard e!!iciencies are o!ten considered t(e soundest !undamentally7 3ut
a""arently (a;e ne;er 3een used !or a design. For t(e design and o"eration engineer7 t(e
o;erall column =or section? e!!iciency is 3y !ar t(e most im"ortant. Point e!!iciency is
de!ined 3y as s(o<n in Figure ,.16
.
*0
N
=y
n
5 y
n51
?
=
yI
n
5 y
n51
?
Point
=,.2?
y
I
is t(e com"osition o! ;a"or in e@uili3rium <it( t(e li@uid at "oint n. y
n
is t(e actual
;a"or com"osition at t(at "oint. T(e "oint e!!iciency is t(e ratio o! t(e c(ange o!
com"osition at a "oint to t(e c(ange t(at <ould occur on a t(eoretical stage. As t(e
;a"or com"osition at a gi;en "oint cannot e'ceed t(e e@uili3rium com"osition7 "oint
e!!iciencies are al<ays lo<er t(an unity. I! t(ere is a concentration gradient on t(e tray7
"oint e!!iciency <ill ;ary !rom "oint to "oint on t(e tray. T(e "oint e!!iciency is usually
discussed in terms o! t(e t<o5!ilm t(eory. T(e t(eory "ostulates resistances to mass
trans!er in 3ot( ;a"or and li@uid !ilms near a ;a"or li@uid inter!ace.
ur"(ee tray e!!iciency is t(e same as "oint e!!iciency 7 e'ce"t t(at is a""lies !or t(e entire
tray instead o! to a single "oint =Figure ,.16? i.e.
=y
n
5 y
n51
?
.
+
N =,.#?
=
yI
n
5 y
n51
?
tray
y
I
is t(e com"osition o! ;a"or in e@uili3rium <it( t(e li@uid lea;ing t(e tray.
yn
is t(e actual
com"osition o! ;a"or lea;ing t(e tray. T(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency is t(e ratio o! t(e
c(ange o! com"osition on t(e tray to t(e c(ange t(at <ould occur on a t(eoretical stage.
I! 3ot( li@uid and ;a"or are "er!ectly mi'ed7 li@uid com"osition on t(e tray is uni!orm and
so is ;a"or com"osition . T(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency <ill t(en coincide <it( t(e "oint
e!!iciency at any "oint on t(e tray. In "ractice7 a concentration gradient e'ists in t(e li@uid
and '
n
at t(e tray outlet7 is lo<er t(an 'G
n
on t(e tray =Figure ,.16 3?. T(is !re@uently
lo<ers y
I
n
relati;e to y
n
7 t(us en(ancing tray e!!iciency e@uation =,.#? com"ared to "oint
e!!iciency. H
I
n
may e;en dro" 3elo< y
n
M in t(is case7 .
+
e'ceeds 188 "ercent .@uation
=,.#?. *;erall column e!!iciency can 3e calculated !rom t(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency using
t(e relations(i" de;elo"ed 3y Le<is.
.
*C
N ln C1 > .
+
= 1)]
ln (7.4)
<(ere 7
= m 0
=,.&?
.@uation =,.%? is 3ased on t(e assum"tion o! constant molar o;er!lo< and constant ;alue
o! .
+
!rom tray to tray. It needs to 3e a""lied se"arately to eac( section o! column =e.g.
recti!ying and stri""ing? 3ecause 0
:L
and t(ere!ore ;aries !rom section to section .

B(ere molar o;er!lo<s or ur"(ee e!!iciencies ;ary t(roug(out small enoug( to render
t(e ;ariations negligi3le. .@uation =,.%? can t(en 3e a""lied to eac( su3section. T(e "oint
and ur"(ee e!!iciency de!initions a3o;e are e'"ressed in terms o! ;a"or concentrations.
Analogous e!!iciency de!initions can 3e e'"ressed in terms o! li@uid concentrations.
7.,.' Tra. E&&icienc. Concept
In t(is section Tray e!!iciency <ill 3e discussed in more detail and met(ods !or estimating
t(e ;alue o! t(e e!!iciency <ill 3e e'"lored. T(e o;erall e!!iciency7
.
o
is gi;en as :
N
e@ull
.
o
N =,.)?
N
actual
T(e determination o! t(e num3er o! e@uili3rium stages re@uired !or t(e gi;en se"aration
s(ould not include a "artial re3oiler or a "artial condenser. T(e o;erall e!!iciency is
e'tremely easy to measure and useM t(us7 it is t(e commonly used e!!iciency ;alue in t(e
"lant. 2o<e;er7 it is di!!icult to relate o;erall e!!iciency to t(e !undamental (eat and mass
trans!er "rocesses occurring on t(e tray7 so it is not generally used in !undamental studies.
T(e ur"(ee ;a"or in e!!iciency is de!ined as !rom =,.#?
.
+
N y
out
5 y
in
N actual c(ange in ;a"or
y
I
out
5 y
in
c(ange in ;a"or at e@uili3rium =,.,a?

<(ile t(e ur"(ee li@uid e!!iciency is
'
out
5 '
in
actual c(ange in li@uid
.
L
N N =,.,3?
'
I
out
5 '
in
c(ange in li@uid at e@uili3rium
T(e "(ysical model used !or 3ot( o! t(ese e!!iciencies is s(o<n in Figure ,.28. T(e gas
streams and t(e do<ncomer li@uid s are assumed to 3e "er!ectly mi'ed. ur"(ee also
assumed t(at t(e li@uid on t(e tray is "er!ectly mi'ed7 <(ic( means ' N '
out
. T(e y
I
out
is
t(e ;a"or com"osition t(at <ould 3e in e@uili3rium <it( t(e actual li@uid com"osition
lea;ing t(e tray7 '
out
. In t(e li@uid e!!iciency 7 '
I
out
is in e@uili3rium is t(e actual lea;ing
;a"or com"osition7 y
out
. T(e ur"(ee e!!iciency are "o"ular 3ecause t(ey are relati;ely
easy to measure and t(ey are ;ery easy to use in calculations. 4n!ortunately7 t(ere are
some di!!iculties <it( t(eir de!initions. In large columns t(e li@uid on t(e tray is not <ell
mi'edM instead t(ere <ill 3e a cross !lo< "attern. I! t(e !lo< "at( is long 7 t(e more
;olatile com"onent <ill 3e "re!erentially remo;ed as li@uid !lo<s across t(e tray.
T(us 7 in Figure ,.28
'
out
S '
%
S '
#
S '
2
S '
1
Note t(at '
out
and (ence y
I
out
are 3ased on t(e lo<est concentration on t(e tray. T(us it is
"ossi3le to (a;e y
I
out
S y
out
3ecause y
out
is an a;erage across t(e tray. T(en t(e numerator
in .@uation =,.#? <ill 3e greater t(an t(e denominator and .
+
T 1. T(is is o!ten
o3ser;ed in large diameter columns. Alt(oug( not a3solutely necessary7 it is desira3le to
(a;e e!!iciencies o! di!!erent so t(at t(ey range 3et<een 1ero and 1. A second and more
serious "ro3lem <it( ur"(ee e!!iciencies is t(at t(e e!!iciencies o! di!!erent com"onents
must 3e di!!erent !or multi5com"onent systems. Fortunately7 !or 3inary systems t(e
ur"(ee e!!iciencies are t(e same !or t(e t<o com"onents. In mulitcom"onent systems7
not only are t(e e!!iciencies di!!erent 3ut on some trays may 3e negati;e. T(is is 3ot(
disconcerting and e'tremely di!!icult to "redict. Des"ite t(ese "ro3lems7 ur"(ee
e!!iciencies are still "o"ular. T(e "oint e!!iciency is de!ined in a !as(ion ;ery similar to t(e
ur"(ee e!!iciency modi!ied !rom .@uation =,.2?
yG
out
5 yG
in

.
"t
N =,./?
yG
I
5 yG
in
B(ere t(e "rime indicates t(at all t(e concentrations are determined at a s"eci!ic "oint on
t(e tray. T(e ur"(ee e!!iciency can 3e determined 3y integrating all o! t(e "oint
e!!iciencies =<(ic( <ill ;ary !rom location to location? on t(e tray. Ty"ically7 t(e "oint
and ur"(ee e!!iciencies are not e@ual. T(e "oint e!!iciency is di!!icult to measure in a
commercial column7 3ut it can o!ten 3e "redicted !rom (eat and mass trans!er calculations.
T(us it is used !or "rediction and !or scale5u".

In general7 t(e e!!iciency o! a tray de"ends on t(e ;a"or ;elocity7 <(ic( is illustrated
sc(ematically in Figure ,.21. T(e trays are designed to gi;e a ma'imum e!!iciency at t(e
design condition. At (ig(er ;a"or ;elocities7 entrainment increases. B(en entrainment
3ecomes e'cessi;e7 t(e e!!iciency "lummets. At ;a"or ;elocities less t(an t(e design rate
t(e mass trans!er is less e!!icient. At ;ery lo< ;elocities t(e trays starts to <ee" and
e!!iciency again "lummets. Trays <it( good turndo<n c(aracteristics (a;e a <ide
ma'imum7 so t(ere is little loss in e!!iciency <(en ;a"or ;elocity decreases. T(e 3est <ay
to determine e!!iciency is to (a;e data !or t(e c(emical system in t(e same ty"e o! column
o! t(e same si1e at t(e same ;a"or ;elocity. I! ;elocity ;aries7 t(e e!!iciency <ill !ollo<
Figure ,.21.
4sually7 t(e e!!iciency o! ;al;e trays is e@ual to or 3etter t(an sie;e tray e!!iciency7 <(ic(
is e@ual to or 3etter t(an 3u33le ca" tray e!!iciency. T(us7 i! 3u33le ca" tray e!!iciencies
are used !or a ;al;e tray column7 t(e design <ill 3e conser;ati;e. I! data are not a;aila3le7
a detailed calculation o! t(e e!!iciency can 3e made on t(e 3asis o! !undamental mass and
(eat trans!er calculations. Bit( t(is met(od7 you !irst calculate "oint e!!iciencies !rom
(eat and mass trans!er calculations and t(en determine ur"(ee and o;erall e!!iciencies
!rom !lo< "atterns on t(e tray. 4n!ortunately7 t(e results are o!ten not e'tremely
accurate.
T(e sim"lest a""roac( is to use a correlation to determine t(e e!!iciency. T(e most <idely
used is t(e *GConnell correlation s(o<n in Figure ,.22 <(ic( gi;es an estimate o! t(e
o;erall e!!iciency as a !unction o! t(e relati;e ;olatility o! t(e -ey com"onents times t(e
li@uid ;iscosity at t(e !eed com"osition. $ot( V and [ are determined at t(e a;erage
tem"erature and "ressure o! t(e column. .!!iciency dro"s as ;iscosity increases7 since
mass trans!er rates are lo<er. .!!iciency dro"s as relati;e ;olatility increases7 since t(e
mass t(at must 3e trans!erred to o3tain e@uili3rium increases. For com"uter and calculator
use it is con;enient to !it t(e data "oints to an e@uation. Bit( a nonlinear least s@uares
routine7 t(e result is
.
o
N 8.&2,/2 5 8.2,&11 log
18
=V[? > 8.8%%62# Clog
18
=V[?E
2
=,.6?
+iscosity is in centi"oise =cP? in .@uation ,.6 and in Figure ,.22. T(is e@uation is not an
e'act !it cur;e.
.!!iciencies can 3e scaled u" !rom la3oratory data ta-en <it( an *lders(o< column=a
la3oratory5scale sie;e tray column?. T(e o;erall e!!iciency measured in t(e *lders(o<
column is ;ery close to t(e "oint e!!iciency measured in t(e large commercial column.
T(is is illustrated in Figure ,.2# <(ere t(e ;a"or ;elocity (as 3een initiali1ed <it( res"ect
to t(e !raction o! !looding. T(e "oint e!!iciency can 3e con;erted to ur"(ee and o;erall
e!!iciencies once a model !or t(e !lo< "attern on t(e tray (as 3een ado"ted. *ne
commonly used model assumes t(at t(e ;a"or is com"letely mi'ed and t(e li@uid !lo<s in
"lug !lo< across t(e tray. T(en t(e ur"(ee ;a"or e!!iciency can 3e determined !rom
L
.
+
N Ce'" =m+ .
"t
? 5 1
m+ L =,.18?
B(ere m is t(e local slo"e o! t(e e@uili3rium line.
T(e o;erall e!!iciency can 3e estimated as
logC1 > .
+
=m+ 5 1?E
.
o
N L =,.11?
log=m+:L?
I! t(e !lo< "attern is more com"le' t(e e@uations 3ecome signi!icantly more com"licated.
For ;ery com"le' mi'tures7 t(e entire distillation design can 3e done using t(e *lders(a<
column 3y c(anging t(e num3er o! trays and t(e re!lu' rate until a com3ination t(at does
t(e Do3 is !ound. Since t(e commercial column <ill (a;e an
o;erall e!!iciency e@ual to or grater t(an t(at o! t(e *lders(a< column7 t(is com3ination
<ill also <or- in t(e commercial column. T(is a""roac( eliminates t(e need to determine
;a"or li@uid e@uili3rium data =<(ic( may 3e @uite costly?7 and it also eliminates t(e need
!or com"le' calculations.
7.,., Tra. e&&icienc. &!nda/enta(s
Figure ,.2% s(o<s t(e se@uence o! ste"s con;erting "(ase resistances into a tray
e!!iciency. 0as and li@uid !ilm resistances are added to gi;e t(e "oint e!!iciency. As
discussed earlier7 (ad 3ot( ;a"or and li@uid on t(e tray t(e 3een "er!ectly mi'ed7 t(e
ur"(ee tray e!!iciency <ould (a;e e@ualed t(e "oint e!!iciency . Since t(e "(ases are
not "er!ectly mi'ed7 a model o! t(e ;a"or and li@uid mi'ing "attern is needed !or
con;erting "oint e!!iciency into tray e!!iciency. Li@uid mi'ing "atterns are "lug !lo<7
3ac-mi'ing and stagnant 1ones7 <(ile ;a"or mi'ing "atterns are "er!ect mi'ing and "lug
!lo<.
Le<is <as t(e !irst to deri;e @uantitati;e relations(i" 3et<een t(e ur"(ee and t(e "oint
e!!iciency. 2e de!ined t(ree mi'ing cases7 assuming "lug !lo< li@uid in all.
Le<is case 1 +a"or "er!ectly mi'ed 3et<een trays =Note: in t(is case t(e direction o!
li@uid !lo< on successi;e trays is immaterial.
Le<is case 2 +a"or unmi'ed 3et<een trays. Li@uid !lo<s in t(e same direction on
successi;e trays.
Le<is case # +a"or unmi'ed 3et<een trays. Li@uid !lo<s in alternate direction on
successi;e trays.
T(e le<is cases gi;e t(e ma'imum ac(ie;a3le tray e!!iciency. In "ractice7 e!!iciency is
lo<er due to li@uid and ;a"or nonuni!ormaties and li@uid mi'ing. T(e countercurrent
nature o! contact is greatest in case 2 and least in case #7 causing tray e!!iciency to decline
!rom case 2 to case 1 to case #. T(e "otential !or reac(ing (ig(er e!!iciency (as
enticed many s"ecialty tray designs to use case 2 as t(e 3asis. ost tray e!!iciency models
are 3ased on Le<is case 1 and !e<er on case #. Since it is uncommon to (a;e Li@uid
!lo<ing in t(e same direction on successi;e trays7 Le<is case 2 is seldom used. For case
17 Le<is deri;ed t(e !ollo<ing relations(i":
e'" =
0
? 5 1
.
+7dry
N =,.12?
ost t(eoretical models incor"orate t(e e!!ects o! ;a"or and li@uid nonuni!ormity into
t(e relations(i" 3et<een t(e ur"(ee and t(e "oint e!!iciency. T(e QdryR ur"(ee
e!!iciency calculated t(us !ar ta-es into account t(e ;a"or and t(e li@uid resistances and
t(e ;a"or li@uid contact "atterns7 3ut is uncorrected !or t(e e!!ects o! entrainment and
<ee"ing. T(is correction con;erts t(e dry e!!iciency into a Q<etR or actual ur"(ee tray
e!!iciency. odeling t(e e!!ect o! t(e entrainment and <ee"ing on t(e tray e!!iciency is
3ased on "resumed mi'ing "atterns o! li@uid on t(e trays =Figure ,.2%?. Col3urn deri;ed
an e@uation !or t(e e!!ect o! entrainment and on e!!iciency7 assuming "er!ect mi'ing o! t(e
li@uid on t(e tray. Alt(oug( t(is assum"tion is @uestiona3le7 col3urnGs e@uation gi;es a
reasona3le a""ro'imation to t(e e!!ect o! entrainment on e!!iciency "ro;ide is close to
unity. Col3urnGs e@uation is
.
+ 7 dry
.
+
N
1 > e .
+7 dry
=,.1#?
L
o
Loc-et "resent rigorous met(ods !or allo<ing !or t(e e!!ect o! entrainment and <ee"ing.
T(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency o3tained !rom a3o;e e@uation can 3e con;erted into a
column e!!iciency using .@uation =,.%?
7.,.1 Tra. E&&icienc. Prediction
Rigorous testing o! a "lant column is generally t(e most relia3le met(od o! o3taining tray
e!!iciency. T(eoretical "rediction met(ods !or tray e!!iciency are 3ased on t(e t<o5!ilm
t(eory and use t(e se@uence o! ste"s in Figure ,.21. T(e ;elocity and ;iscosity are
e;aluated at t(e a;erage arit(metic tem"erature 3et<een t(e column to" and t(e 3ottom
tem"eratures. T(e relati;e ;olatility is 3et<een t(e -ey com"onents. For a3sor3ers7
*GConnell generated t(e second correlation7 using a solu3ility !unction instead o! t(e
relati;e ;olatility.
T(e *GConnell correlation <as 3ased on data !or 3u33le5ca" trays7 and it <as stated to
"redict 68 "ercent o! t(e e!!iciency data <it(in > 18 "ercent7 3ot( !or distillation and
a3sor"tion. For sie;e and ;al;e trays7 its "redictions are li-ely to 3e slig(tly conser;ati;e.
Lud<ig <arns t(at *GConnellGs a3sor3er correlation sometimes "redicts e!!iciencies t(at
are too (ig(. 2e 3elie;es t(at it can 3e used !or stri""ing o! gases !rom ric( oils and !or
a3sor3ers "ro;ided care is e'ercised not to acce"t too (ig( ;alues. T(e com3ination o!
reasona3le accuracy7 good relia3ility and sim"licity toget(er <it( t(e <ea-ness o!
t(eoretical tray e!!iciency correlations7 rendered t(e *GConnell distillation correlation t(e
standard o! t(e industry. It (as 3een recommended 3y most literature sources as one o!
t(e 3est em"irical met(ods a;aila3le !or tray e!!iciency "rediction.
7.,.3 E&&ect o& errors in Vapor+%i)!id E)!i(ibri!/ (V%E) on e&&icienc.
.rrors in relati;e ;olatility are t(e most underrated !actor t(at a!!ects 3ot( tray and
"ac-ing e!!iciency. T(e e!!ects are direct <(en +L. errors a!!ect se"aration stage
re@uirement at a constant re!lu' ratio7 and indirect <(en +L. errors a!!ect t(e re!lu' ratio
re@uirement =<(ic( in turn a!!ects t(e stage re@uirement ?. Since (ig(er relati;e ;olatility
lo<ers 3ot( stage and re!lu' re@uirements =and ;ice ;ersa?7 t(e direct and indirect e!!ects
com"lement eac( ot(er and do not counteract eac( ot(er. T(e discussion 3elo< a""lies
to 3ot( tray and "ac-ed to<ers. Se;eral em"irical tray e!!iciency correlationGs are
a;aila3le in t(e literature. *! t(ese7 t(e *GConnell correlation (as 3een t(e standard o! t(e
industry !or se;eral decades.
7.,.3.# The O<Conne(( corre(ation
T(e correlation is 3ased on test data !rom #1 "lant columns7 including (ydrocar3on7
c(lorinated (ydrocar3on and alco(ol se"aration columns. It e;ol;ed !rom an earlier
correlation 3y Dric-amer and $rad!ord7 <(ic( em"irically correlated e!!iciency test data
!or &% re!inery columns. T(e earlier correlation <as modi!ied 3y *GConnell to include
non(ydrocar3on and (ig(5relati;e5;olatility systems.
Loc-et and Aing noted some t(eoretical sense in *GConnellGs correlation. 2ig(er
;iscosity usually im"lies lo<er di!!usi;ity and t(ere!ore greater li@uid "(ase resistance and
lo<er e!!iciency. 2ig(er relati;e ;olatility increases t(e signi!icance o! t(e li@uid "(ase
resistance7 t(us reducing e!!iciency
7.,.3.' Direct e&&ects.
T(e Fens-e e@uation !or total re!lu' as !ollo<s :
N
min
N S : 1n V
<(ere7
'
D
=1 5 '
3
?
S N
'
3
=1 5 '
D
?
T(is gi;es t(e
W .rror in e!!iciency N 5 =W error in ;olatility ? : ln V
At ;ery lo< relati;e ;olatilities =V S 1.2 ?7 small errors in +L. (a;e a (uge im"act on tray
e!!iciency. For instance7 at a relati;e ;olatility o! 1.17 a 5# "ercent error in relati;e
;olatility gi;es a tray e!!iciency %8 to &8 "ercent (ig(er t(an its true ;alue. Since +L.
errors are seldom lo<er t(an > 2 to # "ercent7 3ot( tray e!!iciencies and "ac-ing 2.TPs
o! lo<5;olatility systems 3ecomes meaningless unless accom"anied 3y +L. data. Furt(er7
!or lo<5;olatility systems7 com"aring e!!iciencies deri;ed !rom di!!erent sources is
misleading unless using identical +L.. In one lo<5relati;e ;olatility =V N 1.1? design
c(ec-7 t(e aut(or used )8 "ercent tray e!!iciency. T(e designer used 68 "resent and came
u" e'actly t(e same num3er o! trays. T(e di!!erences <as due to t(e designer using a
relati;e ;olatility 2 to # "ercent lo<er t(an t(e aut(orGs .
T(e errors in relati;e ;olatility are a "ro3lem only at a lo< relati;e ;olatilities. B(en
relati;e ;olatility e'ceeds 1.& to 2.87 +L. errors (a;e negligi3le direct im"act on tray
e!!iciency. ost e!!iciency data re"orted in t(e literature are o3tained at total re!lu'. At
total re!lu'7 t(ere are no indirect e!!ects7 and t(e o;erall e!!ect o! +L. errors on column
e!!iciency.
7.,.3., Indirect e&&ects.
Consider a case <(ere V
a""arent
S V
true
and test data at a !inite re!lu' are analy1ed to
calculate tray e!!iciency. Due to t(e ;olatility di!!erence R
min7 a""arent
T R
min7 true
. Since t(e
test <as conducted at a !i'ed re!lu' !lo<rate7 =R:R
min
?
a""arent
S =R:R
min
?
true
. A calculation
3ased on t(e a""arent R:R
min
<ill gi;e more t(eoretical stages t(an a calculation 3ased on
t(e true R:R
min
. T(is means a (ig(er a""arent e!!iciency t(an t(e true ;alue. T(e indirect
e!!ects are most "ronounced at lo< relati;e ;olatility7 3ecause small errors in relati;e
;olatility lead to large errors in R:R
min
.
T(e indirect e!!ects e'"onentially escalate as minimum re!lu' is a""roac(ed. Small errors
in +L. or re!lu' ratio measurement =t(is includes column material 3alance as <ell as
re!lu' rate?alter R:R
min
. Near minimum re!lu'7 e;en small R:R
min
errors induce (uge errors
in t(e num3er o! stages7 and t(ere!ore7 in tray e!!iciency. .!!iciency data o3tained near
minimum re!lu' are t(ere!ore meaningless.
7.,.5 E&&ect o& (i)!id &(o4 patterns
a. Lo< li@uid rates !a;or c(anneling . T(e !ollo<ing are o3ser;ations on single5"ass sie;e
trays o"erating at a (ig( ;a"or rates =a3out %8 to ,8 "ercent o! !lood?. At lo< li@uid
!lo< rates = S2 g"m:in o! outlet <eir?7 !lo< "ro!iles are 45s(a"ed <it( ri33ons near t(e
<all eit(er stagnant or (a;ing li@uid recirculation. T(ese stagnant regions <ides as
li@uid !lo< rate is lo<ered. At (ig(er li@uid !lo< rates =a3out # g"m: in o! outlet <eir?7
t(e 4 s(a"e is !lattened =almost li-e "lug !lo<? or is re"laced 3y large circulation
1ones. In one test series7 t(ere <as one circulation 1one near eac( side<all7 anot(er at
t(e central tray outlet region7 and anot(er at t(e central tray inlet region. At (ig( li@uid
rates =) to , g"m:in o! outlet <eir? t(e "attern turned into a multitude o! recirculation
1ones7 <it( a con!used !lo< "ro!ile.
b. 2ig(er gas !lo< rates !latten t(e 4 s(a"e7 narro< t(e stagnant regions and reduce
li@uid recirculation in t(e stagnant regions. For single5"ass sie;e trays o"erating at
li@uid rates # to , g"m: in o! outlet <eir and at more t(an a3out &8 "ercent o! !lood7
o3ser;ed 4 s(a"es <ere @uite !lat. At t(e same li@uid rates7 stee" 4 s(a"es <ere
o3ser;ed <(en ;a"or ;elocities !ell 3elo< a3out %8 "ercent o! !lood.
c. At lo< and moderate gas rates7 a maDor "ortion o! t(e gas !lo< 3u33les t(roug( t(e
stagnant 1ones7 contacting only a small !raction o! t(e li@uid !lo<. Fort( !ormation in
t(e central 1one o! t(e tray 3ecomes relati;ely <ea- at lo< ;a"or rates.
d. Lo<ering <eir (eig(t !lattens t(e 4 s(a"e7 narro<s t(e stagnant regions and reduces
li@uid circulation in t(e stagnant regions. Bit( no outlet <eir7 t(e e!!ects o! li@uid and
gas !lo<s on t(e !lo< "attern a""ear to 3e t(e con;erse o! t(ose descri3ed in items 1
and 2 a3o;e.
e. At lo< li@uid rates =X 1 g"m:in o! t(e <eir?7 t(e tray li@uid !lo< "ro!ile strongly
de"ends on t(e li@uid distri3ution at t(e tray inlet =e.g. inlet <eir? 3ut is "ractically
inde"endent e;en o! maDor distur3ances at t(e outlet <eir.
&. Small ratios o! outlet <eir lengt( to column diameter = i.e. small do<ncomers? <iden
t(e stagnant 1ones and intensi!y recirculation in t(e stagnant 1ones.
g. Li@uid c(anneling on t<o5"ass trays is !ar less "ronounced t(an on a single5"ass tray.
Li@uid ;elocity "ro!iles remain nonuni!orm7 3ut stagnant regions are small o!ten
none'istent. At lo< li@uid rates7 t(e ;elocity "ro!ile o!ten s-e<s to<ards one <all7
!orming a stagnant regions near t(e o""osite <all. For a center to side =con;erging ?
!lo<7 stagnant 1ones are a3sent e'ce"t <it( s-e<ed "ro!iles. For a side to center
=di;erging? !lo<7 stagnant regions !orm near t(e corners o! t(e outlet <eirs or occu"y
t(e small area near t(e <all and are <idened 3y s-e<ed "ro!iles.
h. Tray tilt a!!ects t(e li@uid !lo< "attern and t(e 3oundaries 3et<een t(e regions.
i. Li@uid c(annels less <(en gas emerges side<ays !rom t(e tray o"enings. Li@uid5
c(anneling on 3u33le ca" and ;al;e trays is !ar smaller t(an on sie;e trays. *n sie;e
trays7 c(anneling decreases as (ole diameter increases7 "resuma3ly due to <idening o!
t(e one angle o! t(e gas Det.
A. Pro"erly "ositioned 3a!!les can im"ro;e t(e !lo< "ro!iles.
7.,.7 E&&ect o& tra. /a(distrib!tion on e&&icienc.
7.,.7.# %i)!id /a(distrib!tion.
T(e stagnant 1ones (a;e a detrimental e!!ect on e!!iciency in large diameter trays. T(e
stagnant li@uid com"osition reac(es e@uili3rium <it( t(e rising ;a"or7 and !rom t(en on
c(anges no !urt(er. +a"or rising t(roug( stagnant 1ones undergoes no c(ange in
com"osition7 and tray e!!iciency dro"s. A counteracting e!!ect is t(at t(e stagnant 1ones
recei;e !res( li@uid !rom t(e neig(3oring action region and t(is reinstates mass trans!er.
Loc-ett states t(at <(en t(e ma'imum <idt( o! t(e stagnant region is less t(an a3out 28
in7 trans;erse mi'ing is su!!icient to o;ercome t(e detrimental e!!ects o! stagnant regions
on tray e!!iciency.
A !ar more detrimental e!!ect o! stagnant 1ones on tray e!!iciency de;elo"s in a grou" o!
trays stac-ed a3o;e eac( ot(er. +a"or !rom t(e ;ery 3ottom o! t(e column "asses !rom
one stagnant 1one to t(e ne't and remains unc(anged in com"osition. At t(e to" o! t(e
column t(is (ea;y ;a"or contaminates t(e "uri!ied ;a"or rising !rom t(e central "ortion o!
t(e trays7 causing a maDor dro" in a""arent e!!iciency. Counteracting t(is (ig(ly
detrimental stac-ing e!!ect is mi'ing o! 3ot( ;a"or and li@uid. i'ing o! ;a"or 3et<een
trays is strongest at (ig( ratios o! tray s"acing to column diameters7 i.e. in smaller columns
3ut <ea-ens as column diameter increases. i'ing o! li@uid occurs in t(e do<ncomers
and is analogous to "ac-ed5to<er redistri3ution 7 3ut occurs !ar more !re@uently.
T(orogood s(o<s t(at only a small amount o! remi'ing in t(e do<ncomer5 as little as 2 to
& "ercent 5is su!!icient to mitigate t(e stac-ing e!!ect.
7.,.7.' I/proving (i)!id &(o4 patterns.
A num3er o! s"ecial tray designs (a;e 3een de;elo"ed to im"ro;e li@uid ;elocity
distri3ution on large5diameter trays. T(eir main a""lications are ;acuum distillation. In
"ressure distillation7 li@uid !lo<s are usually (ig( and multi5"ass trays are used7 so t(at
stagnant 1ones are seldom a "ro3lem. Some means o! im"ro;ing t(e li@uid !lo< "atterns
are :
a. 4sing ;al;e trays. T(eir side<ays gas mo;ement alle;iates li@uid c(anneling. *n t(e
3asis o! eliminating t(e stagnant regions7 $iddul"( e'"ects ;al;e tray e!!iciencies in
large diameter columns to 3e 1& to 28 "ercent (ig(er t(an sie;e trays 3ut t(is (as not
3een ;eri!ied 3y e'"eriment.
3. 4sing suita3ly directed slots and 3a!!les to a;oid c(anneling. Suc( de;ices (a;e
im"ro;ed e!!iciency in large diameter ;acuum to<ers <it( long !lo< "at(s. 4se o!
t(ese de;ices in large diameter to<ers (as 3een ad;ocated !or ;acuum ser;ices and !or
"ressure ser;ices <it( tall <eirs.
c. 4sing arc5s(a"ed do<ncomers. S"ecial tray designs (a;e arc5s(a"ed do<ncomers7
<(ic( direct li@uid to<ards t(e column <alls. T(ese de;ices im"ro;e !lo< "atterns7
3ut t(eir e!!ect on e!!iciency (as not 3een tested.
d. T(e Fractionation Researc( Inc. uni@ue design !or inlet do<ncomer 3a!!le and outlet
<eir con;erted a (ig(ly c(anneled li@uid !lo< into "lug !lo<. Des"ite t(at it did not
im"ro;e e!!iciency.
e. Increasing t(e num3er o! "asses. T(is reduces t(e tendency to !orm stagnant 1ones.
7.,.7., Vapor /a(distrib!tion.
ost "o"ular t(eoretical models "ostulate "er!ectly mi'ed ;a"or !lo<. In large5diameter
column7 ;a"or is more li-ely to rise in "lug !lo<. odeling <or- s(o<ed t(at in t(e
a3sence o! stagnant 1ones on t(e tray7 ;a"or !lo< "attern (as generally little e!!ect on tray
e!!iciency. B(en column e!!iciency e'ceeds /8 "ercent or <(en stagnant li@uid 1ones
e'ist7 ;a"or "lug !lo< reduces tray e!!iciency. Some t(eoretical <or- (as 3een done on
;a"or ;elocity maldistri3ution due to (ydraulic gradients. It (as 3een s(o<n t(at e;en i! it
occurs7 it (as only a minor e!!ect on tray e!!iciency. 4nder some conditions7 ;a"or ;elocity
maldistri3ution induced 3y (ydraulic gradient or tray tilt can lead to e'cessi;e nonuni!orm
<ee"ing can 3e detrimental to tray e!!iciency.
7.,.= Other &actors a&&ecting tra. e&&icienc.
7.,.=.# @eir height.
Taller <eirs raise li@uid le;el on t(e tray in t(e !ort( and emulsion regimes. T(is increases
inter!acial area and ;a"or contact time. Larger inter!acial areas and contact times en(ance
e!!iciency7 es"ecially <(en t(e mass trans!er resistance is concentrated in t(e ;a"or =most
distillation systems?. In t(e s"ray regime7 <eir (eig(t a!!ects neit(er li@uid le;el nor
e!!iciency. In distillation systems7 t(e im"ro;ement o! tray e!!iciency due to taller <eirs is
small. *3ser;ed little e!!ect i! <eir (eig(t on distillation tray e!!iciency !or <eirs 1.& to #
in7 1 to 2 in 7and 8.& to 1 in tall7 res"ecti;ely. Finc( and +an Bin-le re"orted an
e!!iciency increase o! t(e order o! & to 18 "ercent as <eir (eig(t is raised !rom 1 to # inM a
similar increase <as re"orted 3y Prado and Fair in (umidi!ication and stri""ing tests.
A signi!icant dro" in tray e!!iciency <as o3ser;ed <(en c(anging !rom a <eir e;en as
s(ort as 8.& in to no <eir. Raising <eir (eig(ts !rom 2 to % in <as s(o<n to rise !ort(
regime e!!iciency 3y 28 to &8 "ercent !or caustic a3sor"tion o! acid gases7 !or a3sor"tion
o! ammonia in <ater and !or a3sor"tion o! o'ygen into lo<5;iscosity <ater:glycerol
solutions. In t(e s"ray regime7 <eir (eig(t <as s(o<n to (a;e little e!!ect on a3sor"tion
e!!iciency.
7.,.=.' %i)!id &(o4 path.
Longer li@uid !lo< "at(s en(ance t(e li@uid ;a"or contact time7 t(e signi!icance o! li@uid
"lug !lo< and t(ere!ore raise e!!iciency. 2o<e;er7 !lo< "at( increases are cou"led <it(
column diameter increases and a "oint is reac(ed <(ere t(e tray may su!!er !rom
c(anneling. *ne e'"erience <as re"orted <(ere a re!inery re3oiled a3sor3er <as
re;am"ed 3y re"lacing single "ass trays 3y t<o "ass trays. Alt(oug( t(e e'"ected
ca"acity gain <as ac(ie;ed t(e reduction in !lo< "at( lengt( !rom #) to 1/ in caused a
loss in e!!iciency large enoug( to Dusti!y reinstalling t(e original trays.
7.,.=., 8ractiona( ho(e area.
.!!iciency increases <it( a reduction in !ractional (ole area. Hanagi and
Sa-ata7e'"erimenting <it( commercial5scale to<ers7 s(o< a 18 to 1& "ercent in crease in
tray e!!iciency <(en !ractional (ole area <as lo<ered !rom 1% to / "ercent o! t(e 3u33ling
area Prado and Fair s(o<ed an e!!iciency increase o! t(e order o! & "ercent as !ractional
(ole area <as reduced !rom 11 to ) "ercent o! t(e 3u33ling area in (umidi!ication and
stri""ing tests. T(e a3o;e data <ere collected 3ot( in t(e !ort( and s"ray regimes.
7.,.=.1 "o(e dia/eter .
In t(e !ort( regime7 small (oles increase t(e inter!acial area7 "ossi3ly also7 "ossi3ly also
!ort( (eig(t. T(e en(ancement in e!!iciency is small7 o!ten negligi3le. S(o<ed t(at a
!our!old reduction in (ole diameter increased e!!iciency 3y a3out 1& "ercent or less. Prado
and Fair s(o<ed a tray e!!iciency rise o! less t(an 2 "ercent <(en (ole diameter <as
(al;ed in (umidi!ication and stri""ing tests.
7.,.=.3 Vapor+%i)!id (oads.
A (ig(er ;a"or load reduces t(e ;a"or contact time 3ut also increase t(e inter!acial area.
T(ese t<o !actors (a;e counteracting e!!ects on tray e!!iciency. 4sually7 t(e contact time
dominates7 and e!!iciency decreases <it( (ig(er ;a"or rates A (ig(er li@uid load increases
tray e!!iciency 3ecause it increases tray li@uid (oldu"7 - and t(ere!ore ;a"or contact time.
ost distillation o"erations are "er!ormed at constant L:+ ratios. T(is
means 3ot( ;a"or and li@uid loads are raised and lo<ered simultaneously7 Increasing
;a"or rate reduces e!!iciency7 <(ile increasing li@uid rates raises e!!iciency. T(e t<o
e!!ects normally cancel eac( ot(er7 and e!!iciency is "ractically inde"endent o! load
c(anges =as summing no e'cessi;e entrainment or <ee"ing?.
7.,.=.5 Re&(!2 ratio.
Re!lu' ratio <as stated to (a;e a small e!!ect on e!!iciency.
7.,.=.7 Viscosit..
.!!iciency increases as li@uid ;olatility is lo<ered . As discussed earlier lo<er ;olatility
reduces t(e signi!icance o! t(e li@uid "(ase resistance7 and t(ere!ore7 raises e!!iciency.
7.,.=.= !r&ace tension
T(ere is uncertainty regarding t(e e!!ect o! sur!ace tension on tray e!!iciency. *!ten7 it is
di!!icult to di;orce t(e sur!ace tension e!!ects !rom t(ose o! ot(er "(ysical "ro"erties.
For t(is reason7 it is di!!icult to tell <(et(er t(e e!!ects descri3ed 3elo< are real or
imaginati;e. easurements 3y Fane and Sa<isto<s-i s(o< little e!!ect or sur!ace tension
on e!!iciency in t(e !rot( regime7 and a rise o! tray e!!iciency <it( lo<er sur!ace tension in
t(e s"ray regime. T(e sur!ace tension gradient a""ears to (a;e an e!!ect. A "ositi;e
gradient = Sur!ace tension increases do<n t(e column ? en(ances e!!iciency in t(e !rot(
regime <(ile a negati;e gradient en(ances e!!iciency in t(e s"ray regime. T(e magnitude
o! t(ese en(ancements in uncertain .
7.,.=.B Press!re.
Tray e!!iciency slig(tly increases <it( "ressure in t(e !ort( regime. T(e a""arent "ressure
e!!ect could 3e a re!lection o! t(e rise in e!!iciency <it( a reduction in li@uid ;iscosity and
in relati;e ;olatility. =Note: As distillation "ressure rises7 so does t(e e@uili3rium
tem"eratureM t(is in turn leads to a decrease in li@uid ;iscosity.? At "ressures (ig(er t(an
1&8 to #88 "sia7 and es"ecially at (ig( li@uid rates7 ;a"or entrainment in t(e do<ncomer
li@uid 3ecome im"ortant7 and may lead to a reduction in tray e!!iciency <it( !urt(er raises
in "ressure.
7.,.=.#C %i)!id and vapor entrain/ent and 4eeping
$ot( re"resent a recycling o! lo<er "urity material <(ic( contaminates t(e tray li@uid or
;a"or7 3ot( counteract t(e mass trans!er "rocess and lo<er e!!iciency. Bee"ing
re"resents li@uid s(ort5circuiting t(e stage and contaminating t(e tray 3elo< <it( more
;olatile material.
7.,.B Tra. e&&icienc. in /!(ti+co/ponent separations
7.,.B.# Co/ponent e&&iciencies.
In 3inary mi'tures7 t(e e!!iciencies o! eac( o! t(e t<o com"onents are identical. In multi5
com"onent se"arations7 com"onent e!!iciencies are all di!!erent 3ecause o! !ollo<ing :
a. .ac( com"onent (as a di!!erent di!!usi;ity7 3ot( in t(e ;a"or and in t(e li@uid.
3. In a multi5com"onent mi'ture7 t(e di!!usion rate o! a com"onent de"ends not only on
its o<n concentration in t(e mi'ture7 3ut also on t(e concentration o! ot(er
com"onents. T(e may lead to cou"ling and interaction o! t(e mass trans!er among
;arious com"onents. Some e'am"les are mentioned 3elo< :
Re;erse di!!usion 55 ass trans!er o""osite to t(e concentration dri;ing !orce.
Di!!usion 3arrier55 No net mass trans!er e;en t(oug( a concentration dri;ing
!orce e'ists.
*smotic di!!usion 55ass trans!er in t(e a3sence o! a concentration dri;ing
!orce.
c. T(e e!!ecti;e slo"e o! t(e e@uili3rium cur;e7 m7 and t(ere!ore e@uation ,.& di!!ers !or
eac( com"onent. T(ere!or7 eac( com"onent (as a di!!erent ratio o! gas5"(ase
resistance to li@uid5"(ase resistance and a di!!erent ratio o! o;erall column e!!iciency to
ur"(ee tray e!!iciency \.@uation =,.%?]. In ;ie< o! a3o;e7 it is stated t(at some o!
!actor can alter t(e stage re@uirement !or a multi5com"onent se"aration 3y #8 to %8
"ercent . Nonet(eless7 indi;idual com"onent e!!iciencies are seldom used in design
"ractice7 due to t(e !ollo<ing reasons:
ulti5com"onent e!!iciency "rediction met(ods are 3ased on t(eoretical 3inary
e!!iciency met(ods.
Fe< commercial simulations are geared to (andle rigorous multi5com"onent
e!!iciency com"utations.
Rigorous met(ods !or com"uting multi5com"onent e!!iciencies are com"le'7
di!!icult to use !or design and o!ten o! un-no<n relia3ility. T(e ideal met(od7
<(ic( is sim"le enoug(7 yet relia3le is still 3eing soug(t. T(e main 3ottlenec-
(ere is t(e a;aila3ility o! ade@uate commercial scale data t(at <ill "ermit
"ro"er testing o! t(e ;arious met(ods.
7.,.B.' Pse!do binar. /ethod.
T(e most common and generally t(e sim"lest "rocedure used !or multi5com"onent
e!!iciencies7 it "roceeds in t(e !ollo<ing ste"s:
a. From t(e column simulation in terms o! t(eoretical stages7 locate re"resentati;e stages
in eac( section o! t(e column.
3. For eac( re"resentati;e stage7 select lig(t -ey and (ea;y -ey com"onents and calculate
t(e com"osition o! t(e "seudo 3inary mi'ture as
y
LA
H
LA
N
y
LA
> y
2A
'
LA
F
2A
D
'
LA
> '
2A

Some Dudgment is re@uired in selecting t(e "seudo -eys7 and t(e t<o com"onents selected
are o!ten not t(e same !or di!!erent "arts o! t(e column. T(e lig(t and (ea;y5-ey
a""roac( can 3e e'tended to allo< !or multi5"air e!!iciencies t(at may 3e di!!erent. T(e
c(oice o! 3inary "airs de"ends on !eed and "roduct com"ositions7 ;olatility di!!erences7
com"onents o! maDor interest !or design and t(e com"onents <(ic( are t(e maDority
!raction o! t(e mi'ture.
c. Predict t(e 3inary di!!usion coe!!icients o! t(e -eys in eac( "(ase at t(e mi'ture
tem"erature and "ressure.
d. Calculate H
LA
and F
LA
on adDacent t(eoretical trays n and n > 1 and determines t(e
slo"e o! e@uili3rium cur;e m !rom
H
LA7 n>1
5 H
LA7 n
m N
F
LA7n>1
5 F
LA7n
e. 4se t(e 3inary correlations to "redict .
*0
and .
+
M "ossi3ly also .
o
. T(e section
e!!iciency .
o
is t(en used to determine t(e num3er o! trays in eac( section o! column
<(en used in conDunction <it( a t(eoretical5stage simulation.
!. T(ere are t(ree o"tions !or a""lying t(e e!!iciency:
4se t(e section e!!iciency .
o
in conDunction <it( a t(eoretical stage simulation
to determine t(e num3er o! trays in eac( section. T(is is least accurate 3ut can
3e used <it( commercial t(eoretical stage simulations.
Assume t(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency .
+
calculated in item & a3o;e is t(e
same !or all com"onents7 t(en a""ly t(e ur"(ee tray e!!iciency in a column
simulation. T(is o"tion is sim"le7 more accurate t(en t(e "re;ious7 3ut re@uires
a simulation t(at can use ur"(ee e!!iciencies.
Re"eat t(e a3o;e ste"s7 calculating ur"(ee e!!iciencies !or many 3inary "airs.
T(is re@uires t(e solution to a linear set o! e@uations in order to o3tain t(e
com"onent mole !ractions in t(e mi'ture.
7.1 !//ar.
In t(is c(a"ter7 t(e o;erall column e!!iciency can 3e calculated !rom .@uation. =,.1?. Some
correlations and gra"(s (a;e also 3een gi;en to calculate column e!!iciencies7 <(ic(
"resent a sim"ler a""roac( to<ards sol;ing a "ro3lem. T(e column internals details may
also a!!ect t(e tray e!!iciency. 2ence t(e column design s(ould 3e made ta-ing in ;ie< t(e
column e!!iciency as"ects. T(e "(ysical "ro"erties o! t(e li@uid 3eing "rocessed also
a!!ects t(e e!!iciency. All t(ese !actors can 3e o"timi1ed to ma'imi1e t(e column
e!!iciency. Pseudo 3inary met(od gi;es multi5com"onent e!!iciency.
C"APTER =
DITI%%ATION CO%$9N DEI>N
=.# Introd!ction
=.#.# 8actors Deter/ining co(!/n per&or/ance
T(e "er!ormance o! column can 3e Dudged in relation to t<o se"arate 3ut related criteria.
First7 i! t(e ;a"our and li@uid lea;ing a tray are in e@uili3rium t(is constitutes a t(eoretical
tray and "ro;ides a standard o! "er!ormance. Secondly7 t(e relati;e "er!ormance o!7 say7
t<o column o! t(e same diameter must 3e considered in relation to t(eir ca"acity !or li@uid
and ;a"our !lo<. T(e main !eatures are:
Li@uid and ;a"or ;elocities.
P(ysical "ro"erties o! li@uid and ;a"our.
.'tent o! entrainment o! li@uid 3y rising ;a"our across streams.
T(e (ydraulic o! t(e !lo< o! li@uid and ;a"our across and t(roug( t(e tray.
It (as 3een !ound t(at t(e ;a"or ;elocity is a "rime !actor in determining t(e diameter o!
a column. T(e tray e!!iciency is ;aried as !ollo<s :
For all "lates s"acing t(e e!!iciency .
m;
=de!ined as t(e ratio o! t(e actual
c(ange in li@uid com"osition on a "late to t(at <(ic( <ould 3e o3tained i! t(e
li@uid le!t in e@uili3rium <it( t(e ;a"our ? decreases as t(e ;elocity is increased
due mainly to t(e reduction in contact time 3et<een t(e "(ases
T(e decrease in e!!iciency is muc( less <it( (ig( "late s"acings.
T(e ca"acity is limited 3y t(e a3ility o! t(e do<ncomers to carry t(e re!lu'7
rat(er t(an t(at o! t(e ca"s to (andle t(e ;a"our.
T(e e!!ects o! li@uid ;elocity on tray e!!iciency (a;e 3een studied 3y DRICAA.R and
$RADF*RD and *GC*NN.L and t(ese are discussed in section ,.#. Sur!ace tension
in!luences o"eration <it( sie;e trays7 in relation 3ot( to !oaming and to t(e sta3ility o!
3u33les.
=.#.' Operating Ranges &or Tra.s
!or a gi;ing tray layout t(ere are certain limits o! t(e !lo<s o! ;a"our and li@uid <it(in
<(ic( sta3le o"eration is o3tained. T(e range is indicated in Figure /.17 <(ic( relates to
a 3u33le5ca" "late. T(e region o! satis!actory o"eration is 3ounded 3y areas <(ere
undesira3le "(enomena occur. Coning occurs at lo< li@uid rates7 <(ere t(e ;a"our !orce
t(e li@uid 3ac- !rom t(e slots and "asses out as a continuous stream7 <it( a conse@uent
loss in e!!iciency. Lo< ;a"or rates result in "ulsating ;a"or !lo< or dum"ing. Bit( lo<
li@uid rates7 ;a"our "asses t(roug( t(e slots intermittently7 3ut <it( (ig(er li@uid rates
some slots dum" li@uid rat(er t(en "assing ;a"our. $ot( "ulsating (ig(er li@uid rates some
slots dum" li@uid rat(er t(an "assing ;a"our. $ot( "ulsating e!!iciency. At ;ery (ig(
;a"our rates7 t(e ;a"our 3u33les carry li@uid as s"ray or dro"lets to t(e "late a3o;e7
gi;ing e'cessi;e entrainment. Bit( (ig( li@uid rats7 a "oint is reac(ed <(ere t(e dro" in
"ressure across t(e "late e@uals t(e li@uid (ead in t(e do<ncomer. $eyond t(is "oint7 t(e
li@uid 3uilds u" and !loods t(e tray.
T(e e'tent o! entrainment o! t(e li@uid 3y t(e ;a"our rising o;er a "late (as 3een studied
3y many <or-ers. T(e entrainment (as 3een !ound to ;ery <it( t(e ;a"our ;elocity in t(e
slot or "er!oration7 and t(e s"acing used. Strang using an Air5 <ater system7 !ound t(at
entrainment <as small until a critical ;a"our ;elocity <as reac(ed7 a3o;e <(ic( it
increased ra"idly. Similar results !rom Pea;y7 $a-er and Col3urn

(a;e s(o<n t(e e!!ect
on tray e!!iciency7 <(ic( is not seriously a!!ected until t(e entrainment e'ceeds 8.1 -mol
o! li@uid "er -mol o! ;a"our. T(e entrainment on sie;e trays is discussed in Section /.1.).
T(e design o! t(e tray !ittings and t(e do<ncomers <ill in!luence t(e column
"er!ormance7 It is con;enient to consider t(is se"arately !or 3u33le ca" trays and sie;e
trays7 In t(e design7 t(e im"ortant !actors are t(e diameter o! t(e to<er7 t(e tray s"acing
and t(e detailed design o! t(e tray .
=.#., >enera( Tra. T.pes
In considering t(e design o! a column !or a gi;en se"aration7 t(e num3er o! stages
re@uired and t(e !lo<rates o! t(e li@uid and ;a"our streams must !irst 3e determined using
t(e general met(ods already outlined. In t(e mec(anical design o! t(e column 7 to<er
diameter7 tray s"acing7 and t(e detailed layout o! eac( tray <ill 3e in;estigated In t(e !irst
"lace7 a diameter is esta3lis(ed7 3ased on t(e criterion o! a3sence !rom li@uid entrainment
in t(e ;a"our stream and t(en t(e <eirs and t(e do<ncomers are designed . to (andle t(e
re@uired li@uid !lo<. It is t(en "ossi3le to consider t(e tray geometry in more detail7 and7
!inally7 to e'amine t(e general o"erating conditions !or t(e tray and to esta3lis( its
o"timum range o! o"eration.
=.#.,.# B!bb(e Cap Tra.s
$u33le5ca" trays are no< rarely used !or ne< installations on account o! t(eir (ig( cost
and t(eir (ig( "ressure dro"M in addition7 di!!iculties arise in large columns 3ecause o! t(e
large (ydraulic gradients <(ic( are set u" across t(e trays. T(ey are ca"a3le o! dealing
<it( ;ery lo< li@uid rates and are t(ere!ore use!ul !or o"eration at lo< re!lu' rations.
T(ere are still many 3u33le5ca" columns in use and t(e design considerations "resented
in section /.% are gi;en in "articular to ena3le e'isting e@ui"ment to 3e assessed !or ne<
a""lications and duties. T(e detail o! 3u33le ca" tray is s(o<n in !igure ,.).
/.1.#.2 ieve Tra.s
Sie;e trays o!!er se;eral ad;antages o;er 3u33le5ca" trays7 and t(eir sim"ler and c(ea"er
construction (as led to t(eir increasing use: T(e general !orm o! t(e !lo< on a sie;e tray
is ty"ical o! a cross5!lo< system <it( "er!orations in t(e tray ta-ing t(e "lace o! t(e more
com"le' 3u33le ca"s. T(e (ydraulic !lo< conditions are discussed in section /.%.2 !or
suc( a tray in t(e same manner as !or t(e 3u33le5ca" tray7 3y considering entrainment7
!looding7 "ressure loss7 and so on. It is im"ortant to notice t(e -ey di!!erences in
o"eration 3et<een t(ese t<o ty"es o! tray. Bit( t(e sie;e tray t(e ;a"our "asses
;ertically t(roug( t(e (oles in t(e li@uid on t(e tray7 <(ereas <it( t(e 3u33le ca" t(e
;a"our issues in an a""ro'imately (ori1ontal direction !rom t(e slots. Bit( t(e sie;e "late
t(e ;a"our ;elocity t(roug( t(e "er!orations must 3e not less t(an a certain minimum
;alue in order to "re;ent t(e <ee"ing o! t(e li@uid stream do<n t(roug( t(e (oles. At t(e
ot(er e'treme7 a ;ery (ig( ;a"our ;elocity <ill lead to e'cessi;e entrainment and loss o!
tray e!!iciency. T(e ca"acity gra"( !or a sie;e tray is similar to t(at s(o<n in Figure /.2
!or 3u33le ca" trays . T(e sie;e tray layout is s(o<n in !igure ,.6.
=.#.,., Va(ve Tra.s
T(e ;alue tray7 <(ic( may 3e regarded as intermediate 3et<een t(e 3u33le ca" and t(e
sie;e tray7 o!!ers ad;antages o;er 3ot(. T(e !eature o! t(e tray is t(at li!ta3le ca"s act as
;aria3le ori!ices <(ic( adDust t(emsel;es to c(anges in ;a"our !lo<. T(e ;al;es are <it(er
metal discs o! u" to a3out #/ mm diameter or metal stri"s <(ic( are raised a3o;e t(e
o"enings in t(e tray dec- as ;a"our "asses t(roug( t(e trays. T(e ca"s are restrained 3y
legs or s"iders <(ic( limit t(e ;ertical mo;ement and some ty"es are ca"a3le o! !orming a
total li@uid seal <(en t(e ;a"our !lo< is insu!!icient to li!t t(e ca". T(e ;al;e tray layout is
s(o<n in !igure ,.%.
Ad;antages claimed !or ;alue trays include :
*"eration at t(e same ca"acity and e!!iciency as sie;e trays.
Lo< "ressure dro" <(ic( is !airly constant o;er a large "ortion o! t(e
o"erating range.
A (ig( turndo<n ratio =i.e.can 3e o"erated at a small !raction o! design ca"acity
?
A relati;ely sim"le construction <(ic( leads to a cost o! only 28 W (ig(er t(an
o! a com"ara3le sie;e tray.
+alue trays7 3ecause o! t(eir "ro"rietary nature7 are usually designed 3y t(e manu!acturer7
t(oug( it is "ossi3le to o3tain an estimate o! design and "er!ormance !rom "u3lis(ed
literature and !rom met(ods summari1ed in section /.%.
=.#.1 Tra. Detai(s
=.#.1.# taged Co(!/n Description
A ;ery 3asic "icture o! staged column e@ui"ment <as "resented in c(a"ter # and %. In t(is
section7 a muc( more detailed @ualitati;e "icture <ill 3e "resented. uc( o! t(e material
included (ere is !rom t(e series o! articles 3y Aister t(e 3oo- 3y Lud<ig . T(e Sie;e
trays7 <(ic( <ere illustrated in Figure ,.17 are easy to manu!acture and are ine'"ensi;e.
T(e (oles are "unc(ed or drilled = a more e'"ensi;e "rocess? in t(e metal "late.
Considera3le design in!ormation is a;aila3le7 and since t(e designs are not "ro"rietary
anyone can 3uild a sie;e tray column. T(e e!!iciency is good at design conditions .
2o<e;er7 turndo<n = t(e "er!ormance <(en o"erating 3elo< t(e designed !lo< rate ? is
relati;ely "oor. T(is means t(at o"eration at signi!icantly lo<er rtes t(an t(e design
condition <ill result in lo< e!!iciencies. For sie;e "lates7 e!!iciency dro"s mar-edly !or gas
!lo< rates t(at are less t(an a3out )8W o! t(e design ;alue. T(us t(ese trays are not
e'tremely !le'i3le7. Sie;e trays are ;ery good in !ouling a""lications or <(en t(ere are
solids "resent7 3ecause t(ey are (ig(ly resistant to clogging7 t(ey can (a;e large (oles7
and t(ey are easy to clean. Sie;e trays are a standard item in industry7 3ut ne< columns
are more li-ely to (a;e ;al;e trays.
+al;e trays are designed to (a;e 3etter turndo<n "ro"erties t(en sie;e trays7 and t(us
t(ey are more !le'i3le <(en t(e !eed rate ;aries. T(ere are many di!!erent "ro"rietary
;al;e tray designs7 o! <(ic( one ty"e is illustrated in section ,.1. T(e ;al;e tray is
similar to a sie;e tray in t(at it (as a dec- <it( (oles in it !or gas !lo< and do<ncomers !or
li@uid !lo<. T(e di!!erence is t(at t(e (oles7 <(ic( are @uite large7. Are !itted <it( Q
;al;es7 Q !lat co;ers t(at can mo;e u" and do<n as t(e "ressures o! t(e ;a"our and t(e
li@uid c(ange. .ac( ;al;e (as !eet or a cage t(at restrict its u"<ard mo;ement. At (ig(
;a"or ;elocities7 t(e ;al;e <ill 3e !ully o"en7 <(ic( "ro;ides a ma'imum slot !or gas
!lo< . B(en t(e gas ;elocity dro"s7 t(e ;al;e <ill dro". T(is -ee"s t(e gas ;elocity
t(roug( t(e slot close to constant7 <(ic( -ee"s e!!iciency close to constant and "re;ents
<ee"ing. An indi;idual ;alue is sta3le only in t(e !ully closed or !ully o"en "osition. At
intermediate ;elocities some o! t(e ;al;es on t(e tray <ill 3e o"en and some <ill 3e
closed . 4sually7 t(e ;al;es alternate 3et<een t(e o"en and close "istons. T(e ;enturi
;al;e (as t(e li" o! t(e (ole !acing u"<ards to "roduce a +enturi o"ening7 <(ic( <ill
minimi1e t(e "ressure dro".
At t(e design ;a"or rate7 ;al;e trays (a;e a3out t(e same e!!iciency as sie;e trays.
2o<e;er7 t(eir turndo<n c(aracteristics are generally 3etter7 and t(e e!!iciency remains
(ig( a as t(e gas rate dro"s. T(ey can also 3e designed to (a;e a lo<er "ressure dro"
t(an sie;e trays7 alt(oug( t(e standard ;al;e trays <ill (a;e a (ig(er "ressure dro". T(e
disad;antages o! ;al;e trays are t(ey are a3out 28W more e'"ensi;e t(an sie;e trays and
t(ey are more li-ely to !oul or "lug i! dirty solutions are distilled.
$u33le ca" trays are illustrated in section ,.1 and !igure /.# . In a 3u33le ca" t(ere is a
riser or <eir around eac( (ole in t(e tray. A ca" <it( slots or (oles is "laced o;er t(is
riser7 and t(e ;a"or 3u33les t(roug( t(ese (oles. T(is design is @uite !le'i3le and <ill
o"erate satis!actorily at ;ery (ig( and ;ery lo< li@uid !lo< rates. 2o<e;er7 entrainment is
a3out t(ree times t(at o! a sie;e tray7 and t(ere!ore is usually a signi!icant li@uid gradient
across t(e tray. T(e net result is t(at tray s"acing must 3e signi!icantly greater t(an !or
sie;e tray. A;erage trays s"acing in small columns is a3out 1/ inc(es7 <(ile 2% to #)
inc(es is used !or ;acuum distillations. .!!iciencies are usually t(e same or less t(an !or
sie;e trays7 and turndo<n c(aracteristics are o!ten <orse. T(e 3u33le5ca" (as "ro3lems
<it( co-ing7 "olymer !ormation7 or (ig( !ouling mi'tures. $u33le ca" trays are
a""ro'imately !our times as e'"ensi;e as ;al;e trays .+ery !e< ne< 3u33le5ca" columns
are 3eing 3uilt. 2o<e;er7 ne< engineers are li-ely to see older 3u33le5ca" columns still
o"erating. Lots o! data re a;aila3le !or t(e design o! 3u33le5ca" trays. .'cellent
discussions on t(e design o! 3u33le5ca" columns are a;aila3le . ore details <ill not 3e
gi;en (ere.
Per!orated "ates <it(out do<ncomers loo- li-e sie;e "lates 3ut <it( signi!icantly larger
(oles. T(e "late is designed so t(at li@uid <ee"s t(roug( t(e (oles at t(e same time t(at
;a"or is "assing t(roug( t(e center o! t(e (ole. T(e ad;antage o! t(is design is t(at t(e
cost and s"ace associated <it( do<ncomers are eliminated. Its maDor disad;antage is t(at
it is not ro3ust7 T(at is7 i! somet(ing goes <rong t(e column may not <or- at all instead
o! o"erating at a lo<er e!!iciency . T(ese columns are usually designed 3y t(e com"any
selling t(e system. Some design details are "resented 3y Lud<ig .
=.#.1.' Tra.s0 Do4nco/ers and @eirs
In addition to c(oosing t(e ty"e o! tray7 t(e designer must select t(e !lo< "attern on t(e
tray and design t(e <eirs and do<ncomers. T(is section <ill continue to 3e mainly
@ualitati;e. T(e most common !lo< "attern on a tray is t(e cross5!lo< "attern s(o<n in
Figure ,./ and /.% a . T(is "attern <or-s <ell !or a;erage !lo< rates and can 3e designed
to (andle sus"ended solids in t(e !eed Cross5!lo< trays can 3e designed 3y t(e user on t(e
3asis o! in!ormation in t(e o"en literature 7 !rom in!ormation in com"any design manuals7
or !rom any o! t(e manu!actures o! staged distillation columns. Design details !or
cross!lo< trays are discussed later.
ulti"le5"ass trays are used in large5diameter columns <it( (ig( li@uid !lo< rates. A
dou3le5"ass tray is s(o<n in Figure /.% 3. T(e li@uid !lo< is di;ided into t<o section =or
"asses? to reduce t(e li@uid gradient on t(e tray and to reduce t(e do<ncomer loading.
Bit( e;en larger li@uid loadings7 t(ree5 or !our5"ass trays are used. T(is ty"e o! tray is
also usually designed 3y e'"erts7 alt(oug( "reliminary designs can 3e o3tained 3y t(e
design manuals "u3lis(ed 3y some o! t(e e@ui"ment manu!actures .
For (a;ing 3etter !lo< "attern7 t(e selection o! t(e internals is im"ortant. As t(e gas and
li@uid rates increase7 t(e to<er diameter increases. 2o<e;er7 t(e a3ility to (andle li@uid
!lo< increases <it( <eir lengt(7 <(ile t(e gas !lo< ca"acity increases <it( t(e s@uare o!
t(e lo<er diameter. T(us7 e;entually multi"le5"ass trays are re@uired. A selection guide
is gi;en in Figure /.& 7 3ut it is only a""ro'imate7 "articularly near t(e lines scra""ing
di!!erent ty"es o! trays.
Do<ncomers and <eirs are ;ery im"ortant !or t(e "ro"er o"eration o! staged columns7
since t(ey control t(e li@uid distri3ution and !lo< . A ;ariety o! designs are used7 !our are
s(o<n in Figure ,.1#. In small columns and "ilot "lants t(e circular in Figure ,.1# a is
commonly used. T(e "i"e may stic out a3o;e t(e tray !loor to ser;e as t(e <eir7 or a
se"arate <eir may 3e used. In t(e *lders(a< design commonly used in "ilot "lants7 t(e
"i"e is in t(e center o! t(e sie;e "late and is surrounded 3y (oles. T(e most common
design in commercial columns is t(e segmented ;ertical do<ncomer s(o<n in Figure ,.1#
3. T(is ty"e is ine'"ensi;e to 3uild7 easy to install7 almost im"ossi3le to install
incorrectly7 and can 3e designed !or a <ide ;ariety o! li@uid !lo< rates. I! li@uid5;a"or
disengagement is di!!icult7 one o! t(e slo"ed segmental designs s(o<n in Figure ,.1# c can
3e use!ul. T(ese designs (el" certain t(e acti;e area o! t(e tray 3elo<. 4n!ortunately7
t(ey are more e'"ensi;e and are easy to install 3ac-5<ards. For ;ery lo< li@uid !lo<
rates7 t(e en;elo"e design s(o<n in Figure ,.1# d is occasionally used.
T(e sim"lest <eir design is t(e straig(t (ori1ontal <eir s(o<n in Figure ,.1# and /.).
T(is ty"e is t(e c(ea"est 3ut does not (a;e t(e 3est turndo<n "ro"erties. T(e adDusta3le
<eir s(o<n in Figure /.) a is a ;ery seducti;e design7 since it a""ears to sol;e t(e
"ro3lem o! turndo<n. 4n!ortunately7 i! maladDusted7 t(is <eir can cause lots o! "ro3lem
suc( as e'cessi;e D <ee"ing or trays running dry7 so it s(ould "ro3a3ly 3e 3e a;oided.
B(en !le'i3ility in li@uid rates is desired7 one o! t(e notc(ed <eirs s(o<n in Figure /.) 3
<ill <or- <ellM t(ey are not muc( more e'"ensi;e t(an a straig(t <eir. Notc(ed <eirs are
"articularly use!ul <it( lo< li@uid !lo< rates. T(e trays7 <eirs7 and do<ncomers need to
3e mec(anically su""orted. T(is is illustrated in Figure ,. T(e tric- is to ade@uately
su""ort t(e <eig(t o! t(e tray "lus t(e (ig(est "ossi3le li@uid loading it can (a;e <it(out
e'cessi;ely 3loc-ing eit(er t(e ;a"or !lo< area or t(e acti;e area on t(e tray. As t(e
column diameter increases7 tray su""ort 3ecomes more critical.

Inlet and outlet "orts must 3e care!ully designed to "re;ent "ro3lems. Inlets s(ould 3e
designed to a;oid 3ot( e'cessi;e <ee"ing and entrainment <(en a (ig(5;elocity stream is
added. Se;eral acce"ta3le designs !or a !eed or re!lu' to t(e to" tray are s(o<n in
Figure /.,. T(e 3a!!le "late or "i"e el3o< "re;ents (ig( ;elocity !luid !rom s(ooting
across t(e tray. T(e designs s(o<n in Figures /., d and e can 3e used i! t(ere is li-ely to
3e ;a"or in t(e !eed. T(ese t<o designs <ill not allo< e'cessi;e entrainment.
Intermediate !eed introduction is some<(at similar7 and se;eral common designs are
s(o<n in Figure /./. Lo<5;elocity !eeds and !eed containing ;a"our re@uire 3a!!les as
s(o<n in Figures /./ 3 and c. T(e ;a"or is directed side<ays or do<n<ards to "re;ent
e'cessi;e entrainment . B(en t(ere is a large @uantity o! ;a"or in t(e !eed7 t(e !eed tray
s(ould (a;e e'tra s"ace !or disengagement o! li@uid and ;a"or. For large diameter
columns some ty"e o! distri3utor suc( as t(e one s(o<n in Figure /./ d is o!ten used.
T(e ;a"or return at t(e 3ottom o! t(e column s(ould 3e at least 12 inc( a3o;e t(e li@uid
surge le;el. T(e ;a"or inlet s(ould 3e "arallel to t(e seal "an and "arallel to t(e li@uid
sur!ace as s(o<n in Figure /.6 a. T(e "ur"ose o! t(e seal "an is to -ee" li@uid in t(e
do<ncomer. T(e ;a"or inlet s(ould noted5do<n to im"inge on t(e li@uid as s(o<n in
Figure /.6 3 . B(en a t(ermosi"(on re3oiler = a common ty"e o! total re3oiler? is used7
t(e s"lit dra<o!! s(o<n in Figure /.6 c is use!ul. Intermediate li@uid dra< o!!s re@uire
some met(od !or disengaging t(e li@uid and ;a"or. T(e c(ea"est <ay to do t(is is <it( a
do<ncomer layout as s(o<n in Figure /.18 a. A more e'"ensi;e 3ut surer met(od is to
use a c(imney tray =Figure /.18 3?. T(e c(imney tray "ro;ides enoug( li@uid ;olume to
!ill lines and start "um"s. T(ere are no (oles or ;al;es in t(e dec- o! t(is trayM t(us it
doesnGt "ro;ide !or mass trans!er and s(ould not 3e counted as an e@uili3rium stage.
C(imney trays must o!ten su""ort @uite a 3it o! li@uidM t(ere!ore7 mec(anical design is
im"ortant:. All alternati;e to t(e c(imney trays to use a do<ncomer ta""ing <it( an
e'ternal surge drum.
T(e design o! ;a"or outlets is relati;ely easy. T(e main consideration is t(at t(e line must
3e o! large enoug( diameter to (a;e a modest "ressure dro". At t(e to" o! t(e column a
demister may 3e used to "re;ent li@uid entrainment.: An alternati;e is to "ut a -noc-out
drum in t(e line 3e!ore any com"ressors . "er!ormance. T(e mi'ing correlation gi;en in
t(e AIC2. met(od <as not tested on large diameter columns7 and Smit( states t(at t(e
correlation s(ould not 3e used !or Large5diameter "lates. 2o<e;er7 on a large "late t(e l
li@uid "at( <ill normally 3e su3di;ided7 and t(e ;alue o! K
L
<ill 3e similar to t(at in a
small column. T(e ty"ical seal "an layout7 !eed no11le and dra< o!! no11le are s(o<n in
!igure /.11. T(e !luid tra"s are s(o<n in !igure /.12. T(e gas inDection "ac-ing su""ort
and <eir ty"e distri3utors are s(o<n in !igure /.1# a7 3 and c and /.1% a and 3
res"ecti;ely.
T(e ;a"or QFR !actor F
;
is a !unction o! t(e acti;e tray area. Increasing F
;
decreases t(e
num3er o! gas5"(ase trans!er units. T(e li@uid !lo< term L
"
is also a !unction o! t(e
acti;e tray area7 and t(e li@uid "at( lengt(. It <ill only (a;e a signi!icant e!!ect on t(e
num3er o! trans!er units i! t(e "at( lengt( is long. In "ractice t(e range o! ;alues !or F
;
t(e acti;e area7 and t(e "late lengt( <ill 3e limited 3y ot(er "late design considerations .
T(e AIC(. met(od <as de;elo"ed !rom measurements on 3inary system. T(e AIC(.
manual s(ould 3e consulted !or ad;ice on its a""lication to multicom"onent systems.
=.#.3 P(ate E&&icienc.
T(e num3er o! ideal stages re@uired !or a desired se"aration may 3e calculated 3y one o!
t(e met(ods "re;iously discussed 3ut in "ractice it <ill normally 3e !ond t(at more trays
are re@uired t(an ideal stages. T(en t(e ratio n:n" o! t(e num3er o! ideal stages n to t(e
num3er o! actual tray n
"
re"resents t(e o;erall e!!iciency . o! t(e column7 <(ic( may ;ery
!rom #8 to 188 "er cent. T(e main reason !or loss in e!!iciency is t(at t(e -inetics rate o!
a""roac( to e@uili3rium7 and t(e !lo< "attern on t(e "late7 may not "ermit e@uili3rium
3et<een t(e ;a"or and li@uid to 3e attained. Some em"irical e@uations (a;e 3een
de;elo"ed !rom <(ic( ;alues o! e!!iciency may 3e calculated7 any t(is a""roac( is a o!
considera3le ;alue in gi;ing a general "icture o! t(e "ro3lem. T(e "ro"ortion o! li@uid
and ;a"or7 and t(e "(ysical "ro"erties o! t(e mi'tures on t(e trays <ill ;ery u" t(e
column7 and conditions on indi;idual trays must 3e e'amined7 as suggested 3y ur"(ee.
For a single ideal tray 7 t(e ;a"or lea;ing is in e@uili3rium <it ( t(e li@uid lea;ing7 and t(e
ratio o! t(e actual c(ange in com"osition ac(ie;ed to t(at <(ic( <ould occur i!
e@uili3rium 3et<een y
n
and '
n
<ere ac(ie;ed is -no<n as t(e ur"(ee "late e!!iciency
.
. 4sing t(e notation s(o<n in Figure /.# 7 t(e "late e!!iciency e'"ressed in ;a"or terms
is gi;en 3y :
.
c
N
y
n
5 y
n51
= /.1 ?
y
e
5 y
n51
B(ere y
e
is t(e com"osition o! t(e ;a"or t(at <ould 3e in e@uili3rium <it( t(e li@uid o!
com"osition '
m
actually lea;ing t(e "late. T(is e@uation gi;es t(e e!!iciency in ;a"or
terms7 3ut i! t(e concentrations in t(e li@uid streams are used t(en t(e "late e!!iciency .
I
is gi;en 3y :
F
n
5 F
n51
.
c
N = /.2 ?
F
n>1
5 F
e
B(ere y
e
is t(e com"osition o! t(e li@uid t(at <ould 3e in e@uili3rium <it( t(e
com"osition y
n
actually lea;ing t(e "late. T(e e!!iciency may ;ery !rom "oint to "oint on a
tray. Local ;alues o! t(e ur"(ee e!!iciency <ill 3e designated .
m;
and .
ml
. T(e tray
e!!iciency is discussed in section ,.#.
=.#.5 Tra. Entrain/ent
T(e AIC(. met(od7 and t(at o! +an Bin-le7 "redict t(e QdryR ur"(ee "late e!!iciency.
In o"erations some li@uid dro"lets <ill 3e entrained an carried u" t(e column 3y t(e
;a"or !lo<7 and t(is <ill reduce t(e actual7 o"erating7 e!!iciency. T(e dry5"late e!!iciency
can 3e corrected !or t(e e!!ects o! entrainment using t(e e@uation "ro"osed 3y Col3urn :
.m+
. N
1 > .
m
;C=:=15E
<(ere .
a
N Actual "late e!!iciency7 allo<ing !or entrainment7

entrained li@uid
N t(e !ractional entrainment N
gross li@uid !lo<
et(ods !or "redicting t(e entrainment !rom sie;e "lates are gi;en in Section /.1.).
Figure /.1&7 similar met(od !or 3u33le5ca" "lates is gi;en 3y $olles.
=.' >!ide(ines 8or Design O& Disti((ation Co(!/n And Interna(s
=.'.# Introd!ction
All column design calculations are assumed to 3e done 3y using "rocess simulations li-e
PR*:II. Some (and calculations are done to c(ec- tray or "ac-ing si1es. T(is "rocedure
gi;es general guidelines !or designing a distillation column.
=.'.' Proced!re :
T(e ste"s in;ol;ed in designing a distillation column using simulation so!t<are are :
a. De!ine !eed
3. De!ine "roduct s"eci!ication
c. Set column "ressure
d. *"timi1e column design
e. Calculate tray: "ac-ing loads
!. Tray:"ac-ing si1ing.
=.'.'.# De&ine 8eed
Follo<ing "arameters are de!ined !or !eed:
Com"osition
Flo< rate
Tem"erature
Pressure
.nt(al"y
/.2.2.' De&ine Prod!ct peci&ications
Follo<ing "arameters are identi!ied to de!ine "roduct :
Recei;er tem"erature
Product "urities7 reco;eries and "(ase
Determine e!!ects o! ot(er streams internal to unit or com"le'
Determine t(e (ig(est "urities t(at t(e column le;el (as to "roduce
/.2.2., et Co(!/n Press!re
T(e column "ressure is set according to !ollo<ing guidelines :
a'imi1e al"(a ;alue
inimi1e column cost
Aee" !lare material out o! o;er(eads
Totally condense o;er(ead "roduct
Pre;ent need !or net gas com"ression
inimi1e net o;er(ead ;a"or
4se condenser as (eat source
4se 3ottoms as (ot oil
Limit 3ottom tem"erature !or crac-ing : "olymeri1ation
Cold utility tem"erature
/.2.2.1 Opti/i6e Co(!/n Design
Column design is o"timi1ed as "er t(e !ollo<ing guidelines :
No. *! trays ;ersus re!lu' re@uirement
$est !eed tray location
Degree o! !eed "re(eat
=.'.'.3 Tra.sE Pac*ing e(ection And i6ing
T(e tray:"ac-ing rating: si1ing is done on t(e "rocess simulator. T(e manual calculations
are also done as discussed in section /.%. .ac( "ac-ing ;endor (as di!!erent criteria
"ac-ing si1ing. 2ence7 guidelines gi;en 3y ;endor are used. 0uidelines !or si1ing o! trays
and random rac-ing are gi;en 3elo< in ta3le /.1 and /.2.
/.2.2.5 Co(!/n Tra. E&&icienc. (Pac*ing "ETP):
As !ar as "ossi3le data !rom t(e licenser or !rom similar systems are used. T(e 8Gconnell
correlation in section ,.# is used <(ene;er a""lica3le. In e'treme dou3t e'"erimental
;alues are used. For "ac-ings7 t(e (eig(t e@ui;alent to a t(eoretical "late =2.TP? are
determined !rom ;endor correlation or !rom actual e'"erience.
Tab(e =.# >!ide(ines To Be Nor/a((. E/p(o.ed 8or Tra. Co(!/ns
Ite/ >!ide(ines
1. Let Flood =Ne< design? ,&W 5 /8W
Let Flood =For Re;am"? 68W
2. Clear Li@uid Do<ncomer $ac- 4"
Column *"erating at = a'imum?
+acuum to 28 3ar A
A3o;e 28 3ar A
Do<ncomer 3ac- 4" =For Re;am"?
&8W o! tray s"ace
##W o! tray s"ace
118W o! design guidelines
#. Li@uid Rate *;er t(e Beir 128 gm":!t ma'.
%. Pressure Dro" =normal? Per Tray
+acuum Columns
Pressure Columns
2.& 5 # mm 2g
% 5 ) mm 2g.
&. +elocity 4nder Do<ncomer 2 !t. : s ma'imum
). Side Do<ncomer C(ord 2eig(t & in min.
,. Center Do<ncomer Bidt( / in min.
/. Intermediate Do<ncomer Bidt( / in min.
6. Flo< Pat( Lengt( ) in min.
18. Beir 2eig(t =normal? 2 in
11. Do<ncomer Clearance =normal? 1.& in
Tab(e =.' >!ide(ines 8or Pac*ed Co(!/ns @ith Rando/ Pac*ings
Ite/ >!ide(ines
1. *"erational Ca"acity /6W *! a'imum o"erating ca"acity
2. W Flooding ,85/8W *! Flood +elocity
#. Pressure Dro"
A? Atmos"(eric And oderate
Pressure Distillation.
$? +acuum Distillation
C? Stri""ers And A3sor3ers
#2 To )# m(: *! Pac-ed 2t.
/ To 21 m( 28: *! Pac-ed 2t
1) To %/ m(28. *! Pac-ed 2t.
%. inimum Betting Rate 1.2& To &
#
:
2
*! Pac-ing Sur!ace
.it(er o! criteria 1 and # or 2 and % !or "ac-ed columns s(all 3e used and design to 3e
done !or t(e more conser;ati;e constraint.
=., The Co(!/n Dia/eter i6ing
=.,.# Appro2i/ate co(!/n si6ing
An a""ro'imate estimate o! t(e o;erall column si1e can 3e made once t(e num3er o! real
stages re@uired !or t(e se"aration is -no<n. T(is is o!ten needed to ma-e a roug( estimate
o! t(e ca"ital cost !or "roDect e;aluation. T(e "late structure must 3e designed to su""ort
t(e (ydraulic loads on t(e "late during o"erations7 and t(e loads im"osed during
construction and maintenance. Ty"ical design ;alues used !or 2ydraulic load is )88 N:m
2
and li;e load on t(e "late is #888 N:m
2
o;er t(e do<ncomer seal area. T(e erection and
maintenance load 1&888 N is concentrated load on any structural mem3er. It is im"ortant
to set close tolerances on t(e <rit (eig(t7 do<ncomer clearance7 and "late !latness7 to
ensure an e;en !lo< o! li@uid across t(e "late. T(e tolerances s"eci!ied <ill de"end on t(e
dimensions o! t(e "late 3ut <ill ty"ically 3e a3out # mm. T(e "late de!lection under load
is also im"ortant7 and <ill normally 3e s"eci!ied as not greater t(an # mm under t(e
o"erating conditions !or "lates greater t(an 2.& m7 and "ro"ortionally less !or smaller
diameters.
=.,.' Based on Vapor ve(ocit.

T(e "rinci"al !actor t(at determines t(e column diameter is t(e ;a"or !lo<5rate. T(e
;a"or ;elocity must 3e 3elo< t(at <(ic( <ould cause e'cessi;e li@uid entrainment or a
(ig(5"ressure dro". T(e e@uation gi;en 3elo<7 <(ic( is 3ased on t(e <ell5-no<n Souders
and $ro<n e@uation7 Lo<enstein =16)1?7 can 3e used to estimate t(e ma'imum allo<a3le
su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity7 and (ence t(e column area and diameter7
;
N=51,1 i
t
2
>8.2,i
t
58.8%, ?C
l
5
;
?:
;
E
1:2

<(ere
; N
ma'imum allo<a3le ;a"or ;elocity7 3ased on t(e gross =total? column
cross5sectionalM area7. :s7
i N "late s"acing7 m7 =range 8.&51.&?.
T(e column diameter7 D
GG
can t(en 3e calculated.
%^
e

D
c
N

;

;
<(ere ^
<
is t(e ma'imum ;a"or rate7 -g:s
T(is a""ro'imate estimate o! t(e diameter <ould 3e re;ised <(en t(e detailed "late design
is underta-en.
=.,., Based on 8(ooding ve(ocit.
To sie;e tray <e need to calculate t(e column diameter t(at "re;ents !looding 7 design t(e
tray layout and design t(e do<ncomer. In addition7 eac( e@ui"ment manu!acturer (as its
o<n "rocedure. Be <ill !ollo< FairGs "rocedure7 since it is <idely -no<n. T(e !looding
condition !i'es t(e u""er limit o! ;a"or ;elocity. A (ig( ;a"or ;elocity is needed !or (ig(
"late e!!iciency7 and t(e ;elocity <ill normally 3e 3et<een ,8 to 68 "er cent o! t(at <(ic(
<ould cause !looding. For design7 a ;alue o! /8 to /& "er cent o! t(e !looding ;elocity
s(ould 3e used. T(e !looding ;elocity can 3e estimated !rom t(e correlation gi;en 3y Fair
=16)1? :

L
5
+

u
!
N A
1

;
<(ere u
!
N !looding ;a"or ;elocity7 m:s7 3ased on t(e net column cross5 sectional area
A
n
.
A
1
N a constant o3tained !rom
T(e li@uid 5 ;a"or !lo< !actor F
l;
in Figure /.22 is gi;en 3y :
L
<

;
F
l;
N +
<
l
<(ere L
<
N li@uid mass !lo<5rate7 Ag:s.
+
<
N ;a"or mass !lo<5rate7 -g:s.
T(e !ollo<ing restriction a""ly to t(e use o! Figure /.22 :
a. 2ole si1e less t(en ).& mm. .ntrainment may 3e greater <it( larger (ole si1es.
3. Beir (eig(t less t(an 1& "er cent o! t(e "late s"acing.
c. Non5 !oaming systems.
d. 2ole : acti;e area ratio greater t(an 8.18M !or ot(er ratios a""ly t(e !ollo<ing
corrections :
2ole: Acti;e Area ulti"ly -
1
$y
8.18 8.1
8.8/ 8.6
8.8) 8./
e. Li@uid sur!ace tension 8.82 N:m7 !or ot(er sur!ace tensions multi"ly t(e ;alue o!

8.2
A
1
3y 8.82
To calculate t(e column diameter an estimate o! t(e net area A
m
is re@uired. As a !irst
trail ta-e t(e do<ncomer area as 12 "er cent o! t(e total7 and assume t(at t(e (ole : acti;e
area is 18 "er cent .
B(ere t(e ;a"or and li@uid !lo<5rates7 or "(ysical "ro"erties7 ;ery signi!icantly
t(roug(out t(e column a "late design s(ould 3e made !or se;eral "oints u" t(e column.
For distillation it <ill usually 3e su!!icient to design !or t(e conditions a3o;e and 3elo<
t(e !eed "oints. C(anges in t(e ;a"or !lo<5rate <ill normally 3e accommodated 3y
adDusting t(e (ole areaM o!ten 3y 3lan-ing o!! some ro<s o! (oles. Di!!erent column
diameters <ould only 3e used <(ere t(ere is a considera3le c(ange in !lo<5rate. C(anges
in li@uid rate can 3e allo<ed !or 3y adDusting t(e li@uid do<ncomer areas.
=.,.1 8air<s Proced!re
T(is "rocedure !irst estimates t(e ;a"or ;elocity t(at <ill cause !looding due to e'cessi;e
entrainment7 t(en uses a rule o! t(um3 to determine t(e o"erating ;elocity7 and !rom t(is
calculates t(e column diameter. Column diameter is ;ery im"ortant in controlling costs
and (as to 3e estimated e;en !or "reliminary designs. T(e column diameter is calculated
to allo< a ;a"or ;elocity t(at <ill "re;ent e'cessi;e entrainment. T(e met(od is
a""lica3le to sie;e7 ;al;e and 3u33le ca" trays.
T(e !looding ;elocity is determined !rom
u
!lood
N A
L
5
;
7 !t:s = /.% ?

;
T(e !actor in .@uation /.% is !ound !rom

8. 2
A N C
s3
28 =/.&?
<(ere is t(e sur!ace tension in dynes:cm and C
s3
is t(e ca"acity !actor. C
s3
is a !unction
o! t(e !lo< "arameter. T(e !actor A can 3e also !ound 3y using gra"( s(o<n in !igure
/.1&.
B
L
;
F
I;
N
L
=/.) ?
B
;
<(ere B
L
and B
;
are t(e !lo< rates o! li@uid and ;a"or. For com"uter use it is
con;enient to !it t(e cur;es to e@uations. T(e results o! a nonlinear least s@uares
regression analysis !or ) in tray s"acing are
log
18
C
s3
N 1.16,, 5 8.&#1%# log
18
F
I;
5 8.1/,)8 =log
18
F
I;
?
2
= /., a ?
In tray 18 s"acing
log
18
C
s3
N 1.1)22 5 8.&)81% log
18
F
I;
5 81/1)/=log
18
F
I;
?
2
= /., 3 ?
!or 12 in tray s"acing
log
18
C
s3
N 51.8),% 5 8.&&,/8 log
18
F
I;
5 8.1,616 =log
18
F
I;
?
2
= /., c ?
!or 1/ in tray s"acing
log
18
C
s3
N 51.82)2 5 8.)#&1# log
18
F
I;
5 8.2886, =log
18
F
I;
?
2
= /., d ?
!or 2% in tray s"acing
log
18
C
s3
N 58.6%&8) 5 8.,82#% log
18
F
I;
5 8.22)1/ =log
18
F
I;
?
2
=/., e ?
and in #) tray s"acing
log
18
C
s3
N 5 8./&6/% 5 8.,#6/8 log
18
F
I;
5 8.2#,#& =log
18
F
I;
?
2
= /., !?
T(e !looding correlation assumes t(at 7 t(e ratio o! t(e area o! t(e (oles7 A
(oles
to t(e
tray7 A
acti;e
is e@ual to or greater t(an 8.1. I! S 8.17 t(en t(e !looding ;elocity calculated
!rom .@uation /.% s(ould 3e multi"lied 3y a correction !actor. I! N 8.8/7 t(e correction
!actor is 8.6M <(ile i! N 8.8)7 t(e correction !actor is 8./. Note t(at t(is is a linear
correction and can easily 3e inter"olated. T(e resulting ;alue !or t(e !looding ;elocity <ill
3e conser;ati;e.
Tray s"acing7 <(ic( is re@uired !or t(e !looding correlation7 is selected according to
maintenance re@uirements. Sie;e trays are s"aced ) to #) in a"art <it( 12 to 1) in a
common range !or smaller =less t(an & !t.? to<ers. Tray s"acing is usually greater in
large5diameter columns. A minimum o! 1/7 in7 <it( 2% in ty"ical7 is used i! it is desira3le
to (a;e a <or-er cra<l t(roug( t(e column !or ins"ection.
T(e o"erating ;a"or ;elocity is determined as
u
o"
N =!raction? u
!lood
!t:s
<(ere t(e !raction can range !rom 8.)& to 8.6 Lones and el3ourne suggest using a ;alue
o! 8.,& !or t(e !raction !or all cases. 2ig(er !ractions o! !looding do not greatly a!!ect t(e
o;erall system 7 3ut t(ey do restrict !le'i3ility. T(e o"erating ;elocity u
o"
can 3e a!!ected
to molar ;a"or !lo< rate.
+ B
;
u
o"
N !t : s = /./ ?

;
A
net
=#)88?
<(ere t(e #)88 con;erts !rom (ours =in +? to seconds = in u
o"
?. T(e net area is
=Diameter?
2
A
net
N 7 !t
2
= /.6 ?
. %
<(ere is t(e !raction o! t(e column cross5sectional area is a;aila3le !or ;a"or !lo<
a3o;e t(e tray. T(en 1 5 is t(e !raction o! t(e column area ta-en u" 3y one
do<ncomer. Ty"ically lies 3et<een 8./& 7 and 8.6& its ;alue can 3e determined e'actly
once t(e tray layout is !inali1ed. .@uation /./ and /.6 can 3e sol;ed !or t(e diameter o!
t(e column.
Dia N % +=B
;
? 7 !t =/.18?

;
=!raction? u
!lood
=#)88?
I! t(e ideal gas la< (olds7
;
N " B
;
R T =/.11?
and .@uation /.18 3ecomes
Dia N % +RT
=#)88?"

=!raction? u
!lood
7 !t =/.12?
Note t(at t(ese e@uations are dimensional7 since C
s3
is dimensional.
T(e term D in .@uation /.% to /.12 ;ary !rom stage in t(e column. I! t(e calculations is
done at di!!erent locations7 di!!erent diameters <ill 3e calculated. T(e largest diameter
s(ould 3e used and rounded o!! to t(e ne't (ig(est 1:25!t increment. Lud<ig suggests
suing a minimum column diameter o! 2.& !tM t(at is7 i! t(e calculated diameter is 2.8 !t7 use
2.& i! instead7 since it is usually no more e'"ensi;e. Columns diameter less t(an 2.8 !t are
usually constructed as "ac-ed columns. I! diameter calculations are done at t(e to" and
3ottom o! t(e column and a3o;e and 3elo< t(e !eed7 one o! t(ese locations <ill 3e ;ery
close to t(e ma'imum diameter7 and t(e design 3ased on largest calculated diameter <ill
3e satis!actory. I! t(ere is a ;ery large c(ange in t(e ;a"or ;elocity in t(e column7 t(e
calculated diameters can 3e @uite di!!erent. *ccasionally7 columns are 3uilt in t<o
sections o! di!!erent diameters to ta-e ad;antage o! t(is situation7 3ut t(is solution is
economical only !or large c(anges in diameter. I! a column <it( a single diameter is
constructed7 t(e e!!iciencies in di!!erent "arts o! t(e column may ;ary considera3ly. T(is
;ariation in e!!iciency (as to 3e included in t(e design calculations.
=.,.3 E&&ect o& entrain/ent
T(is design "rocedure si1es t(e column to "re;ent !looding caused 3y e'cessi;e
entrainment. Flooding can also occur in t(e do<ncomers7 and t(is case is discussed
later. .'cessi;e entrainment can also cause a large dro" in stage e!!iciency 3ecause li@uid
t(at (as not 3een se"arated is mi'ed <it( ;a"or. T(e e!!ect o! entrainment on t(e
ur"(ee ;a"or e!!iciency can 3e estimated !rom
1
.
+7 entrainment
N .
+
=/.1#?
1 > .
+
: =1 5?
B(ere .
+
is t(e ur"(ee e!!iciency <it(out entrainment and is t(e !ractional
entrainment de!ined as :
N e N a3solute entrainment =/.1%?
L > e total li@uid !lo< rate
<(ere e is t(e moles: (our o! entrained li@uid. T(e relati;e entrainment !or sie;e trays
can 3e estimated !rom Figure /.1) 4sually7 entrainment is not a "ro3lem until o"eration is
in t(e range o! /& to 188W o! !lood =Lud<ig7 16,6?. T(us a ,&W o! !lood ;alue s(ould
(a;e a negligi3le correction !or entrainment. T(is can 3e c(ec-ed during t(e design
"rocedure.
.ntrainment can 3e estimated !orm t(e correlation gi;en 3y Fair =16)1? 7 Figure /.1)
<(ic( gi;es t(e !ractional entrainment =-g:-g gross li@uid !lo<? as a !unction o! t(e
li@uid5 ;a"or !actor F
L+7
<it( t(e "ercentage a""roac( to !looding as a "arameter.
T(e "ercentage !looding is gi;en 3y :
u
m
actual ;elocity = 3ased on net area ?
"ercentage !looding N
4
!
= !rom e@uation /.%?
T(e e!!ect o! entrainment on "late e!!iciency can 3e estimated using e@uation /.1% As a
roug( guide t(e u""er limit o! can 3e ta-en a 8.1M 3elo< t(is !igure t(e e!!ect on
e!!iciency <ill 3e small. T(e o"timum design ;alue may 3e a3o;e t(is !igure7 see Fair
=16)#?.
=.1 P(ate h.dra!(ic design
=.1.# Basic Re)!ire/ents
T(e 3asic re@uirements o! a "late contacting stage are t(at it s(ould :
Pro;ide good ;a"our5li@uid contact.
Pro;ide su!!icient li@uid (old5u" !or good mass trans!er = (ig( e!!iciency ?
2a;e su!!icient area and s"acing to -ee" t(e entrainment and "ressure dro" <it(in
acce"ta3le limits
2a;e su!!icient do<ncomer area !or t(e li@uid to !lo< !reely !rom "late to "late
Plate design7 li-e most engineering design7 is a com3ination t(eory and "ractice.
T(e design met(ods use semi5em"irical correlations deri;ed !rom !undamental
researc( <or- com3ined <it( "ractical e'"erience5 o3tained !rom t(e o"eration
o! commercial columns Pro;en layouts are used7 and t(e "late dimensions are -e"t
<it(in t(e range o! ;alues -no<n to gi;e satis!actory "er!ormance.
A s(ort "rocedure !or t(e (ydraulic design o! sie;e "lates is gi;en in t(is section.
Design met(ods !or 3u33le5ca " "lates are gi;en 3y $olles =16)#? and Lud<ig
=16,6?. +al;e "lates are "ro"rietary design and <ill 3e designs and <ill 3e
designed in consultation <it( t(e ;endors. Design manuals are a;aila3le !rom
some ;endorsM 0listsc( and Aoc(.
=.1.' P(ate+Design Proced!re
A trial and error a""roac( is necessary in "late design. It starts <it( a roug( "late layout7
c(ec-ing -ey "er!ormance !actors and re;ising t(e design7 as necessary7 until a
satis!actory design is ac(ie;ed. A ty"ical design "rocedure is set out 3elo< and discussed
in t(e !ollo<ing section. T(e normal range o! eac( design ;aria3le is gi;en in t(e
discussions7 toget(er <it( recommended ;alues <(ic( can 3e used to start t(e design.
T(e ty"ical ste"s to 3e !ollo<ed are as !ollo<s :
1. Calculate t(e ma'imum and minimum ;a"our and li@uid !lo<5rates7 !or t(e turn do<n
ratio re@uired.
2. Collect7 or estimate7 t(e system "(ysical "ro"erties.
#. Select a trial "late s"acing = Section /.%.%?
%. .stimate t(e column diameter7 3ased on !looding consideration=Section /.#?
&. Decide t(e li@uid !lo< arrangement = section /.%.#?
). a-e a trial "late layout: do<ncomer area7 acti;e area7 (ole area7 (ole si1e7 <eir (eig(t
= Section /.%.& to /.%.6?
,. C(ec- t(e <ee"ing rate = Section /.%.& ? 7 i! unsatis!actory return to ste" ).
/. C(ec- t(e "late "ressure dro" = Section /.%.&?i! too (ig( return to ste" ).
6. C(ec- do<ncomer 3ac-5u" i! too (ig( return to ste" ) or # .
18. Decide "late layout details : calculate 1ones7 un"er!orated areas. C(ec- (ole "itc( 7
i! unsatis!actory return to ste" ) = section /.%.&?
11. Recalculate t(e "ercentage !looding 3ased on c(osen column diameter .
12. C(ec- entrainment7 i! too (ig( return to ste" % = section /.1.) ?
1#. *"timi1e design : re"eat ste"s # to 12 to !ind smallest diameter and "late s"acing
acce"ta3le = lo<est cost?.
1%. Finali1e design : dra< u" t(e "late s"eci!ication and s-etc( t(e layout
T(e !ollo<ing areas terms are used in t(e "late design "rocedure :
A
c
N total column cross5sectional area7
A
d
N cross5sectional area o! do<ncomer7
A
n
N net area a;aila3le !or ;a"our5 li@uid disengagement7 normally e@ual to A
c
5A
d
7
!or a single "ass "late7
A
n
N acti;e7 or 3u33ling area7 e@ual to A
c
5 2A
a
!or single5 "ass "lates7
A
(
N (ole area7 t(e total area o! all t(e acti;e (oles7
A
"
N "er!orated area including 3lan-ed areas?.
A
o"
N t(e clearance area under t(e do<ncomer a"ron.
=.1., Operating range
T(e satis!actory o"eration <ill only 3e ac(ie;ed o;er a limited range o! ;a"or and li@uid
!lo< rates. A ty"ical "er!ormance diagram !or a 3u33le ca" and sie;e tray is s(o<n in
!igure /.1 and /.2. T(e u""er limit to ;a"or !lo< is set 3y t(e condition o! !looding. At
!looding t(ere is a s(ar" dro" in "late e!!iciency and increase in "ressure dro". Flooding is
caused 3y eit(er t(e e'cessi;e carry o;er o! li@uid to t(e ne't "late 3y entrainment7 or 3y
li@uid 3ac-ing5u" in t(e do<ncomers. T(e lo<er limit o! t(e ;a"or !lo< is set 3y t(e
condition o! <ee"ing. Bee"ing occurs <(en t(e ;a"or !lo< is insu!!icient to maintain a
le;el o! li@uid on t(e "late. Q ConingR occurs at lo< li@uid rates7 and is t(e term gi;en to
t(e condition <(ere t(e ;a"or "us(es t(e li@uid 3ac- !rom t(e (oles and Det u"<ard7
<it( "oor li@uid contact.
T(e cross5!lo< "lates are t(e most common ty"e o! "late used in distillation and
a3sor"tion columns. In a cross5!lo< "late t(e li@uid !lo<s across t(e "late and t(e ;a"or
FR !actor !
;
is a !unction o! t(e acti;e tray area. Increasing F
;
is also a !unction o! t(e
acti;e t(e li@uid "at( lengt(. It <ill only (a;e a signi!icant e!!ect on t(e num3er o! i! t(e
"at( lengt( is long. In "ractice t(e range o! ;alues !or F
;G
t(e acti;e "at( lengt( <ill 3e
limited 3y ot(er "late design considerations. T(e "rinci"al !actor t(at determines t(e
common ;a"or ;elocity must 3e 3elo< t(at <(ic( <ould cause e'cessi;e li@uid
entrainment or a (ig( "ressure dro". T(e e@uation gin 3elo<7 <(ic( is 3ased on t(e <ell5
-no<n sounders and $ro<n e@uation7 Lo<enstein =16)1?7 can 3e used to estimate t(e
ma'imum allo<a3le su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity7 and (ence t(e column area and diameter7
;
N=51,1 i
t
2
>8.2,i
t
58.8%, ?C
l
5
;
?:
;
E
1:2
<(ere
; N
ma'imum allo<a3le ;a"or ;elocity7 3ased on t(e gross =total? column
cross5sectionalM area7. :s7
i N "late s"acing7 m7 =range 8.&51.&?.

T(e column diameter7 D
c
can t(en 3e calculated.
%^
e

D
c
N

;

;
Cross5!lo< "lates are t(e most common ty"e o! "late contactor used in distillation and
a3sor"tion columns. In a cross5!lo< "late t(e li@uid !lo<s across t(e "late and t(e ;a"or
u" t(roug( t(e "late. A ty"ical layout is s(o<n in Figure /.1,. T(e !lo<ing li@uid is
trans!erred !rom "late to "late t(roug( ;ertical c(annels called Q do<ncomersR. A "ool o!
li@uid is retained on t(e "lated 3y an outlet <eir.
*t(er ty"es o! "late are used <(ic( (a;e no do<ncomers =non5cross5!lo< "lates?7 t(e
li@uid s(o<ering do<n t(e column t(roug( large o"enings in t(e "lates =sometimes
called s(o<er "lates?. T(ese7 and7 ot(er "ro"rietary non5cross5 !lo< "lates7 are used !or
s"ecial "ur"oses7 "articularly <(en a lo<5"ressure dro" is re@uired
T(e c(oice o! "late ty"e =re;erse7 single "ass or multi"le "ass? <ill de"end on t(e li@uid
!lo<5rate column diameter. An initial selection can 3e made using Figure 11.2/ 7 <(ic( (as
3een ada"ted !rom a similar !igure gi;en 3y 2uang and 2odson =16&/?.
=.1.1 P(ate pacing
T(e o;erall (eig(t o! t(e column <ill de"ended on t(e "late s"acing. Plate s"acings !rom
8.1& mm =) in? to 1 m =#) in ? are normally used. T(e s"acing c(osen <ill de"end on t(e
column diameter an o"erating conditions. Close s"acing is used <it( small5diameter
columns7 and <(ere (ead room is restrictedM as it <ill 3e <(en a column is installed in a
3uilding. For columns a3o;e 1 m diameter7 "late s"acings o! 8.# to 8.) m <ill normally 3e
used7 and 8.&m =1/ in.? can 3e ta-en as an initial estimate:. T(is <ould 3e re;ised7 as
necessary7 <(en t(e detailed "late design is made. A larger s"acing <ill 3e needed
3et<een certain "lates to accommodate !eed and sidestreams arrangements7 and !or
man<ays.
=.1.3 ieve Tra. %a.o!t And Tra. ".dra!(ics
T(e ty"ical cross !lo< "late li@uid !lo<7 acti;e area and clean li@uid is s(o<n in !igure
/.1,. T(e tray layout is an art <it( its o<n rules. T(is section !ollo<s t(e "resentation o!
Lud<ig7 $olles and Fair and more details are a;aila3le in t(ose sources. T(e (oles on a
sie;e "late are not scattered randomly on t(e "late. Instead7 a detailed "attern is used to
ensure e;en !lo< o! ;a"or and li@uid on t(e tray. T(e "unc(ed (oles in t(e tray usually
range in diameter !rom 1:/ to 1:2 in. T(e 1:/ in (oles <it( t(e (oles "unc(ed !rom t(e
3ottom u" are o!ten used in ;acuum o"eration to reduce entrainment and minimi1e
"ressure dro". In normal o"eration7 (oles are "unc(ed !rom t(e 3ottom do<n since t(is is
muc( sa!er !or maintenance "ersonnel. In !ouling a""lications7 (oles are 1:2 in or larger.
For clean ser;ice7 #:1) in is a reasona3le !irst guess !or (ole diameter. T(e (ole si1es used
;ery !rom 2.& to 12 mmM & mm is t(e "re!erred si1e. Larger (oles are occasionally used !or
!ouling systems. T(e (oles are drilled or "unc(ed. Punc(ing is c(ea"er7 3ut t(e minimum
si1e o! (ole t(at can 3e "unc(ed <ill de"end on t(e "late t(ic-ness. For car3on steel7
(ole si1es a""ro'imately e@ual to t(e "late t(ic-ness can 3e "unc(ed7 3ut !or stainless
steel t(e minimum (ole si1e t(at can 3e "unc(ed is a3out t<ice t(e "late t(ic-ness.
A common tray layout is t(e e@uilateral triangular "itc( s(o<n in Figure /.1/. T(e (oles
are s"aced !rom 2.&d
o
to &d
o
<it( #./ d
o
a reasona3le a;erage. T(e region containing
(oles s(ould (a;e a minimum 2 to # in clearance is used 3e!ore t(e do<ncomer <eir
3ecause it is im"ortant to allo< !or disengagement o! li@uid and ;a"or. Since !lo< in t(e
tray is ;ery tur3ulent7 t(e ;a"or does not go straig(t u" !rom t(e (oles. T(e acti;e (ole
area is considered to 3e 2 to # in !rom t(e "eri"(eral (olesM t(us t(e u" to column s(ell is
acti;e. T(e !raction o! t(e column t(at is ta-en u" 3y t(e (oles de"end s u"on t(e (ole
si1e7 t(e "itc( t(e (ole s"acing 7 t(e clearances and t(e si1e o! t(e do<ncomers.
Ty"ically7 % to 1&W o! t(e entire to<er area is (ole area. T(is corres"ondence to a ;alue
o! 7 o! ) to 2&W . T(e a;erage ;alue o! is 3et<een , and 1)W <it( 18W a reasona3le
!irst guess.
T(e ;alue o! is selected so t(at t(e ;a"or ;elocity t(roug( t(e (oles7 ;
o
7 lies 3et<een t(e
<ee" "oint and t(e ma'imum ;elocity. T(e e'act design "oint s(ould 3e selected to gi;e
ma'imum !le'i3ility in o"eration. T(us i! a reduction in !eed rate is muc( more li-ely t(an
an increase in !eed rate7 t(e design ;a"or ;elocity <ill 3e close to t(e ma'imum. T(e
;a"or ;elocity t(roug( t(e (oles7 ;
o
7 in !t:s can 3e calculated !rom :
+B
;
;
o
N =/.1&?
#)88 p
;
A
(ole
<(ere + is t(e l3 moles:(r o! ;a"or7 p
;
is t(e ;a"or density in l3:!t
#
7 and A
(ole
is t(e total
(ole area on t(e tray in !t
2
. *3;iously 7 A
(ole
can 3e determined !rom t(e tray layout.

A
(ole
N =No. o! (oles ? =d
o
2
:% ?
or
A
(ole
N A
acti;e
= /.1) ?
T(e acti;e area can 3e estimated as A
acti;e
A
total
=1 5 2? . Since t(ere are t<o
do<ncomers7 o3;iously total area is gi;en 3y :
=Dia?
2
A
total
N = /.1, ?
%
T(e do<ncomer geometry is s(o<n in Figure /.1,. From t(is and geometric relations(i"s7
t(e do<ncomer area A
d
can 3e determined !rom
A
d
N 1 :2 r
2
= 5 sin ? <(ere is in radians. = /.1/ ?
T(e do<ncomer area can also 3e calculated !rom
A
d
N = 15 ? A
total
= /.16?
Com3ining .@uation = /.1,?7 = /.1/? and =/.16?7 <e (a;e
2= 15 ? N 5 sin = /.28 ?
Tab(e =., >eo/etric Re(ationship Bet4een and (
4eir
E Dia/eter
8./ 8./2& 8./& 8./,& 8.688 8.62& 8.6& 8.6,&
l
<eir
: Dia 8./,1 8./%# 8./11 8.,,# 8.,2) 8.))6 8.&6# 8.%,/
once t(is e@uation is sol;ed !or t(e angel 7 t(e lengt( o! t(e <eir l
<eir
can 3e !ound !rom
l
<eir
N sin = :2 ? = /.21 ?
Dia
sol;ing .@uation /.28 and /.21 <e o3tain t(e results gi;en in ta3le /.#. Ty"ically t(e
ratio o! l
<eir
: Dia !alls in t(e range o! 8.) to 8.,&.
I! t(e li@uid is una3le to !lo< do<n t(e do<ncomer !ast enoug(7 t(e li@uid le;el <ill
increase7 and i! it -ee"s increasing until it reac(es t(e to" o! t(e <eir o! t(e tray a3o;e7 t(e
to<er <ill !lood. T(is do<ncomer !looding must 3e "re;ented. Do<ncomers are
designed on t(e 3asis o! "ressure dro" and li@uid residence time7 and t(eir cost is relati;ely
small. T(us do<ncomer design is done only in t(e !inal e@ui"ment si1ing. T(e tray and
do<ncomer are dra<n sc(ematically in Figure /.167 <(ic( s(o<s t(e "ressure (eads
caused 3y ;arious (ydrodynamic e!!ects.
T(e (ead o! clear li@uid in t(e do<ncomer7 (
dc
7 can 3e determined !rom t(e sum o! (eads
t(at must o;ercome.
(
dc
N (
"7 dry
> (
<eir
> (
crest
> (
grade
> (
du
= /.22 ?
T(e (ead o! li@uid re@uired to o;ercome t(e "ressure dro" o! gas on a dry tray7 (
"7 dry
can
3e measured e'"erimentally or estimated !rom
(
"7 dry
N 8.88# ;
o
2
p
;
=
<ater
? = 1 5
2
? : C
o
2
? = /.2# ?
PL
<(ere ;
o
is t(e ;a"or ;elocity t(roug( t(e (oles in !t: s !rom .@uation = /.1& ? . T(e
ori!ice coe!!icient7 C
o
7 can 3e determined !rom t(e correlation o! 2ug(mar- and
*GConnell. T(is correlation can 3e !it 3y t(e !ollo<ing e@uation =Aessler and Ban-at7
16/,?:
d
o

C
o
N 8./&8#2 5 8.8%211 > 8.881,6&%
= t
tray
?
2

<(ere t
tray
is t(e tray t(ic-ness. T(e minimum ;alue !or d
o
: t
tray
is 1.8. .@uation /.2# gi;es
(
"7 dry
in inc(es.
T(e <eir (eig(t7 (
<eir
is t(e actual (eig(t o! t(e <eir. T(e minimum <eir (eig(t is 8.& in
<it( 1 to # in more common. T(e <eir must 3e (ig( enoug( t(at t(e o""osite
do<ncomer remains sealed and al<ays retains li@uid. T(e (eig(t o! t(e li@uid crest o;er
t(e <eir7 (
crest
can 3e calculated !rom t(e Francis <eir e@uation.
(
crest
N 8.862 F
<eir
= L
g
: l
<eir
?
2:#
= /.2% ?
<(ere (
crest
is in inc(es. In t(is e@uation7 L
g
is t(e li@uid !lo< rate in gal:min t(at is to due
to 3ot( L and e. T(e entrainment e can 3e determined gra"(ically. I
<elr
is t(e lengt( o! t(e
straig(t <eir in !eet. T(e !actor F
<eir
is a modi!ication !actor to ta-e into account t(e
cur;ature o! t(e column <all in t(e do<ncomer. T(is is s(o<n in Figure /.28. An
e@uation !or t(is !igure is a;aila3le. For large columns <(ere l
<eir
is large7 F
<eir
a""roac(es
1.8. *n sie;e trays7 t(e li@uid gradient7
(grade
across t(e tray is o!ten ;ery small and is
usually ignored.
T(ere is a !ractional loss due to !lo< in t(e do<ncomer and under t(e do<ncomer onto
t(e tray. T(is term7 (
du
7 can 3e estimated !rom t(e em"irical e@uation.
L
g

2
du
N 8.&) = ?
2
= /.2& ?
%%6 A
du
<(ere (
du
is in inc(es and A
du
is t(e !lo< area under t(e do<ncomer a"ron in !t
2
. T(e
do<ncomer a"ron ty"ically (as a 1 in ga" a3o;e t(e tray.
A
du
N =ga"?l
<eir
T(e ;alue o! (
de
calculated !rom .@uation /.22 is t(e (ead o! clear li@uid in inc(es. In an
o"erating distillation column t(e li@uid in t(e do<ncomer is aerated. T(e density o! t(is
aerated li@uid <ill 3e less t(an t(at o! clear li@uid and t(us t(e (eig(t o! aerated li@uid in
t(e do<ncomer <ill 3e greater t(an (
de
. T(e e'"ected (eig(t o! t(e aerated li@uid in t(e
do<ncomer7 (
de
7
aerated
7 can 3e estimated !rom t(e e@uation.
(
de7aerated
N (
de
:
de

<(ere
de
is t(e relati;e !ort( density. For normal o"eration7 ;alue o!
de
N 8.& is
satis!actory7 <(ile 8.2 to 8.# s(ould 3e used in di!!icult cases. To a;oid do<ncomer
!looding7 t(e tray s"acing must 3e greater t(an (
de7aerated
. T(us in normal o"eration t(e tray
s"acing must 3e greater t(an 2(
de
. T(e do<ncomer is designed to gi;e a li@uid residence
time o! # to ,. inimum residence times are listed in Ta3le /.%. T(e residence time in a
straig(t segmental do<ncomer is
A
d
(
dc
=#)88?"
L
t
res
N 7 sec = /.2)?
=L > e?=B
L
?=12?
<(ere t(e #)88 con;erts (ours to seconds =!rom L > e? and t(e 12 con;erts (
de
in inc(es
to !eet. Density is t(e density o! clear li@uid and (
de
is t(e (eig(t o! clear li@uid. .@uation
/.2) is used to ma-e sure t(ere is enoug( time to disengage li@uid and ;a"or in t(e
do<ncomers.
Tab(e =.1 9ini/!/ Residence Ti/es in Do4nco/ers
Foaming Tendency .'am"les Residence Time =s?
Lo< Alco(ols7 lo<B (ydrocar3ons #
edium edium5B (ydrocar3ons %
2ig( ineral oil a3sor3ers &
+ery (ig( Amines7 glycols ,
T(e t<o limits to acce"ta3le tray o"eration are e'cessi;e entrainment and e'cessi;e
<ee"ing. Bee" and dum" "oints are di!!icult to determine e'actly. An a""ro'imate
analysis can 3e used to ensure t(at o"eration is a3o;e t(e <ee" "oint. Li@uid <ill not
drain t(roug( t(e (oles as long as t(e sum o! (eads due to sur!ace tension7 (
o
7 and gas
!lo<7 (
"7 dry
7 are greater t(an a !unction de"ending on t(e li@uid (ead. T(is condition !or
a;oiding e'cessi;e <ee"ing can 3e estimated as
(
"7 dry
> (
o
T 8.18#62 ' 5 8.821),& '
2
= /.2, ?
B(ere ' N (
<eir
> (
crest
> (
grad
and ranges !rom 8.8) to 8.1%. T(e dry tray "ressure dro"
is determined !rom .@uation /.2#.
T(e sur!ace tension (ead7 (
o
can 3e estimated !rom
8.8%8
(
o
N
P
L
d
o
B(ere is in dynes : cm7 "
L
in l3 : !t
#
7 d
o
in inc(es and (
in inc(es o! li@uid. .@uation

/.2, is conser;ati;e.
=.1.5 @eep point
T(e lo<er limit o! t(e o"erating range occurs <(en li@uid lea-age t(roug( t(e "late (oles
3ecomes e'cessi;e. T(is is -no<n as t(e <ee" "oint. T(e ;a"our ;elocity at t(e <ee"
"oint is t(e minimum ;alue !or sta3le o"eration. T(e (ole area must 3e c(osen so t(at at
t(e lo<est o"erating rate t(e ;a"our !lo< ;elocity is still <ell a3o;e t(e <ee" "oint.
Se;eral correlations (a;e 3een "ro"osed !or "redicting t(e ;a"our ;elocity at t(e <ee"
"ointM see C(ase =16),?. T(at gi;en 3y .dulDee = 16&6? is one o! t(e sim"lest to use7 and
(as 3een s(o<n to 3e relia3le.
T(e minimum design ;a"our ;elocity is gi;en 3y :
A
2
5 8.68=2&.% 5 d
n
?
n
N =
;
?
_
<(ere
(
N minimum ;a"our ;elocity t(roug( t(e (oles
= 3ased on t(e (ole area?7 m:s7
d
(
N (ole diameter7 mm7
A
2
N a constant7 de"endent on t(e de"t( o! clear li@uid on t(e
"late7 o3tained !rom Figure /.2%
T(e clear li@uid de"t( is e@ual to t(e (eig(t o! t(e <eir (
<
"lus t(e de"t( o! t(e crest o!
li@uid o;er t(e <eir (
@<
M t(is is discussed in t(e ne't section.
=.1.7 @eir (i)!id crest
T(e (eig(t o! t(e li@uid crest o;er t(e <eir can 3e estimated using t(e Francis <eir
!ormula. For a segmental do<ncomer t(is can 3e <ritten as :
L
<

2:#
(
a<
N ,&8 = /.26 ?
L
l
<
<(ere l
<
N <eir lengt(7 m7
(
e<
N <eir crest7 mm li@uid7
L
<
N Li@uid !lo<5rate7 Ag:s.
Bit( segmental do<ncomers t(e column <all constricts t(e li@uid !lo<7 and t(e <eir crest
<ill 3e (ig(er t(an t(at "redicted 3y t(e Francis !ormula !or !lo< o;er an o"en <eir. T(e
constant in e@uation /.26 (as 3een increased to allo< !or t(is e!!ect. To ensure an e;en
!lo< o! li@uid along t(e <eir7 t(e crest s(ould 3e at least 18 mm at t(e lo<est li@uid rate.
Serrated <eirs are sometimes used !or ;ery lo< li@uid rates.
=.1.= @eir di/ensions
T(e (eig(t o! t(e <eir determines t(e ;olume o! li@uid on t(e "late and is an im"ortant
!actor in determining t(e "late e!!iciency. A (ig( <eir <ill increase t(e "late e!!iciency 3ut
at t(e e'"ense o! a (ig(er "late "ressure dro". For columns o"erating a3o;e
atmos"(eric "ressure t(e <eir (eig(ts <ill normally 3e 3et<een %8mm to 68 mm =1.& to
#.& in.?M %8 to &8 mm is recommended. For ;acuum o"eration lo<er <eir (eig(ts are used
to reduce t(e "ressure dro"M ) to 12 mm = ` to _ inc( ? is recommended.
Inlet <eirs7 or recessed "ans7 are sometimes used to im"ro;e t(e distri3ution o! li@uid
across t(e "lateM 3ut are seldom needed <it( segmental do<ncomers. Bit( segmental
do<ncomers t(e lengt( o! t(e <eir !i'es t(e area o! t(e do<ncomer. T(e c(ord lengt(
<ill normally 3e 3et<een 8.) to 8./& o! t(e column diameter. A good initial ;alue to use
is 8.,,. T(e relations(i" 3et<een <eir lengt( and do<ncomer area is gi;en in Figure
/.2&. For dou3le5"ass "lates t(e <idt( o! t(e central do<ncomer is normally 28852&8
mm =/518 in ?.
=.1.B Per&orated Area
T(e area a;aila3le !or "er!oration <ill 3e reduced <ill 3e reduced 3y t(e o3struction
caused 3y structural mem3ers = t(e su""ort rings and 3eams7?7 and 3y t(e use o! calming
1ones. Calming 1ones are un"er!orated stri"s o! "late at t(e inlet and outlet sides o! t(e
"late. T(e <idt( o! eac( 1one is usually made t(e sameM recommended ;alues areM 3elo<
1.& m diameter7 ,& mmM a3o;e7 188 mm.
T(e <idt( o! t(e su""ort ring !or sectional "lates <ill normally 3e &8 to ,& mmM t(e
su""ort ring s(ould not e'tend into t(e do<ncomer area. A stri" o! un"er!orated "late
<ill 3e le!t round t(e edge o! cartridge5ty"e to sti!!en t(e "late. T(e un"er!orated area can
3e calculated !rom t(e "late geometry. T(e relations(i" 3et<een t(e <eir c(ord lengt(
c(ord (eig(t and t(e angle su3tended 3y t(e c(ord is gi;en in Figure /.2).
=.3 Design B. $sing Pro + II i/!(ation
=.3.# Introd!ction.
Pro 5 II o!!ers a selection o! distillation algorit(ms7 initial estimate generators and
simulation o"tions to model ;irtually any distilling "ro3lem. T(ree rigorous distillation
algorit(ms are a;aila3le !rom <it(in t(e C*L4N unit o"eration. *!ten more t(an one
algorit(ms is suita3le !or a gi;en "ro3lem. T(e inside5out =18? algorit(ms is a""lica3le !or
t(e <idest class o! a""lications and o"erating conditions. T(is algorit(ms is t(e de!ault
and s(ould 3e attem"ted !irst <(en in dou3t a3out <(ic( algorit(ms to use. T(e
C2.DIST algorit(ms is 3est suited !or non5ideal system and systems !orming t<o li@uid
"(ases =+LL.?. 2ydrocar3on distillations <it( total "um"arounds and systems !orming
!ree <ater 3elo< t(e condenser are 3est simulated <it( t(e S4R. algorit(m.

T(e S4R. algorit(m. T(e S4R. algorit(ms is an e'tremely ;ersatile algorit(ms !or a
<ide class o! distillation "ro3lems and can 3e used as an alternati;e s(ould I* or
C2.IST 3e di!!icult to con;erge. Tray si1ing:rating and "ac-ed column si1ing and
rating are o"tion a;aila3le to all t(ree algorit(ms.
Additionally7 PR*:II (as a S2*RTC4T distillation model <(ic( @uic-ly a!!ords t(e user
insig(t into t(e se"aration c(aracteristics o! many column o"erations. T(e LL.F unit
o"eration7 a s"eciali1ed algorit(m !or solution o! li@uid5li@uid e'traction columns7
com"letes t(e distillation ca"a3ilities in PR*:II.
=.3.' Disti((ation Co(!/n $nit Operation + Technica( In&or/ation.
T(e column unit may 3e used to simulate any ;a"or:li@uid ;a"or:li@uid:li@uid distillation
unit consisting o! at least t<o trays. For "ur"osed o! t(is discussion. T(e term atraya is
used to denote a t(eoretical tray or e@uili3rium stage. T(ere is no limit on t(e Num3er o!
Trays t(at may 3e considered in a distillation column model. T(e trays are considered
lin-ed7 <it( t(e e@uili3rium ;a"or !rom eac( tray entering t(e ne't (ig(er tray and t(e
e@uili3rium li@uid !rom eac( tray num3er one. T(e Column Re3oiler7 <(en "resent7 is
al<ays designated as t(e (ig(est num3ered tray in t(e model. .;ery column model must
(a;e a eit(er a !eed or (eat duty on t(e to" and 3ottom trays. T(e "ressure !or e;ery tray
in t(e model must 3e de!ined in t(e Column Pressure Pro!ile Bindo<.
=.3.'.# 8eeds and Prod!cts.
A column may (a;e any num3er o! !eeds7 <it( a !eed to any tray. All columns must (a;e
at least t<o "roducts7 an o;er(ead "roduct lea;ing tray one and a 3ottoms "roduct lea;ing
t(e (ig(est num3ered tray. *"tionally7 columns may (a;e li@uid and ;a"or "(ase side
"roducts <it(dra<n !rom any tray. T(e Column Feeds and Products Bindo< gi;es
additional in!ormation regarding column !eeds and "roducts. It is also "ossi3le to create
Column Pseudo "roducts corres"onding to column internal li@uid and ;a"or !lo<s7
t(ermosy"(on re3oiler streams7 and "um"arounds.
=.3.'.' "eat o!rces and in*s
2eat sources and sin-s may 3e a""lied to any tray in a column model. T(ere are se;eral
o"tions !or Column Condenser7 <(ere t(e condenser is al<ays attac(ed to t(e to" tray o!
a column model to "roduce a net li@uid stream =re!lu'? <(ic( is returned to t(e to" o! t(e
column. T(e Column Re3oiler is al<ays attac(ed to t(e 3ottom tray o! a column model
and "roduces ;a"or <(ic( is returned to t(e 3ottom o! t(e column. Column Side
2eaters:Coolers may 3e attac(ed to any tray to add or remo;e (eat. To simulate non5
adia3atic column o"eration it is also "ossi3le to de!ine a Column 2eat Lea- !or any tray in
t(e column.
=.3.'., Per&or/ance peci&ications
S"eci!ications on column "roducts7 internal !lo<s7 and tray tem"eratures may 3e used to
determine t(e ;alues !or column o"erating ;aria3les including !eed rates7 side "roduct
dra< rates and (eat duties. T(ere must 3e a calculated ;aria3le !or eac( s"eci!ication as
descri3ed in t(e Column S"eci!ications and +aria3les Bindo<. S"eci!ications are
discussed in t(e 0enerali1ed Per!ormance S"eci!ications. Pum"around Streams Column
"um"around are used to mo;e li@uid or ;a"or !rom one tray to anot(er tray7 eit(er (ig(er
or lo<er in t(e column. *n "ractice7 t(ere is o!ten a (eat source or sin- a""lied to t(e
"um"around return tray to add or remo;e (eat !rom t(e column7 e.g. a side corner or
(eater.

=.3.'.1 Ca(c!(ated Phases.
ost columns (a;e ;a"or in e@uili3rium <it( a single li@uid "(ase only. Standard
"rocedure !or (ydrocar3on systems <it( <ater is to remo;e <ater as a se"arate li@uid
"(ase at t(e condenser =tray one? only. For t(is o"tion7 <ater is not allo<ed to e'ist as a
se"arate li@uid "(ase on any ot(er column trays. *t(er o"tions are a;aila3le in <(ic( t<o
li@uid "(ases =<(ere one "(ase may or may not 3e li@uid <ater? may 3e considered in
e@uili3rium <it( a single ;a"or "(ase. See Calculated P(ases !or more details.
/.&.2.& Tra. E&&iciencies
All tray in!ormation su""lied 3y t(e user is assumed to corres"ond to t(eoretical trays
=e@uili3rium stages?7 and all distillation calculations are 3ased on t(eoretical trays. For
actual columns t(is im"lies t(at t(e user must a""ly e!!iciency !actors to t(e actual num3er
o! trays to determine t(eoretical trays <(en 3uilding a column model. Alternately7 t(e
user may su""ly t(e actual tray num3ers !or t(e column and used a Column Tray
.!!iciency model to a""ly e!!iciency !actors to t(e actual tray num3ers using one o! t(ree
"ro;ided e!!iciency model. Tray e!!iciencies may also 3e selecti;ely a""lied to only
se"arations. All tray e!!iciency models (a;e limitations7 and t(e user s(ould t(oroug(ly
understand t(ese limitations <(en using t(is !eature.
/.&.2.) ide Co(!/ns
Com"le' distillation systems o!ten (a;e side columns lin-ed <it( a main column7 <(ere a
main column dra< is "rocessed in t(e side column <it( some o! t(e dra< com"onents
<it(dra<n as a side "roduct and some returned to t(e main column !or !urt(er "rocessing.
For !lo<s(eet connecti;ity "ur"oses in PR*:II side columns are added to t(e !lo<s(eet as
se"arate unit o"erations and lin-ed to t(e main column t(roug( t(e !eed and return
streams. T(e side column !eeds are set u" as main column "roducts and t(e side column
return streams as main column !eeds. Column Side Column may 3e o! t<o ty"es side
stri""ers in <(ic( t(e main column !eeds. Column Side Columns may 3e o! t<o ty"es7
side stri""ers in <(ic( t(e main column dra< is stri""ed <it( a stri""ing ;a"or or 3y
re3oiling and side recti!iers in <(ic( t(e side column (as a condensing system "roducing
li@uid !or recti!ication. T(e Column Algorit(ms used !or side columns must 3e identical to
t(at used !or t(e main column.
=.3.'.7 Tra. ".dra!(ics
Column Tray 2ydraulics may 3e used to rate e'isting columns and to si1e ne< columns at
t(e calculated li@uid and ;a"or loading. Tray models include ;al;e7 sie;e7 an 3u33le ca".
All column calculations are normally "er!ormed at user de!ined "ressures !or all trays in
t(e model. T(e tray "ressure dro"s determined 3y t(e column (ydraulic calculations may
alternati;ely 3e used to re;ise t(e su""lied tray "ressure.
=.3.'.= Ca(c!(ation A(gorith/s
T(e Column Algorit(ms descri3e t(e calculation algorit(ms a;aila3le. T(e Inside5*ut
algorit(m is selected as t(e de!ault algorit(m. T(is met(od sol;es a <ide ;ariety o!
;a"or:li@uid stages column models @uic-ly and e!!iciently. *t(er met(od are "ro;ided !or
columns <it( t<o li@uid "(ases and:or (ig(ly non5ideal t(ermodynamic systems. All
column algorit(ms are iterati;e in nature starting !rom Column Initial .stimates su""lied
3y t(e user and:or internal estimation tec(ni@ues. T(e user may su""ly tuning !actors and
re;ised con;ergence criteria !or t(e algorit(m as descri3ed in t(e Column Con;ergence
Data Bindo< and may c(ange t(e limit on t(e num3er o! calculated trial solutions. See
Num3er o! Iterations !or more details.
All t(e distillation Column Algorit(ms simulate +L. system. T(e Sure and C(emical
algorit(ms can also model +LL. system "ro;ided t(at t(e t(ermodynamic system selected
in t(e Column T(ermodynamic System Bindo< is a +LL. odel. It is also "ossi3le to
de!ine di!!erent t(ermodynamic systems !or indi;idual sections o! t(e column
=.3., Co(!/n Inp!t Data
A. Follo<ing Statements are re@uires to 3e entered.
1. 4nit identi!ication. T(e distillation column is to identi!ied an C*L4N or
SID.STRIPP.R *R SID.R.CTIFI.R !ollo<ing <it( num3er and name.
2. Column "arameters.
#. Feed and "roduct !lo<rates and location.
%. Column "ressure or tray "ressure is re@uired to 3e indicated. Alternati;ely
"ressure dro" across column also 3e indicated.
&. Per!ormance S"eci!ication Follo<ing are some s"eci!ied ;aria3les
5Product stream Pro"erty
5Internal Stream Pro"erty
5Re!lu' rate or re!lu' ratio
52eater and:or cooler duty
For eac( s"eci!ications statements one ;aria3le statements (as re@uired to 3e s"eci!ied.
$. Follo<ing Statements are o"tionally re@uired
5Column "seudo "roducts.
5Condenser ty"e
5Condenser7 Re3oiler7 Side (eater or cooler S"eci!ication.
5T(ermosy"(on Re3oiler attac(ment
52eat loss across column.
5Initial estimate generator
54ser su""lied "ro!ile estimates
5T$P out"ut s"eci!ication
5Tray e!!iciency
5Print o"tions
5Plotting results
5De!ining Column Parameters.
52ydraulic calculations !or tray and "ac-ings.
For !urt(er details PR*5II -ey5<ord manual is to 3e re!erred.
=.3.1 Conventions:
Follo<ing con;entions are used in t(e in"ut o! simulation.
Column trays are num3ered !rom t(e to". I! t(ere is condenser7 it is counted as
tray a1a7 and i! t(ere is a re3oiler7 it is counted as t(e 3ottom tray.
A t(eoretical stage re!ers to a 3loc- o! e@uations descri3ing a section o! t(e
lo<er. Ty"ically a t(eoretical stage corres"onds to a tray. 2o<e;er7 t(e
condenser system =condenser and accumulator? is also in t(e 18 algorit(m is
modeled as a collection o! t(eoretical stage. Similarly7 a tray <it( a (eater is
modeled as a single t(eoretical stage <it( t(e (eat duty 3eing added to t(e
tray energy 3alance e@uation. Note t(at a at(eoretical stagea is not necessarily
a at(eoretical e@uili3rium stagea.
Condensers are treated as a t(eoretical stage <it( an associated cooler. T(is is
true e;en i! t(e condenser is su3cooled so t(at no !ractionation is occurring.
T(e condenser7 i! "resent7 is al<ays tray 1.
T(e re3oiler is normally treated as a t(eoretical stage <it( an associated
(eater7 on t(e last tray o! t(e column. T(is simulates a -ettle5ty"e re3oiler.
Alternati;ely7 a t(ermosy"(on ty"e. For 18 columns7 t(ermosy"(on re3oilers
<it( and <it(out 3a!!les can 3e rigorously modeled using t(e R.$*IL.R
o"tion.
T(ese are treated as (eat sources or sin-s and are al<ays "laced on t(e tray on
<(ic( t(e (eat is added or remo;ed. I! a "um"around is associated <it( a side
(eater:cooler7 t(e duty must a""ear on t(e D4TH statement as assigned to t(e
return tray.
For t(e I* and S4R. algorit(ms7 t(e column calculation automatically
"redicts e'cess !ree <ater at t(e condenser or tray 1 and <ill decant it <(en
"resent. In some circumstances7 it may 3e desired to su""ress t(e decantation
and let t(e e'cess !ree <ater re!lu' t(e column and 3e <it(dra<n at <ater tra"
trays or out t(e 3ottom. T(is is accom"lis(ed using t(e FR..BAT.R o"tion
on t(e S4R. algorit(m only7 <(ic( "ermits !ree <ater to e'ist on any tray.
An unlimited num3er o! !eed streams are allo<ed. T(e "ressure o! eit(er
N*TS.PARAT. or S.PARAT. determines (o< t(e !eeds are introduced
onto t(e tray. N*TS.PARAT. =t(e de!ault? im"lies t(at 3ot( t(e li@uid and
;a"or "ortions o! eac( !eed are !ed directly to t(e li@uid "ortion o! t(e
corres"onding !eed tray. N*TS.PARAT.:S.PARAT. may a""ear at any
"lace on t(e statement and it is a""lied to all !eeds. I! t(e -ey<ord a""ears
multi"le times7 t(e last a""earance is used. B(en S.PARAT. is c(osen7 eac(
!eed is !las(ed adia3atically into its ;a"or and:or li@uid "(ases. I! 3ot( "(ases
are "resent7 t(e li@uid is !ed to t(e designated tray7 3ut t(e ;a"or is !ed to t(e
tray directly a3o;e. T(is o"tion 3est simulates a ty"ical !eed no11le "roDecting
into t(e ;a"or s"ace so t(at t(e li@uid "ortion o! t(e !eed dro"s to t(e li@uid 3e
lo< and t(e ;a"or "ortion mi'es <it( t(e ;a"or tra;eling to t(e tray a3o;e. I!
t(e !eed is all ;a"or7 t(e !eed goes onto t(e designated tray rat(er t(an t(e tray
a3o;e.
T(e PR*D4CT statement is re@uired and identi!ies all o! t(e real "roducts
!rom t(e column. T(e !ollo<ing de!initions are !or -ey<ords common to all
column algorit(ms. For !eatures s"eci!ic to I*7 S4R. or C2.DIST7 re!er to
t(eir res"ecti;e sections. a*+2Da Identi!ies t(e o;er(ead "roduct stream7
asida. For PARTIAL and IF.D condensers7 or !or columns <it(out
condensers7 t(is stream is t(e ;a"or "(ase "roduct. For $4$$7 TFIF.D and
DT$$ condensers <it( a single li@uid "(ase =not including !ree <ater?7 t(e
*+2D -ey<ord identi!ies t(e o;er(ead li@uid "roduct. For t<o li@uid "(ase
condenser "roducts7 C(emdist Algorit(m7 !or s"ecial (andling.
T(e C*ND.NS.R statement is used to de!ine t(e condenser. For columns
<it( no condenser7 t(is statement s(ould 3e omitted. Columns <it( condensers
must (a;e (eater:cooler de!ined !or tray one <it( t(e D4TH statement.
PR*:II su""orts !i;e di!!erent condenser ty"es as illustrated 3elo< :
Pressure de!ines t(e condenser =tray 1? "ressure: T(is is e@ui;alent to setting
t(e "ressure !or tray 1 on t(e PR.SS4R. statement.
T.P De!ines t(e condenser tem"erature !or a TFIF condenser. DT
De!ines t(e condenser tem"erature !or a DT$$ condenser. T(e resulting
tem"erate <ill 3e 3elo< t(e 3u33le "oint tem"erature 3y t(at num3er o!
degrees.
T.STIAT. .stimates t(e tem"erature !or e@uili3rium condensers
=PART.IF.D or $4$$ ?T(is o"tional entry is ;ery rarely re@uired <(en
an initial estimate generator is used. It is e@ui;alent to setting t(e tem"erature
!or tray 1 on t(e T.P.RAT4R. statement.
All (eating and cooling duties7 including condensers7 re3oilers7 "um"around
and side (eaters:coolers7 are de!ined on t(e D4TH statement: An unlimited
num3er o! duties may 3e de!ined and multi"le duties may 3e gi;en on a single
statement.
Column "um"arounds and 3y"asses are de!ined <it( t(e PA statement. An
unlimited num3er o! "um"arounds may 3e used. T(e "um"around may or may
not 3e associated <it( a (eater:cooler7 it must 3e "laced on t(e
"um"around return tray and 3e de!ined on t(e D4TH statement. T(e
"um"around may not 3e associated <it( a de!ined R.$*IL.R .
FR* 5 T(e source tray !or t(e "um"around.
To 5 T(e return tray !or t(e "um"around.
P2AS. 5 Identi!ies t(e "um"around dra< as coming !rom t(e li@uid
=L5 de!ault? or ;a"or=;? "(ase .
PR.S 5 T(e "ressure o! t(e return stream.
RAT. 5 T(e rate o! t(e "um"around stream.
LFRAC 5 T(e li@uid !raction on a mole = 5 de!ault? <eig(t=BT?7 or
standard li@uid ;olume =L+? 3asis .
T.P 5 De!ines t(e return stream tem"erature. T.P is t(e return
stream tem"erature. A "ositi;e ;alue o! DT re"resents a tem"erature
dro". A negati;e ;alue o! DT re"resents a tem"erature gain
T*TAL 5 A;aila3le !or t(e S4R. algorit(m only. B(en t(e T*TAL
Aey <ord is "resent7 t(e total tray li@uid or ;a"or is "um"ed around.
Total li@uid PAs may only "um" do<n t(e column. Total ;a"or PAs
may only go u" t(e column.
T(e column "ressure "ro!ile must 3e de!ined on eit(er a PR.SS4R. or
PSP.C statement. Tray "ressures may not 3e ;aried 3y t(e column algorit(m7
3ut may 3e c(anged e'ternal to t(e column 3y C*NTR*LL.RS7 +Cs and
*PTIIK.R unit o"erations and 3y CAS.ST4DI.S AND INT.RACTI+.
!eatures. T(e "ressure "ro!ile in t(e column may 3e u"dated during t(e
calculations 3ased on column (ydraulic calculation t(roug( t(e use o! t(e
DPCALC -ey<ord . Pressures must 3e gi;en !or t(e to" and 3ottom trays. I! a
condenser is "resent7 its "ressure may 3e de!ined one C*ND.NS.R
statement. T(e "ressure !or trays not de!ined is determined 3y liner
inter"olation !rom data gi;en !or t(e nearest trays a3o;e and 3elo<.
inimum data necessary are "ressure !or tray 1 and N <(ere N is t(e 3ottom
tray or re3oiler. For columns containing a t(ermosy"(on re3oiler7 t(e re3oiler
return stage "ressure <ill de!ault to t(e 3ottoms sum" =3ottoms "roduct? stage
i! t(e re3oiler return stage "ressure is not e'"licitly in"ut. Note t(at t(e actual
3ottoms "roduct stream "ressure <ill 3e at a (ig(er "ressure due to t(e static
(ead o! li@uid in t(e sum". t(is "ressure <ill cause t(e true 3ottoms "roduct
stream to 3e su3cooled.
PSP.C 5 T(e to" "ressure and "ressure dro" are s"eci!ied.
PT*P 5 T(e to" "ressure at t(e to" o! t(e Column. For columns
<it( condensers7 PT*P is t(e tray 2 "ressure and t(e condenser
"ressure =tray1? s(ould 3e gi;en on t(e C*ND.NS.R statement.
DPC*L 5 T(e "ressure dro" across t(e column. I! a t(ermosy"(on
re3oiler is s"eci!ied on a R.$*IL.R statement7 t(is entry <ill set t(e
"ressure dro" !or t(e column suc( t(at t(e "ressure di!!erence 3et<een
stage 1 and t(e 3ottoms "roduct stage =stage N51? is e@ual to t(e
DPC*L entry.
DPTRAH 5 T(e "ressure dro" "er tray as DP.
$T.P 5 T(e 3ottom tray tem"erature estimate. I! t(e column (as
a re3oiler=a D4TH ? IS ASSI0N.D T* T2. LAST TRAH *R A
re3oiler statement?7 t(en $T.P is t(e estimate !or t(e ne't to last tray.
I! t(ere is no re3oiler7 $T.P is t(e estimate !or t(e last tray R.FL4F
or T(e estimated re!lu' rate in miles "er unit time7 or t(e
RRATI* 5 T(e estimated re!lu' ratio. $y de!ault7 t(e li@uid to
distillate ratio is set to #.8.
PR*:II C*L4N in"ut 3loc-s are designed so t(at t(e degrees o! !reedom in t(e
column are al<ays 3alanced i! t(e num3er o! SP.C statements is e@ual to t(e
num3er o! ;aria3les gi;en on t(e +ARH statement. Consider t(e 3asic PR*:II
column <it( no SP.C or +ARH statements. Attri3utes designated 3y U;aryR are
adDusted 3y PR*:II to meet t(e user "ro;ided ;alues designated 3y Q!i'edR. T(e
;ary and !i'ed statements are s(o<n in Ta3le /.& .
Tab(e =.3
Attrib!tes o& CO%$9N 4ith no PEC VAR; state/ents
*+2D or $TS rates ;ary
LDRAB or +DRAB !i'ed
D4TH duties !i'ed
F..D rates !i'ed
Tray T.P ;ary
Tray PR.S
1
!i'ed
+AP*R rates ;ary
LI94ID rates ;ary
"roduct "ro"erty ;ary
tray ;a"or or li@uid "ro"erties ;ary
1
ay not 3e ;aried internally
.ac( column attri3ute to 3e s"eci!ied re@uires t(at one o! t(e Q!i'edR attri3utes 3e ;aried.
For e'am"le7 in a con;entional column <it( t<o "roducts. A re3oiler and a condenser7 it
is desired to s"eci!y t(e re!lu' ratio and o;er(ead rate. Since t(e LI94ID rate and
*+2D rate 3ot( ;ary7 t(ey must 3e s"eci!ied on a SP.C statement. To 3alance t(e
a;aila3le degrees o! !reedom7 t(e condenser and re3oiler7 <(ic( are initially Q!i'edR are
allo<ed to ;ary on t(e +ARH statement. I* columns <it( sidestri""ers 3alance t(e
degrees o! !reedom across t(e entire system o! columns. .ac( columns or sidestri""er
may (a;e an une@ual num3er o! SP.Cs and +ARHs7 3ut t(e sum o! t(e SP.Cs and
+ARHs !or t(e merged column system =main !ractionator and side columns sol;ed
simultaneously? must 3e e@ual. Tray Pressure may not 3e ;aried <it(in t(e column
algorit(m. *nly D4TH7 DRAB =!or 3ot( LDRAB and +DRAB? and F..D may 3e
;aried.
=.5 Disti((ation Co(!/n Debott(enec*ing Options
De3ottlenec-ing al<ays (as 3een im"ortant in t(e c(emical "rocess industries5 3ut
"er(a"s ne;er more so t(an today7 as more and more com"anies em"(asi1e getting t(e
most out o! t(eir e'isting "lants rat(er t(an 3uilding ne< ones. For some e@ui"ment7
de3ottlenec-ing can 3e relati;ely straig(t !or<ard. For e'am"le 7 a "um"Gs t(roug("ut
mig(t 3e increased sim"ly 3y inserting a di!!erent im"eller7 <(ile a (eat e'c(angerGs
ca"acity mig(t 3e 3oosted 3y raising its tem"erature di!!erence. .;en com"letely re"lacing
suc( (ard<are mig(t 3e a relati;ely a lo< cost <ay to de3ottlenec-. $ut de3ottlenec-ing
a distillation column is a maDor underta-ing. A!ter all7 a column re"resents a maDor cost
com"onent o! a "rocessM c(anges to it can 3e costly7 <(ile re"lacing it or "lacing a second
column in "arallel usually are not acce"ta3le. In t(is c(a"ter t(e ;arious o"tions !or
de3ottlenec-ing are columns are descri3ed. It can 3e
used to assess alternati;es rat(er t(an as a 3asis !or !irm recommendations. Finally7 t(e
usual ca;eat must 3e in;o-ed: T(ose in t(e "osition o! selling and installing distillation
de;ices are 3etter "re"ared t(an <e are to deal <it( t(e cost as"ects o! de3ottlenec-ing.
Four 3ase cases are considered
5 trayed column at lo<er "ressureM
5 trayed column at (ig(er "ressureM
5 "ac-ed column at lo<er "ressure: and
5 "ac-ed column at (ig(er "ressure.
For eac(7 it is assume t(at t(e column (as reac(ed its u""er o"erating limit 3ased on
(ydraulic ca"acity or mass trans!er e!!iciency or 3ot(. For t(e lo<er "ressure cases7 li@uid
entrainment <ill 3e considered to 3e t(e 3asis !or (ydraulic ca"acity. *r mass trans!er
e!!iciency or 3ot(. For t(e lo<er5"ressure case7 li@uid entrainment <ill 3e considered to
3e t(e 3asis !or (ydraulic ca"acity. For t(e (ig(er5"ressure cases7 li@uid (andling ca"acity
<ill 3e ta-en as t(e limiting conditions.
=.5.# Case #: tra.ed co(!/n at (o4er press!re
A column gi;es e;idence o! 3orderline se"aration7 modestly (ig( entrainnment7 and
indications o! inci"ient (ydraulic !looding:. It (as a standard design : sie;e trays <it( 1:2
in or 2.85in. <eir (eig(tM 2%5in. Tray s"acing M 12W o"en areaM and 18W do<ncomer area.
Ta3le /.) s(o<s t(e ste"s t(at mig(t 3e ta-en to increase t(e ca"acity o! t(is column.
T(e !irst ste" mig(t 3e to increase t(e o"erating "ressure. Studies o! t(e re"resentati;e
(ydrocar3on mi'ture cyclo(e'ane:n5(e"tane at t(e Se"aration Researc( Program "ro;ide
some insig(ts on t(is o"tion. =T(e e@ui"ment and o"erating "rocedures !or t(e
Se"arations Researc( Program distillation system (a;e 3een descri3ed "re;iously.?
$oosting t(e "ressure !rom a3out 1& "sia to )8 "sia gi;es a &,W increase in mass
t(roug("ut <it( a modest gain in e!!iciency. T(e "ressure increase7 (o<e;er results in a
dro" in relati;e ;olatility !rom 1.)% to 1.%2 re@uiring %1W more minimum stages !or t(e
same se"aration. Clearly7 some com"romise in se"aration or re!lu' ratio <ould 3e
needed7 3ut some gain in ca"acity mig(t 3e ac(ie;ed. B(et(er "ressure could 3e increased
at all <ould de"end u"on a num3er o! ot(er !actors suc( as t(e "ressure rating o! t(e
column7 t(e allo<a3le increase in 3ottoms tem"erature and t(e ca"acities o! au'iliary
e@ui"ment. .!!ects o! c(anges in li@uid !lo< rate also <ould (a;e to 3e ta-en into
account. *ne only can conclude t(at a "ressure increase s(ould 3e considered. T(e ne't
ste" to consider is c(anging (ole si1e. It is <ell -no<n t(at sie;e trays <it( small (oles
e'(i3it less entrainment t(an t(ose <it( large (oles. It is e@ually <ell -no<n t(at
entrainment can (a;e a signi!icant e!!ect on tray e!!iciency. T(e use o! 1:2 in. (oles on
sie;e trays is <ides"read7 "ossi3ly 3ecause o! t(e e'tensi;e testing o! t(at si1e 3y
Fractionation Researc(7 Inc =FRI?. Het in!ormation released 3y FRI s(o<s conclusi;ely
t(at 1:/5in
ones. Ac(ie;ing a !urt(er7 incremental ca"acity increase re@uires more su3stanti;e tray
c(anges and (ig(er costs. Re"lacement trays suc( as Nye7 +0 and ot(ers can 3e used
<it( t(e same tray s"acing to 3oost ca"acity 1&528W. B(ile do<ncomer modi!ications
may not 3e e'tensi;e7 one must !igure on t(e cost o! com"letely ne< traysM 3ecause tray
s"acing is maintained7 ne< tray su""ort rings are o3;iated. Detailed in!ormation may 3e
o3tained !rom t(e s"eci!ic ;endors. For ca"acity increases greater t(an 28W7 one must
resort to trays t(at di!!er in conce"t !rom t(e cross !lo< de;ice or to structured "ac-ings.
Tab(e =.5 tep4ise debott(enec*ing o& tra.s operating at (o4 press!re (Case #).
Action Advantages Disadvantages
Increase "ressure ore ca"acity
No column c(anges
Lo<er relati;e ;olatility
2ig(er tem"eratures
Decrease (ole si1e ore ca"acity Ne< tray "anels
C(ange style o! tray
=e.g. to +07 Nye7
D?
ore ca"acity Ne< tray "anels
Possi3le do<ncomer modi!ications
Possi3le increase in no. *! trays and
su""orting rings
S<itc( to structured
"ac-ing
ore ca"acity7 i!
larger crim" (eig(t
Lo<er "ressure dro"
Cost o! "ac-ing and attendant
(ard<are
Cost o! remo;ing trays and tray rings
Install ne< (ig(
ca"acity de;ice =e.g.
cocurrent tray?
ore ca"acity 2ig(er "ressure dro"
Cost o! ne< de;ice
Cost o! remo;ing old trays and
"ossi3ly tray rings

Trays suc( as t(e ulti"le Do<ncomer =D? can increase ca"acity signi!icantly 3ut at
some e'"ense o! e!!iciency. T(ere!ore7 a ne< set o! trays normally <ould call !or more
trays at lo<er tray s"acing 5 re!lecting a com"romise among tray e!!iciency7 re!lu' ratio7
and (ydraulic t(roug("ut. T(is increases costs 3ecause more trays are needed tray ring
su""orts need to 3e relocated. Structured "ac-ing o!!er ad;antages "rimarily in "ressure
dro" and e!!iciency rat(er t(an t(roug("ut ca"acity. T(ey "ro;ide lo< "ressure dro" "er
t(eoretical stage. T(e nominal 1:25in 5crim"5(eig(t "ac-ing =<it( a sur!ace area o! )/ !t
2
:
!t
#
? and t(e trays at 2%5in s"acing (a;e a3out t(e same ca"acity7 3ut t(e "ac-ing (as a
(ig(er e!!iciency. An increase in !eed rate ;ia a lo<ering o! re!lu' ratio is not li-ely unless
t(e "resent ratio is !ar remo;ed !rom t(e minimum re!lu' ratio. A (ig(er5crim"5(eig(t
"ac-ing7 (o<e;er7 mig(t matc( t(e e!!iciency o! t(e trayed column and gi;e as muc( as a
%8 increase in ca"acity. T(e lo<er "ressure dro" may 3e a "ossi3le 3onus. In assessing a
s<itc( to "ac-ing7 ma-e sure to !actor in t(e costs o! tray ring remo;al as <ell as !or t(e
;arious distri3utors !or !eed7 re!lu' and collected li@uid !rom "ac-ing 1ones.
I! more t(an a %85&8W ca"acity increase is desired7 you must install an additional
distillation column in "arallel <it( t(e e'isting one5 or 3e <illing to consider ne<
tec(nology. *ne "romising de;ice is t(e cocurrent tray. B(ic( is designed !or com"lete
entrainment o! li@uid entering eac( tray. $ecause o! its relati;ely (ig( "ressure dro"7 t(is
de;ice is not suita3le !or ;acuum !ractionators 3ut a""ears to 3e a""ro"riate !or columns
o"erating at atmos"(eric "ressure and a3o;e.
=.5.' Case ' : Tra. co(!/n at higher press!re
T(is column is li-ely to (a;e a large do<ncomer area and "ossi3ly more t(an one li@uid
"ass on eac( tray. It is a"t to 3e ca"acity limited 3y its a3ility to (andle relati;ely (ig(
li@uid !lo<sM t(at is7 it is Qdo<ncomer limitedR. Some "ossi3le a""roac(es to
de3ottlenec-ing are gi;en in Ta3le /.,.
Tab(e =.7 tep4ise debott(enec*ing o& tra.s operating at high press!re (Case ')
Action Ad;antages Disad;antages
.nlarge do<ncomers and
increase o"en area
ore ca"acity Loss o! acti;e area
Cost o! modi!ications.
C(ange style o! tray =e.g. to
D? and decrease tray
s"acing
ore ca"acity Lo<er e!!iciency7 need more trays
Cost o! ne< trays
Cost o! remo;ing old trays and
some tray rings
S<itc( to larger si1e
structured "ac-ing
ore ca"acity Lo<er e!!iciency
Cost o! remo;ing and re"lacing
"ac-ing?
Install ne< (ig( ca"acity
de;ice
ore ca"acity 2ig(er "ressure dro"
cost o! ne< de;ice
Cost o! remo;ing old de;ice

Increasing li@uid (andling ca"acity is li-ely to call !or tray modi!ications t(at include more
li@uid !lo< area ="ossi3ly going !rom straig(t to slo"ed do<ncomers? as <ell as increased
(ole area to "re;ent do<ncomer 3ac-u" resulting7 !rom (ig(er ;a"or rates. B(at can 3e
done may de"end on t(e "resent allocation o! cross5sectional area to li@uid and ;a"or
!lo<s. *!ten7 t(is means o! de3ottlenec-ing (as se;ere geometric restraints.
T(e ne't ste" s(ould 3e to consider an alternati;e de;ice suc( as t(e D tray. T(is
de;ice (as success!ully 3oosted ca"acity in columns <it( (ig( li@uid !lo<s. Suc( as
"ro"ylene : "ro"ane and t(ylene: et(ane s"litters. T(ere is some sacri!ice in tray
e!!iciency7 (o<e;er7 com"ensation !or t(is in;ol;es installing additional trays at lo<er tray
s"acing. For e'am"le7 trays s"aced at 2% in. mig(t 3e re"laced <it( ones s"aced at 1)in.
*t(er "ro"rietary de;ices7 some not yet "ro;en <idely in commercial ser;ice7 may 3e
use!ul in adding 1852&W ca"acity to t(e column.
For still more ca"acity7 you mig(t <eig( s<itc(ing to structured "ac-ing <it( a large
crim" (eig(t. T(ere (as 3een muc( concern and indeed7 contro;ersy regarding t(e
suita3ility o! structured "ac-ing !or (ig(5"ressure installationsM so a s<itc( must 3e
assessed care!ully. Recently re"orted results !or a 1:25in5crim"5(eig(t "ac-ing indicate
t(at reasona3le e!!iciencies can 3e o3tained. *n t(e ot(er (and7 structured "ac-ing
a""ears to su!!er !rom 3ac-mi'ing o! t(e "(ase at "ressure o! 1&85288 "sia and (ig(er. A
ne< de;ice suc( as t(e cocurrent tray mig(t also 3e considered. It (as t(e ad;antage o!
(ig( li@uid ca"acity as <ell as (ig( ;a"or ca"acityM its (ig(er "ressure dro" normally
<ould not 3e a concern !or (ig(er "ressure o"eration.
=.5., Case , : Pac*ed co(!/n at (o4er press!re
LetGs assume t(at t(e column contains s(eet metal structured "ac-ing (a;ing !airly
standard dimensions =I? =1:2 in. = 8.8828m? crim" (eig(t: ),., !t
2
:!t
#
=222m
2
: m
#
? sur!ace
area : %& deg. Corrugation angleM and 8.6& ;oid !raction ? and t(at it no< is at its
(ydraulic and mass trans!er ca"acity. Ta3le /./ Lists t(e ste"s t(at mig(t 3e ta-en to
3oost ca"acity. T(e !irst ste" mig(t 3e to raise t(e "ressure. As <e mentioned !or Case 1
a "ressure increase a!!ords more t(roug( "ut 3ut decreases relati;e ;olatility.
Tab(e =.= tep4ise debott(enec*ing o& pac*ing operating at (o4 press!re (Case ,)

Action Advantage Disadvantage
Increase "ressure ore ca"acity
No column c(anges
Lo<er relati;e ;olatility
2ig(er tem"eratures
0o to )85deg.
Corrugation5 angle
"ac-ing
ore ca"acity
Lo<er "ressure dro"
Lo<er e!!iciency
Cost o! ne< "ac-ing
Install multi"le 3eds $etter e!!iciency Cost o! redistri3utors
Cost o! contracting (eig(t
S<itc( to larger5crim"5
(eig(t "ac-ing
Cost o! ne< "ac-ing
T(e ne't ste" is to consider going to a greater corrugation angle =re!erred to t(e
(ori1ontal?. T(ere is some e;idence t(at7 on t(e 3asis o! stages "er unit o! "ressure dro"7
t(e Q StandardR %&5deg. angle can gi;e (ig(er ca"acity at some e'"ense in e!!iciency 5
<(ic( can 3e com"ensated !or i! t(e column can accommodate a greater "ac-ing (eig(t.
T(e use o! multi"le 3eds can "ro;ide some increase in e!!iciency 3y lo<ering t(e (eig(t
"enalty on t(e (eig(t o! a trans!er unit or t(eoretical "late. ulti"le 3eds do not 3oost
(ydraulic ca"acity 7 (o<e;er7 it t(e same "ac-ing is used. 2ere7 a com"romise 3et<een
im"ro;ed e!!iciency and a rise in "ressure dro" =caused 3y added collectors and
redistri3utors? must 3e made. I! t(e 3ottlenec- is not mass trans!er7 t(en consider
re"lacing t(e "ac-ing <it( a larger 5crim"5(eig(t one.
T(is 3oosts t(roug("ut 3ut gi;es less sur!ace area and "otentially a lo<er e!!iciency. For
e'am"le7 a 1.85in.7 crim" (eig(t can "ro;ide as muc( as #&W greater ca"acity t(an a 1:25
in.7 crim" (eig(t 55 3ut only (al! t(e e!!iciency.
=.5.1 Case 1 : Pac*ed co(!/n at higher press!re.
Again7 letGs assume t(at t(e column (as t(e QstandardR structured "ac-ing o! case #.
*nly a rat(er a33re;iated set o! de3ottlenec-ing ste"s is a;aila3le7 as listed in Ta3le /.6 %.
ore ca"acity can 3e o3tained <it( a greater corrugation angle55 at t(e e'"ense o! lo<er
mass5trans!er e!!iciency. A large5crim"5(eig(t "ac-ing also can alle;iate a (ydraulic
ca"acity limitations 3ut <it( some loss in e!!iciency. Al<ays remem3er7 (o<e;er7 t(at
little (as 3een re"orted on t(e c(aracteristics o! structured "ac-ing o"erating at (ig(er
"ressuresM so7 any de3ottlenec-ing in;ol;ing a c(ange o! "ac-ing must 3e a""roac(ed ;ery
care!ully. Finally7 installing a ne< (ig( ca"acity de;ice suc( as t(e cocurrent tray may 3e
a !easi3le7 i! as yet un"ro;en7 o"tion.
Tab(e =.B tep4ise debott(enec*ing o& pac*ing operating at high press!re (Case 1)
Action Advantages Disadvantages
0o to )85deg. Corrugation angle
"ac-ing
Cost o! ne< "ac-ing
S<itc( to larger crim"5(eig(t
"ac-ing
Cost o! ne< "ac-ing
Install ne< (ig(5ca"acity de;ice ore ca"acity Cost o! ne< de;ice
=.5.3 Econo/ics
In considering de3ottlenec-ing o"tions7 eac( o! t(e "otential ste"s can 3e isolated as an
incremental cost and used in a modular !as(ion. Aee" in mind7 t(oug( t(at generali1ed
cost data can 3e misleading 55 or e;en in gross error. *ne only (as to re@uest 3ids on a
column re;am" to see (o< <idely cost estimates can ;ary among di!!erent ;endors.
Source o! t(e cost data are ;aried and not necessarily consistent.
T(is to"ic (as co;ered t(ree areas. First7 a met(odology !or "er!orming de3ottlenec-ing
studies is "resented and (a;e gi;en some starting "oint t(at can 3e modi!ied !or s"eci!ic
columns. Second7 it is "ointed out t(at t(e ca"acity o! a con;entional column canGt 3e
raised 3y more t(an a3out 285#8W =<it( "er(a"s a !e< e'ce"tions? using esta3lis(ed
tec(nology. T(ird7 is underscored t(at a com"letely ne< (ig( ca"acity de;ice is needed !ir
!urt(er increases M suc( a de;ice must 3e ca"a3le o! deli;ering mass trans!er e!!iciencies in
t(e range o! t(ose no< "ro;ided 3y <ell5esta3lis(ed de;ices suc( as t(e sie;e tray and
structured "ac-ing.
=.7 R!(es o& Th!/b &or Che/ica( Engineers
=.7.# Introd!ction
ore s(ortcut design met(ods and rules o! t(um3 (a;e 3een de;elo"ed !or !ractionation
t(an "ro3a3ly any ot(er unit o"eration. $ot( t(e "rocess and mec(anical as"ects o!
!ractionation design (a;e use!ul rules or t(um3. any o! t(e mec(anical design rules o!
t(um3 3ecome included in c(ec-lists o! doGs and donGts. For trou3les(ooting !ractionators
see t(e trou3les(ooting section in t(is 3oo-.
=.7.' Re(ative Vo(ati(it.
For @uic- estimates7 a relati;e ;olatility can 3e estimated 3y de!inition as !ollo<s:
T(e e@uili3rium ;a"ori1ation constant A is de!ined !or a com"ound 3y
P1N H1
H
i
A
i
N
F
i
B(ere NTotal "ressure o! t(e system
H
i
N ole !raction o! com"onent in t(e ;a"or "(ase
F
i
N ole !raction o! com"onent in t(e li@uid "(ase
P
i
F
i
N II H
i
T(e relati;e ;olatility is de!ined as
A
i
P
i
H
i
N 7 N N A
i
A
D
P F
i
<(ere i and D re"resent t<o com"onents to 3e
T(ere!ore !or systems se"arated. RaoultGs La< !or ideal systems is o3eying RaoultGs
La<.

"
i
P
i
N "
i
F
i
N "
D
<(ere P
i
N Partial "ressure o! i
"
i
N +a"or "ressure o! "ure com"onent i.
=.7.' 9ini/!/ Re&(!2.
For s(ortcut design o! a distillation column7 t(e minimum re!lu' calculation s(ould 3e
made !irst.
9ini/!/ Re&(!2 Introd!ction b. -eith C(aiborne
A @uic- o;er;ie< o! minimum re!lu' re@uirements as <ell as im"ro;ed understanding o!
t(e meaning o! t(e term can 3e (ad 3y considering se"aration o! a 3inary !eed.
For a 3inary. LetGs denote as + t(e !ractional molar s"lit o! t(e !eed into o;er(ead "roduct
and as L t(e !ractional s"lit into 3ottom "roduct. Calculate com"osition t(e !las(
se"aration o! !eed into ;a"or ; and li@uid I to gi;e ;:1 N +:L. T(e resulting ;a"or can 3e
regarded as 3eing com"osed o! a "ortion d o! t(e o;er(ead "roduct com"osition and a
"ortion r o! t(e !las( li@uid com"osition. It is t(en easy to calculate <(at t(e "ro"ortions
must 3e so t(at d F o;er(ead com"osition > r F !las( li@uid com"osition N !las( ;a"or
com"osition. T(us:
a 5 3
r:d N
3 5 c
<(ere
aN !raction (ig( ;olatile com"onent in o;er(ead s"eci!ication
3N !raction (ig( ;olatile com"onent in !las( ;a"or
cN !raction (ig( ;olatile com"onent in !las( li@uid.
T(e reason !or t(is sim"le relations(i" is t(at t(e conce"t o! minimum re!lu' im"lies an
in!inite num3er o! stages and t(us no c(ange in com"osition !rom stage to stage !or an
in!inite num3er o! stages eac( <ay !rom t(e Q"inc( "ointR =t(e "oint <(ere t(e cCa3e5
T(iele o"erating lines intersect at t(e ;a"or cur;eM !or a <ell 3e(a;ed system7 t(is is t(e
!eed 1one?. T(e li@uid re!lu'ed to t(e !eed tray !rom t(e tray a3o;e is t(us t(e same
com"osition as t(e !las( li@uid.
T(e total !eed tray ;a"or can 3e regarded as com"rising some material t(at "asses
unc(anged t(roug( t(e u""er section into "roduct. T(e unc(anged material can t(en 3e
regarded as 3eing con;eyed 3y ot(er material =at t(e com"osition o! t(e re!lu' to t(e !eed
tray? endlessly recirculating as ;a"or to t(e tray a3o;e and7 reli@ui!ied7 re!lu'ing onto t(e
!eed tray.
$inary minimum re!lu' so calculated im"lies !eed ent(al"y Dust e@ual to t(e a3o;e started
;a"or + and li@uid L. Any increase or decrease in t(at ent(al"y must 3e matc(ed 3y
increase or decrease in total (eat comment o! o;er(ead re!lu'. Note t(at t(e 4nder<ood
1
3inary re!lu' e@uation essentially com"utes t(e !las( ;ersus s"eci!ication com"osition
relations(i" along <it( ent(al"y correction.
For more t(an t<o com"onents7 calculation is not so easy. $ounds can7 (o<e;er7 o!ten 3e
"ercei;ed. I! in t(e !eed t(ere is only an insigni!icant amount o! materials o! ;olatility in
termediate 3et<een t(e lig(t and (ea;y -eys7 t(e !ollo<ing a""lies:
inimum total re!lu' =l3s o! moles:(r? corres"onding to gi;en total !eed <ill greater t(an
i! only t(e actual total moles o! (ea;y and lig(t -ey com"onents <ere "resent. Re!lu' need
<ill 3e less t(an i! t(e actual total moles o! !eed <ere "resent7 3ut
com"osed only o! lig(t and (ea;y -eys. T(e more closely non5-eyed com"onents are
clustered to ;olatilities o! t(e -eys7 t(e nearer are re!lu' needs to t(at calculated !or t(e
3inary and total !eed ;olumes.
=.7., 9ini/!/ Re&(!2 9!(ti+co/ponent:
T(e 4nder<ood et(od <ill "ro;ide a @uic- estimate o! minimum re!lu' re@uirements. It
is a good met(od to use <(en distillate and 3ottoms com"ositions are s"eci!ied. Alt(oug(
t(e 4nder<ood et(od <ill 3e detailed (ere7 ot(er good met(ods e'ist suc( as t(e
$ro<n artin and Col3urn met(ods. T(ese and ot(er met(ods. T(ese and ot(er met(ods
are discussed and com"ared in +an Bin-leGs 3oo-. A met(od to use !or column analysis
<(en distillate and 3ottoms com"ositions are not s"eci!ied is discussed 3y Smit(.
T(e 4nder<ood et(od in;ol;es !inding a ;alue !or a constant787 t(at satis!ies t(e
e@uation.
n
F
iF
i
F
iF
1
F
2F
2
N N 1 5 @ N > > ...
i
i
5
1
5
2
5
T(e ;alue o! <ill lie 3et<een t(e relati;e ;olatilities o! t(e lig(t and (ea;y -ey
com"onents7 <(ic( must 3e adDacent.
A!ter !inding 7 t(e minimum re!lu' ration is determined !rom.

i
'
iD
R
m
> 1 N

i 5
No/enc(at!re
i
N Relati;e ;olatility o! com"onent i ;erses t(e (ea;y -ey com"onent.
N 4nder<ood minimum re!lu' constant.
F
iF
N ol !raction o! com"onent i in t(e distillate
F
iD
N ole !raction o! com"onents i in t(e distillate
@ N T(ermal condition o! t(e !eed
$u33le "oint li@uid @ N 1.8
De< "oint ;a"or @ N 8
0eneral !eed @ N =Ls 5 L
g
? : F
B(ere:
Ls N Li@uid molar rate in t(e stri""ing section.
L
R
N Li@uid molar rate in t(e recti!ication section
FN inimum re!lu' ratio.
=.7.1 9ini/!/ stages:
T(e Fens-e et(od gi;es a @uic- estimate !or t(e minimum t(eoretical stages at total
re!lu'.
In C = F
LA
:F
2A
?
D
=F
2A
: F
LA
?
$
E
N
m
> 1 N
In =
LA: 2A
?
A+0
No/enc(at!re
$N su3scri"t !or 3ottoms.
DN su3scri"t !or distillate
2AN su3scri"t !or (ea;y -ey
LAN Su3scri"t !or lig(t -ey
N
m
N minimum t(eoretical stages at total re!lu'
F
2A
N mol !raction o! (ea;y -ey com"onent
F
LA
N mol !raction o! t(e lig(t -ey com"onent
LA: 2A
N relati;e ;olatility o! com"onent ;s t(e (ea;y -ey com"onent
=.7.3 Act!a( Re&(!2 and Act!a( Theoretica( tages
T(e recommended met(od to use to determine t(e actual t(eoretical stages at an actual
re!lu' ratio is t(e .r3ar:addo' relations(i". In t(e gra"(. N is t(e t(eoretical stages and
R is t(e actual re!lu' ratio L:D <(ere L:D is t(e molar ratio o! re!lu' to distillate. N
m
is t(e
minimum t(eoretical stages and R
m
is t(e minimum re!lu' ratio. T(e "lates and re!lu'
correlation o! .r3ar and addo' is s(o<n in !igure / !or F N N
m
:N 7 y N R:=R > 1?
and K N R
m
= R
m
> 1 ?

T(e actual re!lu' ratio t(at one "ic-s s(ould 3e o"timi1ed !rom economics data. For a
3all"ac- estimate use 1.15 1.2 R
m
!or a re!rigerated system7 and 1.251.#& R
m
!or a (ot
system. Anot(er use!ul molar ratio is re!lu':!eed. L:F !or all "ractical "ur"oses is
unc(anging !or <ide di!!erence in !eed com"osition7 so long as t(e !ollo<ing (old:
T(e distillate and 3ottoms com"ositions7 3ut not necessarily t(e @uantities7 are
(eld constant.
T(e !eed tray is -e"t matc(ed to com"osition to t(e !eed =<(ic( means t(e !eed
tray mo;es <it( !eed com"osition c(anges?.
=.7.5 Act!a( Tra.s
A!ter actual t(eoretical trays are determined = see Actual re!lu' and t(eoretical stages?
one needs to estimate t(e actual "(ysical num3er o! trays re@uired in t(e distillation
column. T(is is usually done 3y di;iding t(e actual t(eoretical trays 3y t(e o;erall a;erage
!ractional tray e!!iciency. T(eoretical trays 3y t(e o;erall a;erage !ractional tray e!!iciency.
T(en a !e< e'tra trays are normally added !or o!! load conditions7 suc( as a c(ange in !eed
com"osition. .'"erience !or a gi;en ser;ice is t(e 3est guide !or e'tra trays.
=.7.7 Tra. E&&icienc.
Actual stages de"ends u"on t(e trays e!!iciency7 <(ic( <ill "ro3a3ly 3e t(e <ea-est
num3er in t(e design. 4sing o"erating data !rom a similar system is certainly 3est <(ere
"ossi3le. Ta3les /. 1 and /. 2 gi;e some s(ortcut correlation. Lud<ig discusses ne<
<or- 3y t(e A.I.C(... B(ic( (as "roduced a met(od more detailed t(an t(e "er;ious
s(ortcut met(ods. 2e states t(at some o! t(e s(ortcut met(ods can 3e o!! 3y 1&5&8 W
as indicated 3y t(e A.I.C(. .. Bor- T(e s"read o! t(e Dric-amer and $rad!ord
correlation s(o<n in t(e Lud<ing "lot is a3out 18 "oints o! e!!iciency

"oints around t(e
cur;e. Lud<ig states t(at com"arisons 3et<een s(ortcut and A.I.C(... ;alues indicate
t(at de;iations !or t(e s(ortcut met(ods are usually on t(e sa!e or lo< side. a'<ell
7
s
correlation <as generated !rom (ydrocar3on data only. Lud<ing states t(at t(e
Dric-amer and $rad!ord correlation is good !or (ydrocar3ons7 c(lorinated (ydrocar3ons7
glycols7 glycerin and related com"ounds7 and some ric( (ydrocar3on a3sor3ers and
stri""ers.
Lud<ig also "resents correlationGs o! *GConnell. 2e <arns t(at *GConnell may gi;e (ig(
results. Lud<ig suggests using t(e *GConnell a3sor3er correlation only in areas <(ere it
gi;es a lo<er e!!iciency t(an t(e !ractionator correlation o! Dric-amer and $rad!ord or
*GConnell. For (ig( ;alues o! 7 lo< tray e!!iciency usually result.
Tab(e =.#C 8ractionator Overa(( Tra. E&&icienc.0 F
+iscosity
Centi"oise
0unness and ot(er Data Plotted
+ersus Reci"rocal +iscosity in
a'<ell. =A;erage ;iscosity o!
li@uid on t(e "lates ?
Dric-mer and $rad!ord correlation "lotted
in Lud<ig. =olal a;erage ;iscosity o! t(e
!eed.?
8.8&I ... 6/
8.18 18%II ,6
8.1& /) ,8
8.28 ,) )8
8.#8 )# &8
8.%8 &) %2
8.&8 &8 #)
8.)8 %) #1
8.,8 %# 2,
8./8 %8 2#
8.68 #/ 16
1.88 #) 1,
1.&8 #8 ,
1.,8 2/ &
I .'tra"olated slig(tly
II a'<ell e'"lains (o< e!!iciencies a3o;e 188W are @uite "ossi3le.
Tab(e = : Overa(( Tra. E&&icienc.0 F (O< Conne(()
Correlating Factor FractionatorsI A3sor3ers
2P N
A
8.81 ... /
8.8& ... 1,
.18 /, 22
8.1& /8 2#
8.28 ,% 2)
8.#8 ), 26
8.%8 )2 #2
8.&8 &, ##
8.)8 && #&
8.,8 &2 #)
Ta3le /.
Correlating Factor FractionatorsI A3sor3ers
2P N
A
8./8 &1 #,
8.68 %6 #/
1 %/ #6
1.& %% %2
2 %1 %&
# #, %/
% #& &2
& ## &#
) #2 &)
, #2 &,
/ #1 &/
6 ... )8
18 ... )1
2I N 2enryGs la< constant
P N Pressure in atms.
N +iscosity in c"
- N .@uili3rium constant
N olecular <eig(t
N Density l3s:!t
#
=.7.= Dia/eter o& B!bb(e Cap Tra.s
2ere are t<o @uic- a""ro'imation met(ods !or 3u33le ca" tray column diameter
tandard Ve(ocit.
T(e standard ;elocity 3ased on total cross section is de!ined as:
4
STD
N 8.22, =
L
:
+
5 1 ?
8.&
T(e standard ;elocity is multi"lied 3y a !actor de"ending u"on t(e ser;ice as !ollo<s :
Ser;ice W4
STD

+acuum to<ers 118

Re!inery grou"

188
De3utani1ers or ot(er 18852&8 PSI0 to<ers /8
De"ro"ani1ers or ot(er (ig( "ressure to<ers )8

A""lies !or 2% Q tray s"acing and a3o;e

Re!inery grou"R N lo< "ressure na"(t(a !ractionators 7 gasoline s"litters7 crude !las(
to<ers7 etc.
o!ders + Bro4n
T(e ma'imum allo<a3le mass ;elocity !or t(e total column cross section is calculated as
!ollo<s:
B N CC ; =
L
5; E _
T(e ;alue o! B is intended !or general a""lication and to 3e multi"lied 3y !actors !or
s"eci!ic a""lications as !ollo<s:
A3sor3ers: 8.&&
Fractionating section o! a3sor3er oil stri""er : 8./8
Petroleum column : 8.6&
Tray Sta3ili1er or stri""er :1.1&
T(e de;elo"ed e@uation !or t(e Souders5$ro<n C !actor is
C N =#).,1 > &.%&)T 5 8.8/%/)T
2
? In S5 #12.6 > #,.)2T 5 8.&2)6T
2

Correlation ranges are :
CN 8 to ,88
S N 8.1 to 188
T N 1/ to #)
T(e to"7 3ottom7 and !eed sections o! t(e column can 3e c(ec-ed to see <(ic( gi;es t(e
ma'imum diameter. T(e SounderGs5$ro<n correlation considers entrainment as t(e
controlling !actor. For (ig( li@uid loading situations and !inal design7 com"lete tray
(ydraulic calculations are re@uired. Lud<ig states t(at t(e Souders5 $ro<n met(od
a""ears to 3e conser;ati;e !or a "ressure range o! & to 2&8 "si allo<ing B to 3e
multi"lied 3y 1.8& to 1.1& i! Dudgment and caution are e'ercised. T(e Souders5$ro<n
correlation is s(o<n in !igure /.
No/enc(at!re
CN Souders5 $ro<n ma'imum allo<a3le mass ;elocity !actor
S
STD N
Standard ma'imum allo<a3le ;elocity !or to<er cross section7 !t:sec
B N Souders5 $ro<n ma'imum allo<a3le mass ;elocity7 13s =!t
2
cross section? 1=(r?
L
N Li@uid density7 l3s: !t
#
+
N +a"or density7 l3s : Ft
#
S N Sur!ace tension7 dynes:cm
=.7.B Dia/eter o& ieveE Va(ve Tra.s ( 8 &actor )
T(e F !actor is used in t(e e'"ression 4 N =P
;
?
8.&
to o3tain t(e allo<a3le su"er!icial
;a"or ;elocity 3ased on !ree column cross5 sectional area = total column area minus t(e
do<ncomer area? For !oaming systems7 t(e F !actor s(ould 3e multi"lied 3y 8.,&
T(e e@uation !or t(e F !actor correlation 3y Fran- is as !ollo<s :
FN = &%, 5 1,#. 2 T > 2.# 16%T
2
? 18
5)
P > 8.#2 > 8.8/%, T 5 8.8888,/, T
2
Correlation ranges are :
F N 8./
P N 8 to 228
TN 1/ to #)
T(e aut(or (as de;elo"ed t(e !ollo<ing e@uation to !it t(e correlation :
DL N ).)), T > 1).))&
Clear li@uid ;elocity =!t:sec? t(oug( t(e do<ncomer is t(en !ound 3y multi"lying DL 3y
8.8822#. T(e correlation is not ;alid i!
L
5 ; is less t(an #8 13t:!t
#
= ;ery (ig( "ressure
system ?. T(e do<ncomer area !or tray ty"e distillation column can 3e estimated !rom
Figure /. .For !oaming system7 DL s(ould 3e multi"lied 3y 8., Fran- recommends
segmental do<ncomers o! at least &W o! total column cross5sectional area7 regardless o!
t(e area o3tained 3y t(is correlation. For !inal design7 com"lete tray (ydraulic calculations
are re@uired. For e;en !aster estimates7 t(e !ollo<ing roug( F !actor guidelines (a;e 3een
"ro"osed :
For estimating do<ncomer area7 Fran- gi;es t(e !ollo<ing correlation :
Situation F !actor
Fractionating column total cross section ;a"or ;elocity 1.851.&
Sie;e tray (ole ;elocity to a;oid <ee"ing T 12
Disengaging e@ui"ment !or se"arating li@uid dro"lets
!rom ;a"or S)
No/enc(at!re
DL N Design do<ncomer li@uid tra!!ic7 g"m:!t
2
F N Factor !or !ractionation allo<a3le ;elocity
P N Column "ressure7 "sia
T N Tray s"acing7 in.
L
N Li@uid density7 13:!t
#
+
N +a"or density7 13 : !t
#
=.7.#C Dia/eter o& ieveEVa(ve Tra.s ( /ith)
Smit( sues settling (eig(t as a correlating !actor <(ic( is intended !or use <it( ;arious
tray ty"e. T(e correlation is s(o<n in Figure /. . Cur;es are dra<n !or a range o!
settling (eig(ts !rom 2 to #8 inc(es. 2ere7 4 is t(e ;a"or ;elocity a3o;e t(e tray not
occu"ied 3y do<ncomers.
Smit( recommends o3taining t(e settling (eig(t = tray s"acing minus clear li@uid de"t( ?
3y a""lying t(e !amiliar Francis Beir !ormula. For our "ur"oses o! ra"idly c(ec-ing
column diameter7 a !aster a""roac( is needed. For a""lication (a;ing 2%5in. tray s"acing7
t(e aut(or (as o3ser;ed t(at use o! a settling (eig(t o! 1/ inc(es is good enoug( !or roug(
c(ec-ing. T(e calculation yields a su"er!icial ;a"or ;elocity t(at a""lies to t(e to<er
cross section not occu"ied 3y do<ncomers. A do<ncomer area o! 18 W o! column area
is minimum e'ce"t !or s"ecial cases o! lo< li@uid loading . For (ig( li@uid loading
situation and !inal design7 com"lete tray (ydraulic calculation are re@uired.
=.7.## Dia/eter o& Gieve E Va(ve Tra.s ( %ieber/an )
Lie3erman gi;es t<o rules o! t(um3 !or trou3les(ooting !ractionators t(at could 3e as
c(ec-s on a design. First7 t(e "ressure dro"s across a section o! trays must not e'ceed
22W o! t(e s"ace 3et<een t(e tray dec-s7 to a;oid inci"ient !lood at(ematically7 (old
P:=S0? =T
n
? =T
n
? S 22 W
B(ere
P N Pressure dro" in inc(es o! <ater
S0 N s"eci!ic gra;ity o! t(e li@uid on t(e tray at t(e a""ro"riate tem"erature.
T
a
N Num3er o! trays
T
s
N Tray s"acing7 in.
For sie;e trays7 a s"ray (eig(t o! 1& inc(es is o3tained <(en t(e Detting !actor is )5,
Detting !actor N 4
2
P
+
:P
L
<(ere7
4 N 2ole ;a"or ;elocity7 Ft:sec
P
L
N Li@uid density
P
+
N +a"or density
For a 1&5inc( s"ray (eig(t7 a tray s"acing o! a t least 21 inc(es is recommended.
=.7.#' Dia/eter o& Ba((ast Tra.s
Ca(c!(ationE proced!re &or Ba((ast Tra. 9ini/!/ To4er Dia/eter
T(e !ollo<ing met(od <ill gi;e @uic- a""ro'imate results7 3ut !or com"lete detailed
rating7 use t(e 0litc( anual .

1. Determine ;a"or ca"acity !actor CAF .
CAF N CAF
8
' system Factor
T(e "ro"er system !actor can 3e !ound in Ta3le /.
2. For P
;
S 8.1, use CAF
8
N =TS?
o.)&
' =P;?
1:)
:12
For P; T o.1, use
125#8 Q TS : CAF
8
N = 8.&/ 5 #.26 :=TS? 5 C =TS ' ;5 TS?:1&)8E
#) and%/ Q TS : CAF
o
N = 8.&,/ 5 #.26:TS 5 C =8.%1&TS ' ;5 TS? : 1&)8E 5 8.886&;
#. T(e ca"acity !actor CAF
8
increases <it( increasing tray s"acing u" to a limiting ;alue.
Limits reac(ed $elo< %/Rs"acing are not e'"erienced until t(e ;a"or density e'ceeds %
13s:!t
2
. T(e aut(or de;elo"ed an e@uation to determine t(e limiting CAF
8
. +alue !or
;a"or densities a3o;e % 13s:!t
2
. It s(ould 3e used !or situations (a;ing 1 5 tray s"acing
and a3o;e. CAF
o
= limiting? N 8.)%/ 5 8.8%62P
+
A3sor3ers and stri""ers !re@uently o"erate <it( a li@uid (a;ing essentially t(e same
"(ysical c(aracteristics regardless o! t(e "ressure. An e'am"le o! t(is is a gas o3ser;er.
T(e same lean oil is used i! t(e to<er is o"erating at 188 or 1888 "si. T(is ty"e o! system
is e'cluded !rom t(e CAF
o
limiting ;alue.
%. Calculate +
load
as +
load
N CFS
;
:=
L
5
;
?
&. 4sing +
;
and 0P = column li@uid loading in gallons "er minute?7 o3tain a""ro'imate
to<er diameter !or calculating !lo< "at( lengt(. 4se
= DTA ?
2
N #.82& > 8.8812 A$ > ,.)%, ' 18
5,
A$
2

<(ere DTA N A""ro'imate to<er diameter7 !t
A N +

load
$ N 0P
T(is is t(e aut(orGs correlation o! a nomogra"( in t(e 0litc( anual. It gi;es results
<it(in & W o! t(e nomogra"( !or diameter % !eet or greater and <it( in 1& W !or
smaller diameters. T(is is ade@uate !or t(is !irst a""ro'imation o! to<er diameter:. It
a""lies !or a . single "ass trays
3. 2%R trays s"acing at /8 W !lood
c. DT N 2G 5 18G
d. +
load
N 85#8
e. 0P N 851&88
). 0or 25"ass trays a. Di;ide +
load N
3y 2
3. Di;ide 0P 3y 2
c. *3tain diameter !rom single "ass e@uation
d. ulti"ly diameter 3y 2
For %5 "ass trays7 re"lace t(e 2G s 3y %Gs.
, . Calculate !lo< "at( lengt(. FPL N 6 ' DTA:NP

/. Calculate minimum acti;e area.13s:!t
2
.
A N +
load
> =0P ' FPL : 1#888 ?
CAF ' FF
A !lood !actor o! 8.)& to 8.,& s(ould 3e used !or column diameters under #)R to
com"ensate !or <all e!!ects. Larger column are ty"ically designed !or a3out /8 W o!
!lood .
6. *3tain do<ncomer design ;elocity7 +D
dsg.
4se t(e smallest ;alue !orm t(ese tree
e@uations
+D
dsg
N 2&8 ' system !actor
+D
deg N
%1
L
5
+
' system !actor
+D
deg N
,.& TS '
L
5
;
' system !actor
<(ere +D
des
N Design ;elocity 7 0P:!t
2

For t(e system7 use ;alue as out o! Ta3le e'ce"t !or t(e last item in t(at ta3le = !oam5
sta3le system ? use 8.#8.
18. Calculate do<ncomer minimum area.
AD N 0P : =+D
deg
' FF ?
<(ere AD N inimum do<ncomer area7 Ft
2
I! t(e do<ncomer area calculated a3o;e is less t(an 11 W o! t(e acti;e area7 use t(e
smaller o! AD N dou3le t(at o! t(e e@uation . AD N 11W o! t(e acti;e area
11. Calculate minimum column cross5sectional area. 4se t(e larger o!
AT N AA > 2 ' AD
+
load
AT 8.,/ ' CAF ' FF
<(ere AT N inimum column cross5sectional area. Ft
2
!urt(er detailed design
calculation may result in a c(ange in to<er diameter.
12. Calculate column minimum diameter.
DT N AT :8.,/&%
Parentage o& &(ood &or e2isting Ba((ast Tra. co(!/ns
+
load
> = 0P ' FPL 1#888?
W Flood N
AA ' CAF
inimum diameter !or multi"ass trays is gi;en in Ta3le
2olding 0P:B.P 3elo< a3out / is "re!erred7 alt(oug( li@uid rates as (ig( as 28 0P:
B.P can and (a;e 3een sued BFP is t(e <idt( o! t(e !lo< "at( in inc(es. Some
com"anies li-e to use trays (a;ing no more t(an t<o "asses.
AA N Acti;e area. Ft
2
AA N inimum acti;e are. Ft
2
ADN Do<ncomer area7 !t
2
AD N inimum do<ncomer area7 !t
2
ATN inimum column cross5sectional area7 !t
2
CAFN +a"or ca"acity !actor
CAF
8
N Flood ca"acity !actor at 1ero li@uid load
CFS N +a"or rate7 actual !t
#
:sec
DT N To<er diameter7 !t
DTA N a""ro'imate to<er diameter7 !t
FFN Flood !actor o! design "ercent o! !lood7 !ractional
FPL N Tray !lo< "at( lengt(7 in.
0P N Column li@uid loading7 gal:min
NP N Tray num3er o! !lo< "at(s or "asses
TS N Tray s"acing7 in.
+D
dsg
N Do<ncomer design ;elocity7 0P :!t
2
BFP N Bit( o! tray !lo< "at(7 in7.
L
N Li@uid density7 13s:!t
2
;
N +a"or density7 13s:!t
2
Tab(e &or 9ini/!/ Practica( dia/eter &or 9!(tipass Ba((ast Tra.s
ulti"ass Tray inimum Diameter Pre!erred Diameter
Num3er o! "asses =Ft? =!t?
2 & )
# / 6
% 18 12
& 1# 1&
=.7.#, Dia/eter o& 8ractionators
For c(ec-ing design one can roug(ly relate to<er diameter to re3oiler duty as !ollo<s :
Situation Re3oiler Duty7 :$T4:(r
Pressure distillation 8.& D
2
Atmos"(eric "ressure distillation 8.# D
2
+acuum distillation 8.1& D
2
<(ere7 D N To<er diameter7 !t
=.= !//ar. o& R!(es o& Th!/b
1. Distillation usually is t(e most economical met(od o! se"arating li@uids7 su"erior to
e'traction7 a3sor"tion7 crystalli1ation or ot(ers. For ideal mi'tures7 relati;e ;olatility
is t(e ratio o! ;a"or "ressures
12
N "
2
:"
1
.
2. To<er o"erating "ressure is determined most o!ten 3y t(e tem"erature o! t(e a;aila3le
condensing medium 7 1885128 F i! cooling <ater M or 3y t(e ma'imum allo<a3le
re3oiler tem"erature 7 1&8 "sig steam7 #))
8
F.
#. Se@uencing o! columns !or se"arating multi5com"onent mi'tures:
Per!orm t(e easiest se"aration !irst7 t(at is t(e one least demanding o! trays and
re!lu' and lea;e t(e most di!!icult to t(e last.
B(en neit(er relati;e ;olatility nor !eed concentration ;ary <idely remo;e t(e
com"onents one 3y one as o;er(ead "roducts.
B(en t(e adDacent ordered com"onents in t(e !eed ;ery <idely in relati;e
;olatility7 se@uence t(e s"lits in t(e order o! decreasing ;olatility.
B(en t(e concentration in t(e !eed o! ;ary <idely 3ut t(e relati;e ;olatilities do
not7 remo;e t(e com"onents in t(e order o! decreasing concentration in t(e !eed.
%. .conomically7 o"timum re!lu' ratio is a3out 1.2 times t(e minimum re!lu' ratio R
m
.
T(e economically o"timum num3er o! trays is near t<ice t(e minimum ;alue N
m
. T(e
minimum num3er o! trays is !ound <it( t(e Fens-e 4nder<ood e@uation
N
m
N log \C ':=1 5 '?E
o;(d
: C ': =1 5 '?
3tms
] : log .
&. inimum re!lu' !or 3inary or "seudo3inary mi'tures is gi;en 3y t(e !ollo<ing <(en
se"aration is essentially com"lete ='
D
1? and D:F si t(e ratio o! o;er(ead "roduct
and !eed rates:
R
m
D:F N 1:= 5 1?7 <(en !eed is at t(e 3u33le"oint
=R
m
> 1 ? D:F N : = 5 1? <(en !eed is at t(e de<"oint.
). A sa!ety !actor o! 18W o! t(e num3er o! trays calculated 3y t(e 3est means is
ad;isa3le.
,. Re!lu' "um"s are made at least 2&W o;ersi1e.
/. For reasons o! accessi3ility7 tray s"acing are made 2852% in.
6. Pea- e!!iciency o! trays is at ;alues o! t(e ;a"or !actor F
s
N u
u
in t(e range 1.8 51.2
. T(is range o! F
s
esta3lis(es t(e diameter o! t(e to<er. Roug(ly7 linear ;elocities are
2 !t:sec at moderate "ressures and ) !t:sec in ;acuum.
18. T(e o"timum ;alue o! t(e Aremser5$ro<n a3sor"tion !actor A N A =+:L? is in t(e
range 1.2& 5 2.8.
11. Pressure dro" "er tray is o! t(e order o! # in. *! <ater or 8.1 "si.
12. Tray e!!iciencies !or distillation o! lig(t (ydrocar3ons and a@ueous solutions are )85
68WM !or gas a3sor"tion and stri""ing7 18528W.
1#. Sie;e trays (a;e (oles 8.2&58.&8 in. diameter. (ole area 3eing 18W o! t(e acti;e cross
section.
1%. +al;e trays (a;e (oles 1.&in diameter eac( "ro;ided <it( a li!ta3le ca"7 1251%
ca"s:s@!t o! acti;e cross section. +al;e trays usually are c(ea"er t(an sie;e trays.
1&. $u33le ca" trays used only <(en a li@uid le;el must 3e maintained at lo< turndo<n
ratioM t(ey can 3e designed !or lo<er "ressure dro" t(an eit(er sie;e or ;al;e trays.
1). Beir (eig(ts are 2 in <eir lengt(s a3out ,&W o! trays diameter7 li@uid rate a
ma'imum o! a3out / g"m:on. *! <eirM multi"ass arrangements are used (ig( li@uid
rates.
1,. Pac-ing o! random and structured c(aracter are suited es"ecial to to<er under # !t
diameter and <(en lo< "ressure dro" is desira3le. Bit( "ro"er initial distri3ution and
"eriodic redistri3ution7 ;olumetric e!!iciencies can 3e made greater t(an t(ose o! trays
to<ers. Pac-ed internals are used as re"lacements !or ac(ie;ing greater t(roug("ut or
se"aration in e'isting to<er s(ells.
1/. For gas rates o! &88 c!m7 use 1 in. Pac-ing !or gas rates o! 2888 c!m or more use 2 in.
16. T(e ratio o! diameters o! to<er and "ac-ing s(ould 3e at least 1&. $ecause o!
de!orma3ility7 "lastic "ac-ing is limited to a 1851& !t de"t( unsu""orted7 metal to 285
2& !t.
28. Li@uid redistri3utors are needed e;ery &518 to<er diameters <it( "all rings 3ut at least
e;ery 28!t. T(e num3er o! li@uid streams s(ould 3e #5&:s@!t in to<ers larger t(an # !t
diameter =some e'"erts say 6512:s@!t ?7 and more numerous in smaller to<ers.
21. 2eig(t e@ui;alent to a t(eoretical "late =2PTP? !or ;a"or li@uid contacting is 1.#51./
!t !or 1 in. Pall rings7 2.&5#.8 !t !or 2 in. Pall rings.
22. Pac-ed to<ers s(ould o"erate near ,8W o! t(e !looding rate gi;en 3y t(e correlation
o! S(er<ood7 Lo3o7 et al.
2#. Re!lu' drums usually are (ori1ontal7 <it( a li@uid (oldu" o! & min (al! !ull. A ta-eo!!
"ot !or a second li@uid "(ase7 suc( as <ater in (ydrocar3on systems7 is si1ed !or a
linear ;elocity o! t(at "(ase o! 8.&!t:sec7 minimum diameter o! 1) in.
2%. For to<ers a3out #!t diameter7 add % !t at t(e to" !or ;a"or disengagement and ) !t at
t(e 3ottom !or li@uid le;el and re3oiler return.
2&. Limit t(e to<er (eig(t to a3out 1,&!t ma'imum 3ecause o! <ind load and !oundation
considerations. An additional criterion is t(at L:D 3e less t(an #8.

C"APTER B
E%ECTION O8 REBOI%ER0 CONDENER
AND CONTRO% ;TE9 CRITERIA
B.# 8RACTIONATOR REBOI%ER E%ECTION
B.#.# Introd!ction
$oiling in a re3oiler is ;a"ori1ation o! column 3ottom material in t(e (eat e'c(anger and
send t(e ;a"our 3ac- to column . It is "ossi3le only <(en t(e +a"or Pressure o! t(e
3ottom "roduct is more t(an t(e Static Pressure. T(e re3oiler <or-s 3y inducing 3oiling
3y trans!erring (eat into li@uid. T(e nucleate 3oiling means t(e (eat trans!er induces t(e
!ormation o! 3u33les at sur!ace. T(ese 3u33les !orm at s"eci!ic sites or nuclei.
T(e relation 3et<een (eat trans!er and dri;ing !orce o! (eating medium is s(o<n 3elo< in
Figure 6.1.
T(e 0PSA .ngineering Data $oo- (as an e'cellent section on re3oilers. T(e most
common ty"es are t(e !ollo<ing :
Forced circulation
Natural circulation
+ertical t(ermosy"(on
2ori1ontal t(ermosy"(on
Flooded 3undle =-ettle?
T(ere are !ollo<ing re3oiler Systems
Fractionator $ottoms to Re3oiler
$ottoms Tray Li@uid to Re3oiler
Pre!erential Fractionator $ottoms to Re3oiler
B.#.#.# 8ractionator Botto/s to Reboi(er
T(e main !eatures o! t(is system is e'"lained 3elo< :
Li@uid "(ase entering column is not t(e same li@uid as t(e net 3ottoms
"roduct.
Li@uid entering re3oiler is a mi'ture o! 3ottom tray li@uid "lus t(e re3oiler
li@uid.
P(ase s"lit sets tem"erature o! t(e re3oiler outlet and li@uid circulation to
re3oiler de"ends on re3oiler duty.
It is indicated in !igure 6.2 a.
B.#.#.' Botto/s Tra. %i)!id to Reboi(er
Li@uid "(ase entering column is identical to net 3ottoms "roduct.
Li@uid entering t(e re3oiler is t(e total li@uid lea;ing t(e 3ottom tray o!
!ractionator.
At design conditions7 t(e tem"erature and "(ase s"lit o! t(e re3oiler outlet
material <ill remain constant. Tem"erature is 3u33le "oint o! net 3ottoms.
It is indicated in !igure 6.2 3
B.#.#., Pre&erentia( 8ractionator Botto/s to Reboi(er
In t(eory7 t(e li@uid "(ase !rom re3oiler is identical to t(e net 3ottoms
"roduct.
T(e li@uid entering t(e re3oiler is t(e li@uid lea;ing t(e 3ottom tray o! t(e
!ractionator "lus some "ortion o! recycle re3oiler li@uid.
T(e tem"erature and "(ase s"lit o! t(e re3oiler outlet material ;ary as t(e
re3oiler li@uid is ;aried.
It is indicated in !igure 6.2 c.
B.#.' Reboi(er T.pes
T(ermosi"(on
Immersed = Natural Circulation ?
Pum"ed = Forced Circulation ?
B.#.'.# Ther/osiphon (Nat!ra( Circ!(ation)
For t(ermosy"(on re3oilers7 t(e (ydraulic as"ects are as im"ortant as t(e (eat
trans!er as"ects. T(e design o! t(ermosy"(on re3oiler "i"ing is too 3road a
su3Dect.
At (ig( "ressures7 t(ermosy"(on re3oilers "resent design "ro3lems at t(e t<o
e'treme o! t(e "ressure scale. Near t(e critical "ressure7 t(e ma'imum allo<a3le
!lu' dro"s. B(ere as !lu' o! a3out 12788851)7888 $tu:(r !t
2
is a reasona3le range
!or (ydrocar3ons at QnormalR "ressure7 a !lu' o! only7 say 7 ,7888 $tu:(e !t
2
is
reasona3le near t(e critical "ressure.
At lo< "ressures7 t(e "ro3lem is ty"ically not 3eing a3le to ac(ie;e
t(ermosy"(oning. At lo< "ressure7 a longer sensi3le (eat 1one can 3e e'"erienced
<(ic( can in(i3it "ro"er circulation rate. T(is is related to t(e large e!!ect o!
li@uid (eat on 3oiling (ead on 3oiling "oint at lo< "ressure. For "ro"er
"er!ormance7 a lo< "ercentage o! ;a"ori1ation "er "ass is re@uired. A %:1 li@uid
to ;a"or ratio is a3out minimum. For (ig( ;acuum ser;ice7 !orced circulation
re3oilers are sometimes used. It is not uncommon to see a circulation "um" added
to an e'isting lo< "ressure re3oiler originally designed !or natural circulation.
At intermediate "ressures7 ty"ical "ro3lems are !ouling7 noncondensi3les on t(e
steam =or ot(er (eating medium? side7 im"ro"er <it(dra<al o! condensate and
unsta3le circulation. Fouling is largely de"endent u"on t(e system "ro"erties7 3ut
o!ten a more tig(tly designed <it( a lot o! !at. T(is may 3e due to t(e greater
tur3ulence re3oiler can 3e used i! recirculation tends to increase !ouling. For steam
side noncondensi3les7 a "ro"er ;ent is re@uired. A small amount o!
noncondensi3les can greatly lo<er t(e steam side (eat trans!er coe!!icient. T(e
im"ro"er remo;al o! condensate is anot(er <ay to reduce t(e steam side
coe!!icient. A "um"ed system is "re!era3le to steam tra"s !or a large system.
4nsta3le circulation can result i! t(e inlet line to a ;ertical t(ermosy"(on re3oiler
Q!ireR indi;idually. T(e tu3es can 3ac-!ire e'cessi;ely i! t(e li@uid inlet line is too
large. T(ey donGt (a;e to 3ac-!ire all t(e <ay into t(e to<er to cause "ro3lems7
Dust to t(e inlet tu3es(eet. It is common to "ut !langes in t(e inlet li@uid line so an
ori!ice can 3e added later7 i! re@uired7 to "ro;ide "ro"er dam"ening e!!ect.
T(e t(ermosy"(on re3oilers (a;e t<o ty"es Re!er !igure :
a? +ertical +a"ori1ation = Re!er Figure 6.# a ?
It designed normally or 8.## <eig(t !raction "er "ass.
Process side in tu3es =easily cleaned?.
Re@uires 3a!!ling in column to "ro;ide constant li@uid dri;ing !orce.
*utlet no11le ele;ation normally same as ;essel re3oiler return.
3? 2ori1ontal +a"ori1ation = Re!er Figure 6.# 3 ?
+a"ori1ation designed normally !or 8.## <eig(t !raction "er "ass.
2eating medium in tu3es =easily cleaned?.
Ca"ital cost (ig(er t(an ;ertical ty"e due to larger "lot area and more
com"le' "i"ing.
.asier maintenance t(an ;ertical ty"e.
4sually located at grade.
B.#.'.' I//ersed (Nat!ra( Circ!(ation)
a) -ett(e (E2terna() ( Re&er B., c )
It is +a"ori1ation normally limited to 68W or less in order to a;oid
e'cessi;e entrainment and de3ris 3uildu".
Process side !ilm resistance is (ig(.
Do not use i! t(ermal !ouling a "ossi3ility.
Net 3ottom surge ca"acity lo<.
Large diameter s(ell re@uired !or -ettle to disengage li@uid !rom ;a"or
return.
Beir in re3oiler maintains tu3e immersion as <ell as t(e column 3ottom
le;el.
Aettle does not re@uire large dri;ing le;el.
b) tab In ( Interna( ) ( Re&er 8ig!re B., d)
+a"ori1ation normally limited to 68W or less in order to a;oid e'cessi;e
entrainment and de3ris 3uildu".
Process side !ilm resistance is (ig(.
Do not use o! t(ermal !ouling a "ossi3ility.
Ca"ital "ost less t(an e'ternal ty"e since s(ell and "i"ing not re@uired.
Net 3ottoms surge (ig(er t(an e'ternal ty"e.
B.#.'., P!/ped (8orced Circ!(ation) ( Re&er 8ig!re B., e )
Re3oiler circulation is inde"endent o! li@uid (ydrostatic (ead.
Forced circulation re@uired <(en re3oiler is !ired (eater.
+a"ori1ation normally &8 <eig(t "ercent or !or clean ser;ice u" to ,&
<eig(t W.
Considered on re;am"s to increase ca"acity o! e'isting re3oiler systems.
4se!ul in ;iscous ser;ices.
B.#.1 Design considerations
Pre&erred .ste/
T(e most common re3oiler system !ound in re!ineries is t(e 3ottom li@uid to
re3oiler. 4nless t(ere is a dri;ing !orce !or anot(er system7 use t(is most
economic system.
e(ection O& "eating 9edi!/
In ma-ing t(e decision !or c(oice o! (eating medium7 one must consider allo<a3le
"ressure dro"7 !ouling tendency and "ossi3ility o! t(ermal decom"osition.
Ca(c!(ation O& Area
For calculation o! t(e LTD !or natural circulation re3oilers7 t(e outlet "rocess
tem"erature s(all 3e used as t(e inlet tem"erature. For 3are tu3es7 t(e ma'imum
!lu' rate is limited to a minimum o! 17888 3tu:(r:s@. !t. 2i !lu' tu3es can go to
muc( (ig(er rates.
Press!re e(ection
Re3oiler "ressure is set at a minimum o! column o;er(ead "ressure "lus 8.1 "si "er
tray "lus any necessary contingency re@uired !or a ma'imum o"erating "ressure
le;el.
9echanica(
A sa!ety !actor o! 1.8 "si s(all 3e added to t(e calculated "ressure dro" t(roug(
T(ermosi"(on re3oiler ty"es to calculate t(e re@uired column (eig(t.
Co(!/n E(evation
Re3oiler ty"es t(at (a;e (ydraulic re@uirements to ac(ie;e circulation can re@uire
considera3le column ele;ation i! o"eration is close to critical conditions.
Contingenc.
Normal "olicy !or e'c(ange sur!ace and Setting LTD !or design
$u33le "oint tem"erature adDustments
Fouling !actor selection.
B.' 8ractionator Condenser e(ection :
B.'.# Introd!ction
It is t(e to" section o! t(e column. T(e o;er(ead ;a"ours are condensed and "art
t(e condensed li@uid is !ed 3ac- to column -no<n as Re!lu' and 3alance is t(e
o;er(ead "roduct. T(e condensation ta-es "lace at its de< "oint. It is "ossi3le
only <(en t(e condensation Static Pressure is greater t(an t(e +a"or Pressure.
T(ere are t<o ty"es o! condensation
1. Total condensation
2. Partial condensation
B.'.#.# Tota( Condensation
T(e "ressure selection !or total condensation is 3ased on
+ent non5condensa3les or "urge gas to !lare.
Allo< economic tem"erature a""roac( on cold end o! condenser.
Select system <(ic( maintains sta3le control.
T(e tem"erature Selection !or total condensation is 3ased on
Try to a;oid s"eci!ication o! su3cooling section.
S"eci!y condenser outlet tem"erature as 3u33le "oint > contingency.
T(e Total Condenser <or-ing is s(o<n in !igure 6.% a .
B.'.#.' Partia( condensation
T(e "ressure selection !or "artial condensation is 3ased on
Lo< "ressure !a;ours al"(a.
inimum "ressure set 3y destination o! gas.
a'imum "ressure gi;es conditions close to criticalM or t(ermal
decom"osition in 3ottom.
T(e tem"erature Selection !or "artial condensation is 3ased on
Set 3y lo< end a""roac( to cooling medium.
a'imum condenser outlet tem"erature is set 3y
Storage re@uirement o! li@uid.
Li@uid "roduct loss in ;a"our.
inimi1e condensation o! ;a"or in do<nstream "i"ing.
T(e Total Condenser <or-ing is s(o<n in !igure 6.% 3.
B.'.' Condenser and Receiver T.pes
T(e ;arious ty"es o! <ater cooled and air cooled "artial and total condensers are s(o<n
in Figure 6.& a to (. t(e details (ydraulics !or t(ose condenser is e'"lained 3elo<.
B.'.'.# Net Vent + @ater coo(ed condenser
It o"erates on PRC controls ;al;e in t(e net gas and regulates t(e 3ac- "ressure
on t(e !ractionating column. Re!er Figure 6.) a.
2ydraulics o! t(e system is gi;en as :
P
1
N T(e column to" "ressure
P
2
N "
1
5 line > P 2ead
P
#
N "
2
P .'c(anger
P
%
N P
#
P 2ead 5 P Line
T(e condenser is al<ays t<o "(ase at outlet end and is usually located 3elo< t(e
recei;er = lo<er cost7 easier maintenance?. Condenser outlet line si1e is selected to
"re;ent slug !lo< and to "ro;ide su!!icient linear ;elocity to s<ee" an immisci3le
li@uid !lo< !rom t(e lo< "oint o! t(e system in to t(e recei;er.
T(e condenser can 3e located a3o;e t(e recei;er. T(is con!iguration is economic
i! column "ressure is to 3e minimi1ed or i! t(e net gas !lo< is e'tremely lo< or
;aria3le and a corrosi;e immisci3le "(ase is "resent.
I! an air condenser is utili1ed7 t(en t(e condenser is located a3o;e t(e recei;er.
Instrumentation is identical to t(at s(o<n a3o;e.
B.'.'.' @ater Coo(ed
It o"erates as a c(ange in !lo< t(roug( t(e (ot ;a"or 3y"ass control ;al;e ;aries
t(e recei;er "ressure <(ic( c(anges t(e li@uid le;el in t(e condenser. T(e
sur!ace a;aila3le !or condensation regulates t(e column "ressures. Re!er Figure
6.) 3.
P
1
N t(e column to" "ressure
P
2
N "
1
5 line > P 2ead
P
#
N "
2
P .'c(anger
P
%
N P
#
P 2ead 5 P Line
Note t(at t(e recei;er "ressure is inde"endent o! t(e column "ressure.
Condenser must 3e 3elo< recei;er to maintain li@uid seal.
Control ;al;e si1ed !or a""ro'imately )W o! total o;er(ead ;a"or !lo<.
B.'.'., Air Coo(ed

It o"erates as t(e PRC controls t(e 3utter!ly ;al;e <(ic( regulates o;er(ead
;a"or !lo< to t(e air cooled condenser. T(is adDustment o! !lo< controls t(e
column "ressure. T(e DPC -ee"s t(e 3utter!ly ;al;e in o"erating range. T(e
DPC regulates t(e !lo< o! (ot ;a"or to o3tain t(e sur!ace tem"erature in t(e
recei;er to o3tain t(e ;a"or "ressure necessary to satis!y t(e DPC. Re!er Figure
6.) c.
P
1
N T(e column to" "ressure
P
2
N "
1
5 line
P
#
N "
2
5 P +al;e
P
%
N P
#
5 P .'c(anger
I! rundo<n line t<o "(ase
"
&
N "
%
5 " 2ead 5 P Line
I! rundo<n line li@uid "(ase
"
&
N "
%
5 " 2ead 5 P Line
I! rundo<n line goes !rom t<o "(ase to single li@uid "(ase7 t(ere can 3e se;ere
"ressure !luctuations. Rundo<n line design s(ould 3e minimum distance7 (a;e no
tra"s7 and 3e -e"t to< "(ase to eliminate static (ead 3uildu". T(e DPC control
;al;e is si1ed !or a""ro'imately )W o! total o;er(ead !lo<.
B.'.'.1 Open To 8(are + Air Coo(ed
T(ere is an o"en line !rom t(e recei;er to t(e !lare (eader. A "urge gas is
introduced in to t(e line to !lare to maintain a "ositi;e !lo< going to t(e !lare.
Re!er Figure 6.) d.
P
1
N *;er(ead recei;er "ressure
P
2
N "
1
5 line
P
#
N "
2
5 P .'c(anger
P
%
N P
#
5 P Line
Purge gas is in e@uili3rium <it( o;er(ead "roduct.
S<ings in !lare (eader "ressure must 3e ta-en in to account !or design. Ty"ical
!lare (eader at column recei;er : minimum N 1.8M a'imum N &.8.
Rundo<n line design s(ould 3e minimum distance7 (a;e no tra"s7 and 3e -e"t t<o
"(ase to eliminate static (ead 3uildu".
B.'.1 Design Considerations
B.'.1.# Piping
inimi1e static (ead in rundo<n "i"ing .
Install e@uali1er line.
Close cou"le condenser and recei;er.
All "i"ing s(all 3e !ree draining.
Si1e rundo<n line generously.
Pro;ide non5condensa3le ;ents = total condensing ?.
Install 1 Q ;ent at end o! condensing section to eliminate tra""ed non5
condensa3le ;a"or.
T(e ty"ical Air cooler PbID is s(o<n in Figure 6.,
.@uali1er line 5 Si1e 1:% to 1:# o! rundo<n line diameter.
Rundo<n lien 5 Si1e large.
Distri3utor 5 4se "i"e <it( ;ertical slot.
Vent Condensers
Inerts in !eed.
4n5condensed "roduct.
!bcoo(ing
A "ortion o! t(e condenser must 3e designed !or t(e su3cooling ser;ice.
Some "ortion o! t(e condenser is li@uid !ull.
Designs to o3tain a su3cooling section are as s(o<n in Figure 6./.
B.'.3 Press!re Drop
T(e !ollo<ing are ty"ical "ressure dro" ;alues used to determine t(e o"erating
(ydraulics o! a Fractionator.
Pressure Dro"7 "si
inimum A;erage
Bater condenser #.8 % to )
Air condenser 2.8 # to &
*;er(ead Line7 "si:188 8.1 8.2 to 8.&
$utter!ly c condenser Inlet 1.8 1.& to 2.&
Condense around o<n Line7 "si:188
T<o P(ase 8.1 8.2&
Li@uid P(ase =Free Drain? 8.1 8.2&
Li@uid P(ase =<it( Seal? 8.& 1.8
B.'.5 Contingenc.
Normal "olicy !or e'c(ange sur!ace.
Lo< end tem"erature a""roac( to cooling medium.
Straig(t line condensation
$u33le "oint tem"erature adDustments.
Fouling !actor selection.
B., 8ractionator Contro( che/es e(ection
B.,.# Basic Instr!/entation

T(e !undamental data re@uired !or distillation columns are "ressure7 tem"erature7 le;el and
di!!erential "ressure. *n many columns7 "ressure and tem"erature are used to in!er
"roduct com"osition7 le;el to control "roduct dra< rates7 and di!!erential "ressure to
indicate column (ydraulic limitations. Suc( measurements are necessary to im"lement any
gi;en control strategy7 <(et(er it is an o"timi1ed7 dynamically com"ensated7 ad;anced
control sc(eme or a sim"le cascade5control system. *3;iously7 t(e connections !or t(e
instrumentation must 3e located so t(at a""ro"riate7 accrue measurements can 3e ta-en.
A re;am" may signi!icantly c(ange t(e "ro"er location o! le;el instrumentation7
t(ermo<ells and "ressure ta"s. For instance7 le;el indication is necessary in many ser;ices
to control eit(er t(e re!lu' 3elo< t(e dra<er t(e "roduct dra< !rom a column. Figure %
s(o<s a ty"ical le;el indication !or a total dra< collector. T(e le;el is measured 3y a
di!!erential "ressure transmitter. B(en t(e column <as re;am"ed 7 t(e le;el indication
=di!!erential "ressure no11les? (ad 3een le!t outside t(e ne< sum" design. B(en t(e
column <as started u"7 t(ere <as no le;el indication. Figure 6. de"icts <(at can (a""en
to a "ressure measurement "oint in t(e con;ersion o! a one5"ass to a t<o "ass trayed
column. T(e "ressure connection is in t(e ;a"or s"ace !or t(e one5"ass design. B(en t(e
column <as re;am"ed7 t(e "ressure connection ended u" 3eing located in t(e do<ncomer.
T(is measurement error may (a;e signi!icant im"act5 !or instance7 i! t(e "ressure "oint is
used to measure t(e di!!erential "ressure across a !e< trays7 as t(is o!ten is used to
constrain t(e o"eration.
Figure 6 s(o<s a di!!erential "ressure measurement !or a "ac-ed 3ed. T(is measurement
<as used to in!er "ac-ed53ed !looding. T(e (ydraulic limitations <ere em"loyed in an
ad;anced control sc(eme to o"erate t(e unit to ma'imi1e "roduction o! t(e (ig(est ;alued
"roduct. 4n!ortunately7 t(e measurements <ere not correct. T(is <as 3ecause t(e
di!!erential "ressure measurement included t(e ;a"or5outlet5no11le "ressure dro"7 <(ic(
contri3uted a signi!icant "ercentage o! t(e o;erall "ressure dro" at !lood. T(is led t(e
"lant to unnecessarily restrict "roduction 3ecause o! an a""arent limit.
Al<ays remem3er t(at7 <(ile ad;anced control strategies and distillation column7 control
t(eory (a;e ad;anced in t(is age o! (ig( s"eed7 lo< cost com"uters7 3asic instrumentation
still is essential to su""ly t(e data !or t(e so"(isticated control strategies.
B.,.' Contro( strateg.
Re;am"ing can re@uire c(anges in control strategy to re!lect t(e ne< e@ui"ment
limitations. B(ile de;elo"ing a ne< strategy may 3e t(e Do3 o! a control s"ecialist7
-no<ing <(en to e;aluate t(e need !or one s(ould 3e "art o! t(e start u" "lanning
"rocess. Consider t(e ne< side re3oiler t(at <e discussed earlier. Figure , de"icts t(e
original (eat in"ut control o! t(e column "rior to installation o! t(e side re3oiler. $ottom
"roduct com"osition <as in!erred !rom t(e Tray No. #& tem"erature. Figure / s(o<s t(e
column <it( t(e t<o (eat in"uts. B(en t(e side re3oiler is added7 <(at (a""ens to t(e
tem"erature on Tray No. #&d In t(is tem"erature still t(e most re"resentati;e to in!er
"roduct com"ositiond 2o< does t(e ne< re3oiler installation a!!ect t(e control o! t(e
columnd T(e Tray No. #& tem"erature no longer (as t(e same tem"erature res"onse to
3ottoms com"osition c(anges. T(e tray design 3elo< t(e side re3oiler is di!!erent 3ecause
t(e ;a"or loading is muc( lo<er. T(e re;am"ed column total (eat in"ut is &8W (ig(er
t(an t(e original design and t(e 3ottom re3oiler alone can !lood t(e column =2#?. T(e
re@uired control strategy clearly (as c(anged.
B.,., Instr!/ent t!ning
A!ter a column is re;am"ed7 instrument s(ould re!lect t(e c(anges made to t(e system.
*ne common e'am"le is <(en a trayed column is re;am"ed <it( "ac-ing =2%8. A!ter one
large !ractionator con;ersion !rom trays to "ac-ing7 t(e maDor com"laint <as t(at t(e
column res"onded too @uic-ly ton o"erating c(anges. *"erations "ersonnel (ad 3een
conditioned to t(e tray columnGs slo< res"onse to eit(er "rocess distur3ances or o"erating
c(anges. T(e "ac-ed columnGs res"onse <as muc( !aster. $ot( t(e control system
res"onse and t(e o"erators Q!eelR !or distur3ances and o"erating c(anges s(ould 3e
understood "rior to !eed 3eing "ut into t(e unit.
Figure 6 s(o<s a distillation column <it( a total "roduct dra<. T(e column <as
re;am"ed to increase !ractionation 3et<een t(e t<o side "roducts. T(e re;am" in;ol;ed
increasing t(e "ac-ed 3ed de"t( o! $ed No. 1 and lo<ering t(e ele;ation o! $ed No. 2.
T(e control sc(eme uses t(e collector tray le;el to reset t(e "roduct dra< rate. To
accommodate t(e increased "ac-ed53ed de"t(7 t(e ;a"or stac-s <ere reduced in (eig(t.
T(is7 in turn7 cut t(e li@uid (oldu" on t(e collector tray. No c(anges <ere made7
(o<e;er7 to t(e le;el controller setting "rior to t(e re;am"ed column startu"e.
Figure 6 re"resents t(e in;entory c(anges made to a total dra< collector tray in one
column. ore "ac-ing <as re@uired in $ed No. 1 to ac(ie;e t(e design !ractionation
o3Decti;es. So7 3ecause o! s"ace limitations in t(e column7 t(e li@uid (oldu" on t(e
re;am"ed collector tray <as decreased to #8W o! t(e original design. T(e le;el controller
tuning on t(e original collector design (ad a ;ery slo< res"onse to measured c(anges.
Large le;el ;ariations <ere "ossi3le gi;en t(e large li@uid (oldu" on t(e tray. B(en t(e
ne< collector <as installed7 t(e controller settings <ere not c(anged. T(e re;am"ed
collector !looded 3ecause t(e res"onse to measured le;el c(anges <as too slo<. B(en
t(e ne< collector <as installed7 t(e controller settings <ere not c(anged. T(e collector
tray !looded t(e "roduct @uality deteriorated and column "ressure dro" increased. *nce
t(e le;el controller tuning <as adDusted7 t(e re;am"ed column met t(e design o3Decti;es.
So7 -ee" in mind t(at column modi!ications can signi!icantly a!!ect controller tuning and
ad;anced control dynamics. .;aluating t(e "otential im"act o! distillation system c(anges
on controller tuning is an essential "art o! t(e startu" "lanning "rocess7 and can "ro;ide
in;alua3le im"acts !or t(e s"ecialist doing t(e actual tuning !or t(e startu".
B.,.' Contro( se(ection Introd!ction
A good understanding o! control sc(emes is essential !or understanding !raction systems.
It is not "ossi3le to discuss all "ossi3le control (oo-u"s. T(e !ollo<ing discussions <ill
t(ere!ore include many o! t(e maDor means o! control and attem"t o! "ro;ide enoug(
control "(iloso"(y to allo< custom designer analysis !or indi;idual circumstances. T(e
discussions <ill 3e limited to con;entional instrumentation since com"uter control is
3eyond t(e sco"e o! t(is (and3oo-. For orientation in trying to control !ractionators7 it is
<ell to em"(asi1e t(e territory <it(in <(ic( !ractionators7 and t(ere!ore control7 mo;e.
Fractionators "roduce t<o results only : =1? steam s"litting7 <it( so many "ounds going
out one U endG all ot(er !eed "onds going out t(e ot(er and =2? com"onent segregation
to<ard one or t(e ot(er o! t(e "roduct steams7 c(aracteri1ed 3y t(e Fens-e ratio :
oles 1t in *.2 moles (;y in $tm
moles 1t in $tm moles (;y in *.2:
Result =1? is ac(ie;ed 3y control o! "roduct !lo< !orm one end o! t(e !ractionator. Result
=2? is ac(ie;ed 3y control o! t(e (eat load on t(e !ractionator.
$y a com3ination o! t(e t<o control (andles7 one can a!!ect com"onent s"eci!ication in
t(e "roduct streams7 3ut t(ere is al<ays some ma'imum "ossi3le e'tant o! se"aration
= ;alue o! Fens-e ratio ? in a gi;en system. Nearly all control measures are designed to
"ermit control o! t(e t<o (andles. It s(ould 3e reali1ed t(at column o"eration needs to
3e -e"t reasona3ly smoot(7 ot(er<ise se"aration already ac(ie;ed may in t(e !ollo<ing
!i;e minutes = or si' (ours ? "artially 3e undone 3y surging in t(e system.
As total and com"onent rates ;ery in system !eed7 it 3e comes necessary to ;ery
controlled "arameters to maintain desired "ro"erties in "roduct stream. T(ere may also
3e su3sidiary constraints. I! column "ressure gets too (ig(7 t(e !eed system may 3e una3le
to in"ut !eed or allo<a3le design "ressure o! e@ui"ment may 3e e'ceeded. Bit( too lo<
sign "ressures7 "roduct may not !lo< !rom t(e system. Too (ig( a 3ottom
tem"erature may cause e'cesses o;er e@ui"ment design or "roduct degradation.
Su3sidiary constraints can "roduce Qra"idR ;ariations in !lo<s or "ressures. .;en <(en
t(ese ;ariations are not e'cessi;e !or a gi;en !ractionator7 t(ey may im"ose im"ossi3le
control "ro3lems on e@ui"ment connected in a larger system <it( t(at !ractionator5
u"stream7 do<nstream7 or laterally.
In t(e long term7 t(e 3est understanding and o"timi1ation o! a systems <ill usually re@uire
attention to attaining good (eat and com"onent 3alances in o"eration. Sometimes control
"er!ormance7 ot(er<ise acce"ta3le7 may interact <it( measurements to in(i3it accurate
accounting.
All results 3esides =1? and =2? are7 (o<e;er7 usually o! more desitant concern7. Primarily
em"(asis on understanding and o"erating controls s(ould 3e "laced on t(ose t<o items.
It <ill sometimes 3e !ound t(at no "ressure or tem"erature controls are needed i! good7
@uic- sensors are a;aila3le to s(o< <(at o;erall s"lit is 3eing made and <(at se"aration is
occurring.
B.,.' Co/position Contro(
T(e degrees o! !reedom a;aila3le to t(e design engineer !or t(e design o! a
!ractionator are :
$asis *;er(ead Com"osition
Feed Com"osition
$ottom Com"osition
+aria3les Re!lu'
Num3er *! Trays
Feed Tray Location
T(e degree o! !reedom a;aila3le to t(e o"eration engineer !or control o! a
!ractionator are :
$asis Feed Com"osition
Num3er *! Trays
Feed Tray Location
+aria3les Re!lu' =&8 To 11&W Design?
*;er(ead Com"osition
$ottom Com"osition
B.,.'.# Per&or/ance C!rves
For e;ery !ractionator design7 t(ere s(ould 3e a "er!ormance cur;e <(ic( relates column
"er!ormance to t(e inde"endent o"erating ;aria3les. T(e "er!ormance cur;e o! Lig(t
-ey in 3ottom ;erses 2ea;y -ey in to" is "lotted against ;arious re!lu' ratios and s(o<n in
Figure 6.6 a. Point A in t(e !igure is t(e minimum design "oint re@uired to meet
guarantee @uality o! 188 ""m o! (ea;y -ey in o;er(ead and &8 ""m o! lig(t -ey in
3ottoms. Point $ is t(e design "oint <it( t(e re@uired contingency. I! t(e case s(o<n on
t(e "er!ormance cur;e <ere to 3e o"erated in a !ractionation as s(o<n in Figure 6.6 3
<it( t(e !ollo<ing controls :
Constant (eat in"ut to 3ottom re3oiler.
Feed com"osition steady and as designed.
Feed !lo< rate steady.
T(e o;er(ead !lo< controlled manually 3y an FRC
T(e 3ottoms !lo< controlled t(roug( in;entory 3alance.
T(e re!lu' set as a "roduct o! t(e (eat 3alance.
a? T(e result i! t(e lig(t -ey decreases in t(e !eed
I! t(e lig(t -ey in !eed decreases7 t(e o;er(ead and 3ottom com"osition <ill
c(ange suc( t(at t(e com"osition <ill !ollo< a line "arallel to t(e "er!ormance
cur;e in an u"<ard direction. = Point A to Point H as s(o<n in !igure 6.6 3 and c.
3? T(e result i! (eat in"ut to re3oiler increases
I! t(e (eat in"ut is increased7 t(e o;er(ead and 3ottom com"osition <ill c(ange
suc( t(at t(e com"osition o! 3ot( distillate and 3ottoms <ill im"ro;e. = Point A
to Point F . Re!er Figure 6.6 3 and c ?. T(ere is a necessity to (a;e instruments
sense t(e "roduct com"osition and ma-e adDustments to maintain "roduct @uality.
B.,.'.' Contro( trateg.
T(e met(ods t(at can 3e utili1ed !or sensing t(e com"osition o! (ydrocar3on
"roduct streams
Direct
La3oratory analyses
Q*n stream Q la3oratory instrumentation
C(romatogra"(s
$oiling Point analy1ers
0ra;ity analy1ers
*ctane analy1ers
Bater analy1ers
All t(e Qon stream Q instrumentation <ill gi;e res"onses de"endent u"on t(e
cycle time re@uired to run t(e analyses.
Indirect
Tem"erature
Delta tem"erature di!!erence
In a 3inary or a system <it( "ure "roduct o;er(ead7 t(e tem"erature is a direct
indication o! com"osition. In ot(er cases7 0i33s P(ase Rule <ill go;ern and
tem"erature can 3e only an indication.
1. Tem"erature control !or o;er(ead "roduct @uality
Re!er Figure 6.18 a7 3 and c.
T(e end "oint control <it( multicom"onent is used.
4se !or s"lit 3et<een com"onents in multicom"onent systems.
4se !or loose s"eci!ication <it( 3inary system li-e De"ro"ani1er.
4se !or tig(t S"eci!ication <it( a 3inary system li-e Fylene column.
It can 3e used !or multicom"onent system i! u""er tray tem"erature ;aries
only <it( "ressure.
2. Tem"erature control !or 3ottoms @uality
Re!er Figure 6.18 d7 e and !.
4se !or initial 3oiling "oint control !or a multicom"onent system.
4se !or s"lit 3et<een com"onents in multicom"onents system.
4se !or loose s"eci!ication <it( 3inary system.
4se !or tig(t s"eci!ication <it( 3inary system.
Can 3e used !or ;a"or "ressure control o! 3ottoms "roduct.
#. Control !or sidecut "roduct @uality
Sidedra< normally set manually 3ased u"on la3oratory analysis or Q on
streamR analy1er.
For systems <it(out steam or inerts in column7 automatic control o! dra<
o!! is !easi3le.
B.,.'., The tra. se(ection &or te/perat!re contro(
2al!<ay 3et<een to" and !eed or !eed and 3ottom.: t(is is normally o-ay
i! t(ere is not a more scienti!ic met(od a;aila3le.
4se tray to tray calculations and !ind t(e ma'imum T c(ange !or a
gi;en com"osition c(ange.
4se tray to tray calculations and !ind t(e e!!ect o! a gi;en "rocess c(ange
u"on t(e tray tem"erature.
B.,., 9ateria( Ba(ance Contro(
T(e conce"t o! material 3alance control can 3e di;ided into t<o categories :
1. Traditional a""roac( = Re!er 6.11 a.?
T(e traditional "(iloso"(y is to Recei;er Le;el Control <(ic( Resets t(e
Distillate. T(e Com"osition control de;ice resets t(e re!lu'.
2. odern a""roac( = Re!er 6.11 3.?
T(e modern "(iloso"(y is to Recei;er Le;el Resets Re!lu' or Re!lu' > Distillate.
T(e Com"osition resets distillate !lo<.
B.,., 9ateria( Ba(ance Contro( trateg.
From !irst "rinci"les7 de!ine t(e -ey com"onent yield in t(e distillate stream.
F N Feed @uantity7 mol.
D N Distillate @uantity7 mol.
$ N $ottom @uantity7 mol.
F N ol !raction o! -ey com"onent in F
H N ol !raction o! -ey com"onent in D
K N ol !raction o! -ey com"onent in $
aterial $alance
*;erall : F N D > $
For t(e -ey com"onent : 'F N y D > 1 $
Rearranging it gi;es : D:F N = ' 5 1 ? : = y 5 1 ?
It can seen t(at t(e yield o! Q on s"ecR distillate is de"endent only u"on t(e
com"osition o! t(e !eed and "roducts.
For 3ot( t(e traditional and t(e modern column7 determine t(e res"onse
necessary to reac( steady state a!ter t(e !ollo<ing u"sets .
A c(ange trans"ires in t(e column (eat 3alance suc( t(at t(e re3oiler duty
increases.
A c(ange occurs in t(e !eed com"osition suc( t(at t(e lig(t -ey content
increases.
4sing logic to determine t(e res"onse to t(ese situations s(ould con;ince a design
engineer t(at t(e modern "(iloso"(y is t(e 3est o"eration .T(ere are !ollo<ing
ty"es o! material 3alance controls are used .
B.,.,.#. Botto/s Net Prod!ct ;ie(d
Re!er Figure 6.12 a7 3 and c. T(e main !eatures are as !ollo<s :
T(e traditional strategy control mode seldom is used and it can Dusti!ied i! recei;er
utilised as surge drum or i! maDority o! net o;er(ead is in t(e ;a"our "(ase.
In modern a""roac(7 t(e recei;er surge ca"acity s(ould 3e minimal. I! re@uired
recei;er s(ould 3e do<nstream o! control ;al;e. LC "ro"ortional 3and s(ould 3e
narro< to correct column energy c(anges. T(e column more sta3le during t(e
c(anges in com"osition adDustment.
B.,.,.' Botto/ Net Prod!ct ;ie(d

T(is is e'"lained in Figure 6.12 d7 e and !. T(e net o;er(ead on le;el control is
normal arrangement <(en t(e o;er(ead net "roduct is on com"osition control.
Net Product on Com"osition Control is o!ten used i! 3ottom +:L ratio is greater
t(an 8./. Net $ottom Product on Flo< control is used <(en t(e 3ottom "roduct
is less t(an 18W o! !eed rate. It can "re;ent co-ing in t(e re3oiler. T(e surge in t(e
3ottom is 3ased u"on 3oil u" rate. T(ere can not 3e any com"osition control !or
t(is arrangement. For t(is con!iguration.
Total Condensation 5 .nclosed System Recei;er "ressure range 18 "sig "lus.
Control ;al;e si1ed !or )W o! total *;er(ead ;a"ors = est. *! (eat loss?.
Condenser outlet must 3e sealed in recei;er li@uid "(ase.
Partial condensation o;er(ead "artial or total ;a"or condenser can 3e eit(er 3elo<
or a3o;e recei;er. Pressure le;el determined 3y destination "ressure. Control
;al;e P set to minimi1e do<nstream ;ariations7 normally 2& "si.
B.,.' Press!re contro(
Pressure (as 3een classically controlled at a !i'ed ;alue in !ractionating columns.
S(ins-ey and Smit( (a;e discussed ;aria3le "ressure control. T(e aut(or (as also
3een told o! un"u3lis(ed success!ul ;aria3le "ressure a""lications. *nly t(e
classical "ressure control <ill 3e discussed (ere. For "artial condenser systems7 t(e
"ressure can 3e controlled 3y mani"ulating ;a"or "roduct or a
noncondensi3le ;ent stream. T(is gi;es e'cellent "ressure control. To (a;e a
constant to" ;a"or "roduct com"osition7 t(e condenser outlet tem"erature also
needs to 3e controlled. For a total condenser system7 a 3utter!ly ;al;e in t(e
column o;er(ead ;a"or line to t(e condenser (as 3een used. +arying t(e
condenser cooling 3y ;arious means suc( as mani"ulation o! coolant !lo< is also
common.
T(e Pressure can also 3e controlled 3y ;aria3le (eat trans!er coe!!icient in t(e
condenser. In t(is ty"e o! control7 t(e condenser must (a;e e'cess sur!ace. T(is
e'cess sur!ace 3ecomes "art o! t(e control system. *ne e'am"le o! t(is is a total
condenser <it( t(e accumulator running !ull and t(e le;el u" in t(e condenser. I!
t(e "ressure is too (ig(7 t(e le;el is lo<ered to "ro;ide additional cooling and ;ice
;ersa. T(is <or-s on t(e "rinci"le o! a slo< mo;ing li@uid !ilm (a;ing "oor (eat
trans!er t(an a condensing ;a"or !ilm. Sometimes it is necessary to "ut a "artially
!looded condenser at a stee" angle rat(er t(an (ori1ontal !or "ro"er control
res"onse.
Anot(er e'am"le o! "ressure control 3y ;aria3le (eat trans!er coe!!icient is a
;acuum condenser. T(e ;acuum systems "ulls t(e inert out t(roug( a ;ent. T(e
control ;al;e 3et<een t(e condenser and ;acuum system ;aries t(e amount o!
inerts lea;ing t(e condenser. I! t(e "ressure gets too (ig(7 t(e control ;al;e o"ens
to "ull out more inerts lea;ing t(e condenser. I! t(e "ressure gets too (ig(7 t(e
control ;al;e o"ens to "ull "ot more inerts and "roduce a smaller tu3e area
3lan-eted 3y inerts. Since relati;ely stagnant inerts (a;e "oorer (eat trans!er t(an
condensing ;a"ors7 additional inerts7 <it(dra<al <ill increase cooling and lo<er
"ressure. T(e re;erse (a""ens i! t(e "ressure gets too lo<.
For ;acuum a""lications (a;ing column tem"erature control a3o;e t(e !eed "oint7
"ut t(e measuring elements !or t(e tem"erature and "ressure controllers close
toget(er. T(is <ill ma-e !or good com"osition control at ;arying column loads
=;arying column di!!erential "ressure?. In ;acuum systems7 a slig(t "ressure
c(ange <ill "roduce large e@uili3rium tem"erature c(anges.
Anot(er "ressure control met(od is a (ot gas 3y"ass. T(e aut(or (as seen a
retro!itted (ot gas 3y"ass system sol;e an unsatis!actory "ressure control sc(eme.
In t(e !aulty system7 a "ressure control ;al;e <as "laced 3et<een t(e o;er(ead
condenser and t(e lo<er re!lu' drum. T(is "roduced erratic re!lu' drum
"ressures. A "ressure sa!ety ;al;e ="s;? ;ented t(e re!lu' drum to t(e !lare to
"rotect against o;er"ressure. A Q"s; sa;erR control ;al;e7m set slig(tly 3elo< t(e
"s; relie;ing "ressure7 -e"t t(e "s; !rom (a;ing to o"erate ;ery o!ten. T(e Q"s;
sa;erR is a good idea since "s;Gs can de;elo" lea-s i! !orced to o"en and reset
!re@uently.
T(e !i' !or t(e erratic re!lu' drum "ressure "ro3lem <as to "ro;ide !or se"arate
"ressure control o! t(e !ractionator column and t(e re!lu' drum. A ne< "ressure
control ;al;e <as installed u"stream o! t(e condenser and t(e old condenser outlet
control ;al;e <as remo;ed. A (ot gas 3y"ass7 designed !or 28W ;a"or !lo<7 <as
installed around t(e "ressure control ;al;e and condenser. A control ;al;e <as
installed in t(e (ot gas 3y"ass line. T(e column "ressure <as t(en maintained 3y
t(rottling t(e ne< control ;al;e u"stream o! t(e condenser. T(e re!lu' drum
"ressure <as controlled 3y t(e (ot gas 3y"ass control ;al;e and t(e Q"s; sa;erR
<or-ing in s"lit range. It is said t(at a sc(eme (a;ing only a control ;al;e in t(e
(ot gas 3y"ass line mani"ulated 3y t(e column "ressure controller <ill not <or-
!or t(e case o! 1ero net ;a"or "roduct. 2e cites an actual "lant case and o!!ers (is
analysis o! t(e reasons.
B.,.' Te/perat!re Contro(
0eneral7 <it( sim"le instrumentation discussed (ere7 it is not "ossi3le to
satis!actorily control t(e tem"erature at 3ot( ends o! a !ractionation column.
T(ere!ore7 t(e tem"erature is controlled eit(er in t(e to" or 3ottom section7
de"ending u"on <(ic( "roduct s"eci!ication is t(e most im"ortant. For re!inery or
gas "lant distillation <(ere e'tremely s(ar" cut "oints are "ro3a3ly not re@uired7
t(e tem"erature on t(e to" o! t(e column or t(e 3ottom is o!ten controlled. For
(ig( "urity o"eration7 t(e tem"erature <ill "ossi3ly 3e controlled at an
intermediate "oint in t(e column. T(e "oint <(ere T : C is ma'imum is
generally t(e 3est "lace to control tem"erature. 2ere7 T : C is t(e rate o!
tem"erature <it( concentration o! a -ey com"onent. Control o! tem"erature or
;a"or "ressure is essentially t(e same. anual set "oint adDustments are t(en
made to (old t(e "roduct at t(e ot(er end o! t(e column <it(in a desired "urity
range. T(e tec(nology does e'ist7 (o<e;er7 to automatically control t(e "urity o!
3ot( "roducts.
Tem"erature is t(e (ardest "arameter to control in a !ractionation system. It
e'(i3its (ig( "rocess and measurement lag. Tem"erature can also 3e am3i;alent
as a measure o! com"osition. Pressure c(anges are re!lected @uic-ly u" and do<n
t(e column. Tem"erature c(anges are not. It is ty"ical to "ro;ide t(ree mode
controllers !or all tem"erature a""lications.
B.,.'.# Co(!/n Top Te/perat!re.
T(is tem"erature can 3e controlled automatically or manually 3y mani"ulating
re!lu'7 de"ending u"on <eat(er t(e automatic control "oint is at t(e to" or 3ottom
o! t(e column. For "artial condenser a""lications7 it is ty"ical to control
condenser outlet tem"erature instead o! column to" tem"erature as discussed
"re;iously. In t(is case7 a ;ariety o! met(ods are a;aila3le7 suc( as mani"ulating
cooling <ater !lo< or 3y"ass7 or ;arying lou;ers or !an "itc( on an air cooled
condenser. ani"ulation o! cooling <ater !lo< (as t(e dra<3ac-s o! (eat
trans!er 3eing relati;ely insensiti;e to t(is ;aria3le and "ossi3le !ouling i! !lo< is
not (eld at ma'imum.
B.,.'.' Co(!/n Botto/ Te/perat!re.
T(e 3ottom tem"erature is o!ten controlled on t(e re3oiler outlet line <it( a
control ;al;e in t(e (eating medium line. T(e control "oint can also 3e on a
3ottom section tray. Care must 3e e'ercised in location o! t(e tem"erature control
"oint. It is recommended es"ecially !or large columns7 t(at a cascade arrangement
3e used. T(e recommended sc(eme (as a com"lete !lo< recorder:controller
=FRC? in t(e (eating medium line including ori!ice and control ;al;e. T(e set
"oint o! t(is FRC is mani"ulate 3y t(e tem"erature recorder: controller =TRC?.
T(is eliminates t(e TRC !rom mani"ulating t(e control ;al;e directly =recall t(at
tem"erature is t(e most di!!icult "arameter to control?. T(is ma-es !or smoot(er
control !or normal o"erations. Also7 it is (andy !or startu" to 3e a3le to uncou"le
t(e TRC and run t(e re3oiler on FRC !or a "eriod. For a !ired re3oiler7 a "um"5
around systems is used <it( an FRC to maintain constant !lo<. T(ere <ill 3e a
lo< !lo< alarm "lus !uel s(uto!!. T(ere <ill 3e a (ig( !lo< alarm "lus !uel s(uto!!7
since a tu3e ru"ture <ould re!lect itsel! in a (ig( !lo<.
B.,.'., 8eed Te/perat!re.
T(is is o!ten allo<ed to ;ary. *!ten a !eed to 3ottoms cross e'c(anger is used to
"re(eat. *!ten t(e amount o! (eat a;aila3le in t(e 3ottoms is close to t(e o"timum
!eed "re(eat. Care must 3e ta-en not to (eat t(e !eed too (ot and "ut inordinate
;a"or into t(e to" section o! t(e column. T(is <ill 3e detrimental to recti!ication.
Feed "re(eat can 3e controlled 3y mani"ulating (eating medium or 3y 3y"ass !or a
cross e'c(anger. In deciding <(et(er or not to control !eed tem"erature7 t(e
designer sometimes (as to c(oose 3et<een t(e column sta3ility ;ersus ;aria3le
"ressure control. Feed tem"erature control 3ecomes more critical as its amount o!
li@uid and ;a"or increases relati;e to t(at o! t(e tra!!ic "roduced 3y t(e re!lu' and
re3oiler. For column analysis7 it is good to c(ec- on (o< constantly t(e !eed
tem"erature is running.
B.,., %eve( Contro(
For a total condenser7 accumulator le;el is ty"ically set 3y ;arying distillate dra<.
For a "artial condenser7 it can 3e controlled <it( a condenser (ot gas 3y"ass. T(e
column 3ottom le;el is sometimes controlled 3y 3ottoms dra<. +arying re3oiler
(eating medium is anot(er "ossi3ility. For some cases7 3ottoms dra< le;el control
<or-s 3etter and !or ot(ers7 (eating medium le;el control. $oDno<s-i
%
gi;es a
case <(ere (eating medium le;el control <as desired !or t<o columns in a "lant.
*ne column (ad to 3e "ut on t(e 3ottoms dra< le;el control7 (o<e;er <(en
im"ro"er re3oiler t(ermosy"(oning caused sluggis( res"onse <it( (eating medium
le;el control. In t(e case o! ;aria3le (eat content re3oiler steam su""ly7 use
(eating medium le;el control <it( 3ottoms dra< rate setting com"osition. T(is
"ro;ides t(e 3est 3ottoms com"osition control.
B.,.1 8(o4 Contro(
T(e !eed !lo< is o!ten not controlled 3ut is rat(er on le;el control !rom anot(er
column or ;essel. T(e li@uid "roduct !lo<s =distillate and 3ottoms? are o!ten on
le;el rat(er t(an !lo< control. To" ;a"or "roduct is7 (o<e;er7 usually on "ressure
control. T(e re!lu' is !re@uently on FRC7 3ut also may 3e on column TRC or
accumulator le;el.
B.,.3 Di&&erentia( Press!re Contro(
For column analysis and trou3les(ooting it is im"ortant to (a;e "ressure dro"
measured <it( DP cell. T(e di!!erential "ressure can also 3e used to control
column tra!!ic. A good <ay to do t(is <ould 3e let t(e di!!erential "ressure
control t(e (eating medium to t(e re3oiler. T(e largest a""lication !or di!!erential
"ressure control is <it( "ac-ed columns <(ere it is desira3le to run at /8 to 188W
o! !lood !or 3est e!!iciency.
B.,.5 Di&&erentia( Te/perat!re Contro(
Tem"erature sensing "oints at ;arious "oints along t(e to<er s(ell are o!ten a
use!ul trou3les(ooting tool. any common o"erating "ro3lems "roduce a
decrease in di!!erential tem"erature across a section o! t(e column. A di!!erential
tem"erature as <ell as a di!!erential "ressure recorder across a trou3lesome to<er
section <ould "ro;ide in;alua3le o"erator assistance.
Di!!erential tem"erature as <ell as di!!erential "ressure can 3e used as a "rimary
control ;aria3le. In one instance7 it <as (ard to meet "urity on a "roduct in a
column (a;ing close 3oiling com"onents. T(e di!!erential tem"erature across
se;eral 3ottom section trays <as !ound to 3e t(e -ey to maintaining "urity control.
So a column side dra< !lo< (ig(er in t(e column <as "ut on control 3y t(e critical
tem"erature di!!erential. T(is controlled t(e li@uid Qre!lu'R running do<n to t(e
critical 1one 3y ;arying t(e li@uid dra<n o!! at t(e side dra<. T(is no;el sc(eme
sol;ed t(e control "ro3lem.
B.,.7 Opti/i6ation Techni)!es.
T(is section deals <it( o"timi1ation o! an e'isting column. 2ig(er t(roug(out or
im"ro;ed "roduct @uality is 3alanced against (ig(er o"erating costs suc( as la3our7
energy7 or a maintenance. I! t(e "roduct "urity and "roduction are !i'ed7 t(en t(e
o"timum is t(e minimum energy to do t(e set Do3. *"timi1ation <ould in;ol;e
(olding t(e re!lu' at t(e minimum to deli;er t(e distillate "urity and 3oilu" at t(e
minimum to deli;er t(e 3ottoms "urity.
*!ten7 t(ere is latitude in "roduction rate and "urity s"eci!ications7 re@uiring
o"timi1ation calculations to determine t(e 3est set o! column o"erating conditions
suc( as re!lu'7 !eed tem"erature and re3oiler (eat in"ut. T(e !irst ste" <ill 3e to
determine 3y "lant testing and calculations to e'tra"olate t(e "lant data7 t(e
ultimate limiting ca"acities o! all "ieces o! e@ui"ment in t(e system suc( as column
s(ell7 re3oiler7 condenser and "um"s. T(e searc( !or t(e o"timum can in;ol;e
many case studies. *!ten7 i! t(e time is limited7 a rigorous canned com"uter
"rogram is utili1ed. 2o<e;er7 t(is is e'"ensi;e. I! time is not as muc( o! a
!actor7 t(e met(od "resented (ere <ill allo< t(e calculations to 3e (andled
con;eniently 3y (and or com"uter (a;ing limited core.
T(e "rocedure "ro"osed !or t(e o"timi1ation <or- is t(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od
1
.
It is es"ecially good !or t(e uses descri3ed in t(is section. T(e more accurately
-no<n t(e o"erating "arameters7 suc( as tray tem"eratures and internal tra!!ic7 t(e
more ad;antageous t(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od 3ecomes. T(e Smit(5$rin-ley
et(od uses t<o sets o! t(e se"arations !actors !or t(e (el" column7 in contrast to
a single relati;e ;olatility !or t(e 4nder<ood et(od
2
. T(e 4nder<ood et(od
re@uires -no<ing t(e distillate and 3ottoms com"ositions to determine t(e re@uired
re!lu'. T(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od starts <it( t(e column "arameters and
calculates t(e "roduct com"ositions. T(is is a great ad;antage in 3uilding a model
!or (and or small com"uter calculations. Starting <it( a 3ase case7 t(e Smit(5
$rin-ley et(od can 3e used to calculate t(e e!!ect o! "arameter c(anges on t(e
"roduct com"ositions.
Smit(Gs !ully e'"lain t(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od and "resents a general e@uation
!rom <(ic( a s"eciali1ed e@uation !or distillation7 a3sor"tion or e'traction can 3e
o3tained. T(e met(od !or distillation column is discussed (ere.
For distillation com"onent i7
=1 5 S
n
N5
? > R=1 5 S
n
?
! N
=1 5 S
n
N5
? > R=1 5 S
n
? > (S
n
N5
= 1 5 S
m
>1
?
<(ere
!
i
N =$F
$
:FF
F
?
i
S
ni
N A
i
+:L
S
mi
N AGi+GLG
( N Correlating !actorM i! t(e !eed is mostly li@uid7 use .@uation 1 and i!
mostly ;a"or7 .@uation 2
A
i
L 1 5 S
n
(
i
N
A
i
L 1 5 S
m i
=6.1?
L 1 5 S
n
(
i
N
L 1 5 S
m i
=6.2?
T(e e!!ecti;e to" and 3ottom section tem"eratures are used ta" determine A
i
and
A
i
. T(ese are used along <it( t(e e!!ecti;e to" and 3ottom section molar li@uid
and ;a"or rates to determine S
n
and S
m
.
I! data is meager7 section tem"eratures can 3e sim"ly t(e a;erage o! t(e to" and
!eed tem"eratures !or t(e to" section and 3ottom and !eed tem"eratures !or t(e
3ottom sections. Also7 t(e molar !lo<s can 3e o3tained7 assuming e@ual molar
o;er!lo<. 2o<e;er7 usually a rigorous com"uter run is a;aila3le !or a "lant case
or a design case. 2a;ing t(is7 t(e e!!ecti;e ;alues can 3e determined 3y a;eraging
;alues !or all stages in a section. Some columns can 3e calculated ade@uately <it(
t(e sim"le a;erage !irst discussed7 3ut in ot(ers t(e stage 3y stage a;eraged ;alues
!rom a com"uter run are necessary !or satis!actory results.
T(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od can t(ere!ore 3e used to generate a (and 3ase case
3eginning <it( eit(er a (eat and material 3alanced "lant case7 a rigorous com"uter
solution o! a "lant case or a com"uter solution o! a design case. *nce t(e (and
case is esta3lis(ed7 alternate cases can 3e done 3y (and =or small com"uter (a;ing
limited core? using t(e Smit(5$rin-ley et(od.
C(anging !eed tem"eratures can 3e a""ro'imated 3y adding one (al! o! t(e c(ange
in !eed tem"eratures to t(e to" and 3ottom e!!ecti;e tem"eratures. For a large
!eed tem"eratures c(ange7 t(e !eed !las( and t(e column (eat 3alance <ill (a;e to
3e redone. Small c(anges in re!lu' can 3e a""ro'imated 3y assuming no c(ange in
e!!ecti;e tem"eratures7 t(us a;oiding trail and error calculation. T(e e'tra li@uid
and ;a"or are added to S
n
and S
m
. For larger re!lu' c(anges7 t(e e'tra trail and
error o! determining t(e ne< end tem"eratures 3y 3u33le "oint calculations can 3e
included.
T(e e!!ecti;e section tem"eratures7 since t(e !eed tem"eratures remains
unc(anged. T(e "receding discussion on re!lu' assumes t(at t(e condenser is not
limiting <(en t(e re!lu' is raised. For a se;erely limited condenser7 an e;aluation
must !irst 3e made to t(e condenser (eat trans!er 3e!ore analy1ing t(e e!!ect o! a
re!lu' increase <it( Smit(5$rin-ley. Li-e<ise7 a limiting re3oiler or trays close to
!lood <ould (a;e to 3e e;aluated "rior to Smit(53rin-ley calculations.
A small c(ange in re3oiler duty can 3e a""ro'imated 3y adding t(e increased
tra!!ic to S
m
and S
n
. I! t(e to" tem"erature is automatically controlled7 e'tra re!lu'
<ould also result.
In summary7 !or eac( alternate o"eration7 an a""ro'imate net e!!ect or set o!
e!!ects can 3e @uic-ly 3uilt into t(e Smit(5 $rin-ley in"ut to determine ne< end
com"ositions. T(e instrumentation sc(eme <ill a!!ect t(e result "roduced 3y an
o"erating c(ange.
B.,.= tead. tate Data
B(en collecting meaning!ul !ield !ractionating column data7 t(e column must not
only (a;e constant !lo< rates7 3ut t(e !lo< must !i;e a good material 3alance =no
accumulation ?. In addition7 a steady state condition must e'ist !or t(e gi;en !lo<
rates. To determine i! steady state conditions e'ist7 t(e tem"eratures and "ressures
in t(e column can 3e ta3ulated to assure t(at t(ey are reasona3ly unc(anging.
La3oratory analysis are usually too slo< and e'"ensi;e !or c(ec-ing lined out
conditions. onitoring re!lu' accumulator li@uid 3oil at atmos"(eric "ressure in a
3ottle <it( a t(ermometer inserted. T(is met(od is limited to lig(t (ydrocar3ons
and is not accurate enoug( !or "recision !ractionation.
T(e accumulator (oldu" <ill o!ten 3e t(e limiting item setting time re@uired !or
sam"les to 3e re"resentati;e o! t(e column o"erating conditions. *ne Qc(ange5
outR or Qturno;erG o! t(e accumulator may 3e insu!!icient time7 i! test conditions
are muc( di!!erent !rom conditions "rior to test. T(e !ollo<ing e'am"le <ill ser;e
to s(o< t(is.
Assume an accumulator (a;ing a li@uid (oldu" o! 27888gal. Assume t(at t(e
li@uid lea;ing as re!lu' "lus distillate is %8 0P. Furt(er assume t(at t(e
accumulator li@uid starts at 2.8 ;olW o! a -ey com"onent and t(at t(e test
conditions "roduce 8.8 ;ol. W o! t(e -ey com"onent. 2o< long <ill it ta-e !or
t(e concentration to reac( 8.1 ;ol W =t(e assumed la3oratory test accuracy?d
.sta3lis( t(e !ollo<ing sym3ols :
' N concentration7 ;ol.!raction
d' N Di!!erential concentration element7 ;ol. Fraction
dT N Di!!erential time element7 min.
T(en:
8.881
T
d' N %8' d' dTM
dT 2888 M
8.82
dT o

8.881
T
In ' E N 8.82 TE

8.82
o
5).68/ > #.612 N 8.82TM T N 51&8 or T N 1&8minutes
<(ere as : 1. QTurno;erR N 2888:%8
N &8minutes
No/enc(at!re
$ N $ottoms total molar rate or su3scri"t !or 3ottoms
F N Feed total molar rate or su3scri"t !or !eed
!
i
N Ratio o! molar rate o! com"onent i in t(e 3ottoms to t(at in t(e !eed
A
i
N .@uili3rium constant o! com"onent i in t(e to" section e@uals y:'
A
i
N .@uili3rium constant o! com"onent i in t(e 3ottom section e@uals y:'
L N .!!ecti;e total molar li@uid rate in to" section
L N .!!ecti;e total molar li@uid rate in 3ottom section
N Total e@uili3rium stages 3elo< t(e !eed stage including re3oiler.
N N Total e@uili3rium stages in t(e column including re3oiler and "artial
condenser.
R N Actual re!lu' ratio
S
m
N Stri""ing !actor !or com"onent i in 3ottom section
S
n
N Stri""ing !actor !or com"onent i in t(e to" section
+ N .!!ecti;e total molar ;a"or rate in to" section
+ N .!!ecti;e total molar ;a"or rate in 3ottom section
F N ol !raction in t(e li@uid
H N ol !raction in t(e ;a"or
Lie3erman gi;es t<o rules o! t(um3 !or "ac-ed columns :
$ased u"on (is design and o"erating e'"erience7 a "ro"erly designed "ac-ed
to<er can (a;e W more ca"acity t(an a trayed to<er <it( an e@ual num3er o!
!ractionation stages.
For an e'am"le com"anyGs structured "ac-ing (ere are rules o! t(um3 !or
!ractionation e!!iciency :
f 2 "ac-ing "ro;ides one e@uili3rium !ractionation stage !or eac( 25_ !eet o!
"ac-ing de"t(
f # For eac( #5_ !eet
f % !or eac( %5_ !eet
B.,.,. Press!re Contro(
Air Condensers
Total Condensation 5 Controlled +ent Recei;er "ressure range 1 to & "sig.
Recei;er !loats on !lare (eader.
Pro;ide contingency !or 3ac-"rssure in !lare system o! & "si ma'imum.
Total Condensation 5 Floating +ent Recei;er "ressure range 18 to 2& "sig For 3ot(
!loating and controlled ;ent "urge gas can contaminate "roduct or a!!ect R+P.
Condenser must 3e ele;ated and (a;e not tra"s in "i"ing must 3e !ree draining
Total Condensation 5 .nclosed System Recei;er "ressure range 18 "sig "lus. ust 3e
a3le to ;ent non5condensi3les. DPC control ;al;e si1ed !or ) W o! total o;er(ead ;a"ors
. For all systems Condenser : ust 3e ele;ated ust (a;e no tra"s in "i"ing rundo<n
"i"ing !ree draining si1e rundo<n "i"ing loose.
Partial condensation 5 net o;er(ead "artial or total ;a"or condenser al<ays a3o;e
recei;er. Pressure le;el determined 3y destination "ressure. Control ;al;e P set to
minimi1e do<nstream ;ariations7 normally 2& "si.
Co/bination AirE @ater
In order to <or-7 "ro;ision must 3e made to retain t(e li@uid le;el in t(e trim condenser
!or all am3ient conditions =e.g. lou;ers7 "itc( control7 on:o!! control ?. T(e Condenser
outlet must 3e sealed in recei;er li@uid. Trim condenser normally #8W minimum o! total
duty. Not recommended due to close o"erator attention.
Trim condenser s(ould 3e minimum distance !orm recei;er. Condenser: must (a;e no
tra"s in "i"ing. rundo<n "i"ing !ree draining. Si1e rundo<n "i"ing loose. Total
condensation 5 !loating or controlled ;ent Trim condenser s(ould 3e minimum distance
Condenser : must (a;e no tra"s in !rom recei;er. Pi"ing Rundo<n "i"ing !ree draining.
Si1e rundo<n "i"ing loose Partial condensation Condenser can 3e eit(er 3elo< or
Pressure le;el determined 3y destination a3o;e recei;er. "ressure. Control ;al;e P set to
minimi1e do<nstream ;ariations7 normally 2& "si.
tea/ >eneration
T(e total condensing duty can 3e "ro;ided in some totally condensing systems entirely 3y
steam generation. T(e column "ressure controls t(e steam "roduction.
B.,.1 "eat Inp!t Contro(
8ired "eaters Re3oilers 5 <it( TRC
T(e TRC in t(e re3oiler outlet trans!er line !i'es t(e ;a"ori1ation !or a gi;en
circulation rate and (ence t(e (eat in"ut. 4se t(e TRC only i! t(e re3oiler outlet
mi'ture (as a !las( cur;e slo"e greater t(an 8.28.
T(e DPRC uses an eccentric ori!ice to measure directly t(e c(ange o!
;a"ori1ation.
4se !or "ure com"onents and i! outlet mi'ture !las( cur;e slo"e less t(an 8.28.
4se !or <ide 3oiling range mi'tures range mi'tures <(en a 3ottom re3oiler <ould
re@uire an outlet tem"erature in e'cess o! )&8 to ,88
8
F.
E2changer T.pe Reboi(ers
4se <(en t(ere is no "ro3lem getting into t(e condensate system.
.'c(anger o"erates at steam (eader "ressure minus control ;al;e "ressure dro".
Almost al<ays used !or (ig( "ressure steam systems.
4se i! t(e "rocess side tem"erature is l less t(an t(e tem"erature o! saturated
steam at t(e condensate (eader "ressure.
.'c(anger al<ays o"erates at t(e conditions o! steam (eader.
Almost al<ays used !or lo< "ressure steam systems.
E2change T.pe Reboi(ers
FRC is al<ays on t(e inlet side o! t(e e'c(anger at constant tem"erature.
Trim condenser used to 3alance column o"eration.
Relation 3et<een 2eat Trans!er and dri;ing !orce in Re3oiler
N!c(eate Boi(ing Transitiona( Boi(ing
"eat
8(!2
HEA 8i(/ Boi(ing

C C
Te/perat!re Di&&erence0 T
8ig!re B.#
C
A
B
8ig!re B.' a
Botto/ Tra. %i)!id to reboi(er s.ste/
Botto/s Tra. %i)!id to Reboi(er .ste/
C
A
B

8ig!re B.' b
Pre&erentia( 8ractionator Botto/s to Reboi(er .ste/
C
A
B
8ig!re B., c
Desu"er(eating
cP1 Condensation
P2 S P1
Tem"erature
c P2 Su3cooling
Duty 7 $T4:2our
8ig!re B.5
Tota( Condensation c!rve
Desu"er(eating

Tem"erature
Condensation
8ig!re B.7
Partia( Condensation
C"APTER #C
OPERATION 0 9ONITORIN> AND INPECTION
O8 DITI%%ATION CO%$9N
#C.# tart+$p
#C.#.# Introd!ction :
T(is "rocedure deals <it( in;entorying t(e column <it( !eed and (eating u" t(e columns
to 3ring t(em on total re!lu'.
#C.#.' Proced!re
1. T(e "rocedure insures t(at !eed is already in;entoried in Feed Surge Drum.=u"stream
o! distillation column?
Fill u" start u" c(ec-s(eet o! column start u".
Line u" t(e loo" !or in;entorying !eed to column.
Start column !eed "um" and !ill u" t(e column u"to &8W le;el.
2. For t(e column <(ic( are (ea;y in 3uild accumulator tray. T(ere is a direct line !rom
3ottom to accumulated tray.
Start t(e 3ottom "um" and ta-e le;el in accumulated "um" tray i! a""lica3le.
#. Start (ot oil to t(e column re3oilers 3y initially o"ening t(e 3y"ass ;al;es o! control
;al;es on (ot oil lines and t(en ta-ing t(e control ;al;es in t(e column 3ottom
tem"eratures are reac(ed at 685188
8
C.
%. B(en t(e le;els in column o;er(ead recei;er s(o< increasing trend7 start o;er(ead
"um" esta3lis( re!lu'. In .sta3lis( (ot re!lu' in c(ec- and drain any <ater <(ic(
accumulates in t(e <ater 3oot o! recei;er.
&. Increase (eat in"uts to t(e column re3oiler to maintain t(e re!lu' rates as and <(en
necessary.
). B(en t(e columns are sta3ili1ed on total re!lu'7 "ut all t(e controllers on auto. Send
column o;er(ead and sam"les to la3oratory !or analysis.
,. I! t(e analysis are "assing t(e s"eci!ications7 di;ert t(e column o;er(ead and 3ottom to
res"ecti;e columns.
#C.#., Avoid Prob(e/s D!ring Disti((ation Co(!/n tart!ps

T(e startu" o! a distillation column is t(e end "roduct o! t(e design "rocess. It s(ould not
3e considered somet(ing t(at Dust (a""ens a!ter design. Indeed7 startu" is t(e culmination
o! t(e t(eory and "ractice o! designing t(e column to meet t(e "rocess o3Decti;es =I? . T(e
column eit(er ac(ie;es its stated o3Decti;es or does o! =2?. T(is
a""lies es"ecially to re;am"s. Be <ill direct most o! our discussion to <ards column
re;am"s due to t(eir in(erent com"le'ityM (o<e;er7 our "oints a""ly e@ually to ne<
columns7 as <ell. Re;am"ing distillation column in lieu o! 3uying ne< ones to increase
ca"acity7 im"ro;e "roduct @uality 7 or de3ottlenec- a gi;en limitation minimi1es ca"ital
in;estment . In recent years7 t(ere (as 3een considera3le discussion in t(e literature o!
distillation5column e@ui"ment5design re@uirements and !ailure o! distillation columns to
meet t(eir stated re;am" o3Decti;es .
any o! t(ese e@ui"ment modi!ications (a;e c(anged t(e in(erent o"erating
c(aracteristics o! t(e system. Some o! t(ese c(anges re@uire startu"7 o"erating5"rocedure7
and control5strategy alteration to allo< t(e system to meet t(e design o3Decti;e.
Distillation internal5e@ui"ment re;am"s7 suc( as c(anging !rom trays to "ac-ing7 may
mandate additional e'ternal5 e@ui"ment modi!ications including installing !eed and re!lu'
strainers to a;oid distri3utor !ouling. T(e "u3lici1ed !ailures underscore t(at analy1ing t(e
startu" re@uirements o! a distillation column re;am" s(ould 3egin <(en t(e decision is
made to re;am" t(e column55 not <(en !eed is Dust a3out to 3e "ut into t(e unit. $y
!ocusing on t(e !actors re@uired to (a;e a success!ul start u" !rom t(e 3eginning o! a
re;am"7 "ro3lems can 3e minimi1ed. T(e most im"ortant @uestion t(at must 3e ans<ered
"rior to a startu" is (o< <ill t(e distillation system c(anges a!!ect initial startu"7 "rocess
control o! t(e system7 and normal day5to5day o"erationsd 2o< <ill t(e o"erators run t(e
system d
Steady5State distillation5 column simulations alone cannot "ro;ide an aut(oritati;e
ans<er and7 indeed7 engineersG o;er reliance on so!t<are too o!ten (as led t(em to ignore
many "ractical as"ects. Com"uter modeling7 <(ile an im"ortant engineering tool7 is not
reality. Distillation columns are real !unctioning "ieces o! e@ui"ment t(at re@uire
"ractical s-ill to success!ully modi!y. T(ey are not steady5state solutions t(at result !rom
con;erged com"uter simulations.
#C.#.1 The start!p p(anning process
To reiterate : a success!ul distillation column startu" 3egins at t(e design "(ase. T(e
startu" "lanning "rocess s(ould include a re;ie< o! t(e distillation5column e@ui"ment
design !or t(e !ollo<ing :
*"erating "rocedures and o"erator trainingM
3asic instrumentation7 control strategy7 and instrument tuningM
"recommissioning ins"ection M and
Startu" "rocedures.
Alt(oug( ad;anced5com"uter5control strategies are im"ortant7 "eo"le still o"erate most
distillation column systems. So7 t(ey need to 3e ad;ised (o< system c(anges <ill a!!ect
(o< t(ey o"erate t(e unit. For e'am"le7 i! a distillation column re;am" in;ol;es
modi!ying t(e column !rom trays to "ac-ing7 t(e control res"onse o! t(e system to mass 5
and energy53alance c(anges may alter signi!icantly. A large diameter !ractionator <it(
trays <ill (a;e a lot o! li@uid in;entory. B(en t(e column re!lu' is c(anged7 it can ta-e
(ours to reac( steady state. Pac-ed columns7 on t(e ot(er (and7 (a;e muc( lo<er li@uid
in;entory. 2ence7 t(e res"onse to re!lu' c(anges <ill 3e muc( !aster. Re"lacing trays
<it( "ac-ing a!!ects all as"ects o! t(e startu" "lanning "rocess.
Failure to address startu" issues can result in delays in meeting t(e design o3Decti;es or7 in
t(e <orst case7 lead to systems t(at donGt <or-. An e'am"le o! a distillation5system5
re;am" !ailure is t(e lig(t5(ydrocar3on side5re3oiler system s(o<n in Figure 1. T(e ne<
side re3oiler could not 3e started u" <it(out !looding t(e column. T(e original5design
(eat in"ut o! t(e 3ottom re3oiler <as #&5million $T4: (7 <(ic( <as su!!icient to
generate enoug( ;a"or to !lood t(e column. T(e re;am"ed column added a side re3oiler
<it( a design duty o! 1/5million $T4:(. Attem"ts to 3ring t(e side re3oiler on5line
resulted in (eat in"ut to t(e column t(at !ar e'ceeded t(e trayGs ca"acityM t(ere!or7 t(e
column !looded eac( time t(e side re3oiler <as commissioned. T(e re;am" o! t(is system
in;ol;ed modi!ications to (eat5trans!er77 (ydraulic7 and distillation5column e@ui"ment.
2o<e;er7 t(ere <as no re;ie< o! (o< to 3ring t(e side re3oiler on5line in a controlled
!as(ion so t(e column ca"acity <asnGt e'ceeded.
#C.#.3 Operating proced!res and operator training
2o< do "(ysical c(anges to a distillation column a!!ect t(e <ay in <(ic( it is o"eratedd
Determining t(ese im"acts re@uires ans<ering some 3asic @uestions. At a minimum7 t(ese
are :
1. B(at "rocess !lo< c(anges (a;e 3een made d
2. 2o< do t(ese c(anges a!!ect daily o"eration d
#. B(at distillation5 column e@ui"ment modi!ication (a;e 3een maded
%. 2o< do t(ese modi!ication a!!ect t(e o"eration d
T(e re;am" o! a multidra< "roduct column (ig(lig(ts t(e im"act o! distillation system
c(anges on t(e o"erating "rocedures. Figure 2 s(o<s t(e 3ottom5"roduct control system
!or a side stri""er 3e!ore and a!ter a re;am". T(e original system design controlled
internal re!lu' 3y ;arying t(e (ea;iest sidedra< "roduct rate. T(e "roduct dra< rate <as
controlled to meet t(e "roduct @uality s"eci!ications. T(e system <as re;am"ed to
allo< 3etter control o! t(e column internal re!lu'. Alt(oug( t(e re;am"ed control system
is in(erently su"erior7 it is di!!erent. T(e re;am"ed system uses direct !lo< control on t(e
internal re!lu' to meet t(e "roduct @uality. In t(is case t(e (ea;y side "roduct rate is
indirectly ;aried. T(e o"erating "rocedures need to clearly re!lect t(ese ty"es o! "rocess
!lo< c(anges.
Figure # (ig(lig(ts t(e 3asic c(anges in t(e con;ersion o! a large diameter column !rom
trays to structured "ac-ing. T(e lo<er "ressure dro" o! t(e "ac-ing can 3e used to
adDust t(e column "ressure "ro!ile7 <(ic( on many distillation systems can de3ottlenec-
some ot(er ty"e o! unit limitation. *ne <ay is to -ee" t(e !eed5tray "ressure constant
and raise t(e o;er(ead recei;er "ressure. In t(e case o! a "etroleum5re!inery !luid5
catalytic5crac-ing5unit = FCC4? main !ractionator7 t(e (ig(er o;er (ead5recei;er "ressure
can 3e used to de3ottlenec- t(e o;er(ead5recei;er ;a"or5"roduct com"ressor. For an
et(yl53en1ene:styrene column7 t(e reduced column "ressure dro" can 3e used to lo<er t(e
3ottom column "ressure. T(is7 in turn reduces t(e tem"erature at <(ic( t(e li@uid
;a"ori1es and7 t(ere!ore7 "ares "roduct t(ermal5degradation tendencies. T(e design
c(anges and ne< o"erating "arameters need to 3e re;ie<ed <it( all "ertinent o"erating
"ersonnel "rior to a re;am". Training s(ould 3e a -ey element o! t(e startu" "rocess.
Re"lacing con;entional ;al;e7 sie;e7 or 3u33leca" trays <it( (ig( ca"acity trays7 (ig(
e!!iciency random "ac-ing7 or structured "ac-ing to increase column ca"acity or column
e!!iciency is 3ecoming more common . T(ese ne<er mass5trans!er de;ices7 <(ile o!!ering
ca"acity or e!!iciency ad;antages7 Any reduce t(e o"erating !le'i3ility o! t(e system For
instance7 most (ig( ca"acity trays o"erate on t(e "rinci"le o! a dynamic li@uid seal . T(ere
is no "ositi;e static seal resulting !rom t(e tray out5let <eir 3eing (ig(er t(an t(e 3ottom
edge o! t(e do<ncomer. A dynamic seal is created 3y t(e resistance to !lo< t(roug( t(e
do<ncomer e'it de;ice. I! t(e dynamic seal is lost7 t(e tray e!!iciency and o"erating
sta3ility o! t(e column su!!er. T(e smaller o"erating en;elo"e o! t(ese (ig( ca"acity trays
must 3e clearly esta3lis(ed7 ot(er<ise une'"ected column "er!ormance can result.
2ig( e!!iciency "ac-ings are 3eing installed in many columns to de3ottlenec- o"erating
limitations. Pac-ed column sections re@uire some ty"e o! a li@uid distri3utor to e;enly
distri3ute t(e li@uid onto t(e to" o! t(e "ac-ing. T(ese distri3utors are im"ortant 3ecause
t(ey go;ern (o< <ell t(e "ac-ing <ill "er!orm55 e;en more so t(an t(e in(erent e!!iciency
o! t(e "articular "ac-ing ty"e. Li@uid distri3utor e!!iciency is a!!ected 3y se;eral !actors.
T<o o! t(ose are t(e ma'imum and minimum !lo< rates7 <(ic( are design issues
"articular to t(e ty"e and manu!acturer o! t(e distri3utor. .'ceeding t(e e!!icient
o"erating <indo< o! t(e distri3utor can result in ;ary "oor column "er!ormance. In one
e'am"le7 t(ere <as a "eriod o! mont(s 3et<een startu" and sta3le o"eration. T(is
occurred due to lac- o! -no<ledge a3out t(e ne< o"erating en;elo"e. Re;am"ed
e@ui"ment design limitations a!!ect t(e column o"erating !le'i3ility.
*"erating "rocedures are "rocess and "lant s"eci!ic. Today7 t(ere are regulatory
guidelines t(at re@uire certain "rocedures to 3e co;ered <(en ma-ing c(anges to t(e
"rocess. *"erating guidelines and "rocedures s(ould re!lect c(anges to 3ot( t(e o;erall
distillation system and column internals. T(ese c(anges s(ould 3e included in t(e o"erator
training "rior to commissioning. Re;am"s7 <(et(er t(ey in;ol;e modi!ying t(e "rocess
!lo< sc(eme or t(e column internals7 re@uire a ree;aluation o! t(e
instrument:control system. BeGll loo- at some e'am"les t(at (ig(lig(t <(at mig(t 3e
considered o3;ious "ro3lems7 3ut t(at are re!lecti;e o! t(e ty"e o! issues t(at <e too o!ten
!ind o;erloo-ed.
#C.' Tro!b(eshooting
#C.'.# Introd!ction
S(a( and Dre< (a;e "ro;ided c(ec-list !or trou3les(ooting !ractionation systems. S(a(Gs
c(ec-list is intended !or use in design o! e@ui"ment to insure good o"erations. It can also
ser;e as a trou3les(ooting c(ec-list.
Dre<Gs Trou3les(ooterGs 0uide <as included in a start "article. It includes a diagram to
"in"oint instrumentation 3eing discussed. T(e c(ec-list !or "ac-ed to<er and tray to<er
is gi;en as !ollo<s :
To4er Chec*(ist
Pac*ed To4ers Tra. To4ers
1.isorientation o! Distri3utors7 gas s"argers
can lead to c(anneling or 3lo<ing.
1. Ty"e and num3er o! trays
2.2old5do<n "lates7 dimisters7 and "ac-ing
su""orts.
Free area o! t(e "ac-ing su""ort must 3e e@ual
to or greater t(an !ree area o! "ac-ing to
"re;ent "remature !lood.
2.Tray s"acing 7 le;elness orientation =man<ays7 seal
"ans etc.?
#.Ty"e7 si1e and ;olume o! "ac-ing !or
di!!erent 1ones.
#. Do<ncomer si1ing. Inlet and outlet <eirs.
%.Instrumentation 5 $ottoms le;el transmitter7
t(ermocou"les7 delta " cell7 etc.
%. ulti"ass trays.
&.Feed7 re!lu'7 3ottoms7 side dra< no11le
orientation.
&. For c(imney trays 5 <eir (eig(t and le;elness
). 0eneral cleanliness. ).No11le orientation5 including !eed7 re!lu'7 side
dra<7 3ottoms7 etc.
,.Clearance 3et<een 3ottom do<ncomer and column
!loor7 distance 3et<een 3ottom tray and re3oiler
;a"or return7 3ottom 3a!!le.
/.Instrumentations5 inter!ace le;el7 3ottoms le;el7
t(ermocou"les7 delta " cell7 etc.
6. 0eneral cleanliness.
#C.'.' Operating Tro!b(e hooting >!ide
Follo<ing is t(e trou3les(ooting guide :
Condition *3ser;ed Pro3a3le Cause Immediate Action
Re@uired =4ntil Re"airs
Can $e ade?
A. 8eed
Feed !lo< too lo<
Feed tem". Too lo<
Feed "um" !aulty or inlet
"lugged
Filter or outlet line "lugged
.conomi1er !ouled
Feed !lo< too (ig(
$ottoms !lo< too lo<
Sto" !eed "um".
Clean on s(utdo<n
Correct !eed control
C(ec- column le;el
Feed tan- !ull Stri"er s(ut do<n Start o"eration o! stri""er
B. Co(!/n operation
(botto/)
$ottoms tem". too lo<
$ottoms tem". Too (ig(
Column le;el too lo<
Column le;el too (ig(

Column "ressure too (ig(
Insu!!icient 3oilu"
Loss o! (eating system
Feedrate too (ig(7 !eed too ric(
Feed distri3utor !ouled
Column "ressure too (ig(
Too muc( 3oilu"
+ent "lugged
Insu!!icient condensing
Column !looding
$ottoms "um" !ailure
.conomi1er or line "lugged or
(and ;al;e closed
Column !ull a!ter s(utdo<n
$oilu" too (ig(
+ent "lugged
Column le;el (ig(
Send 3ottoms to !eed tan-
C(ec- (eating system
Reduce !eedrate
Clean out7 c(ec- !ilter
Reduce column PDRC
S(utdo<n
See Q2ig( ;ent tem"R
Reduce 3oilu"
sto" 3ottom "um"
Condition tem"orary
See Q$ottoms tem". Too
(ig(R
See Q$ottoms tem". Too
(ig(R
See Q column le;el too
(ig(R
Operating tro!b(eshooting g!ide contin!ed
C. Co(!/n operation
(top)
To" tem". too (ig(
To" tem". too lo<
2ig( ;ent tem"erature
Distillate !lo< too lo<
Recti!ying tem". too (ig(
re!lu' !lo< too lo<
Distillate !lo< too (ig(
Column "ressure (ig(
Column !looding
Control tem". Too lo<
Insu!!icient 3oilu"
Cooling <ater !ailure
Recycle to !eed tan- too (ig(
2and ;al;e closed7 line "lugged
Set TIC lo<er
Correct re!lu' le;el
control
Correct re!lu' "um"
See Q $ottoms tem". Too
(ig(R
See Qcolumn le;el too
lo<R
Set TIC512 (ig(er
Increase steam !lo<
S(ut steam ;ia S+56
=automatic?
Column o"eration =to"?
2ig( distillate tem".
Bater in distillate tan-
Tem"erature recording

Feed too lo<
Control tem". too lo<
$oilu" rate lo<
Re!lu' too (ig(
Re!lu' ratio too lo<
Feed too (ig( or too ric(
Re!lu' or recycle !lo< lo<
cooling <ater !ailure
Distillate too (ot
Decanter <ater o;er!lo<
Tem"eratures cycling
se@uentially
Tem"eratures rising
simultaneously
Tem"eratures !alling
simultaneously

C(ec- inter!ace le;el
c(ange
C(ec- rate o! le;el rise
C(ec- !eed su""ly
C(ec- TIC518
C(ec- steam su""ly7
PDRC5)
C(ec- TIC518 TC+518
C(ec- TIC512
Reduce !eedrate
C(ec- t(ese le;el controls
C(ec- <ater su""ly
See QDistillate !lo< too
(ig(R
c(ec- distillate cooler
Increase recycle !rom
decanter
Controller cycling7 c(ec-
manual setting7 tune
controller
Pressure rising7 c(ec-
condenser and ;ent
Loss o! 3oilu"
Com"osition "ro3lems
con!irm 3y a second
sam"le and assay 3e!ore
ta-ing action?
Sol;ent in !eed too (ig( or
too lo<
Sol;ent in 3ottoms too
(ig(
Bater in distillate too (ig(
Process "ro3lems
$ottoms tem". Too lo<
Distillate cloudy insu!!icient
cooling "oor decanting
Distillate clear7cool
Reduce !eedrate
Raise TS25# set"oint7
increase PDRC5) set"oint
or reduce !eedrate
C(ec- cooler
C(ec- decanter
Analysis error7 solu3le
im"urity "resent
E. $ti(it. Prob(e/s
Indicated readings lo<7
Controllers sluggis(
Di!!erential "ressure
lo< or erratic
Air "ressure lo<
Steam "ressure lo<
Column to" tem"erature
(ig(7 distillate (ot7 column
"ressure (ig(
<ater "ressure lo<
#C., Inspection
#C.,.# The preco//issioning inspection
T(e ins"ection "ro;ides t(e !inal o""ortunity to insure t(at t(e e@ui"ment is designed
correctly and installed "ro"erly. Catc( any o;ersig(ts (ere7 3e!ore t(ey com"licate
startu"e It is a !alse economy to s(ortcut t(e ins"ection "rocess to sa;e time during t(e
turnaround.
4n!ortunately7 too many engineers consider column ins"ection a dirty Q3lue collarR Do3 !or
t(e ins"ection de"artment. Sure7 it is dirty7 3ut it also is ;ery im"ortant and necessary.
B(ile ins"ection de"artment "ersonnel are s-illed7 t(ey "ro3a3ly lac- t(e o;erall ;ie< o!
t(e "rocess to "er!orm a com"lete ins"ection in t(e conce"tual sense. T(ere!ore7 an
engineer !amiliar <it( distillation e@ui"ment 3asic and a -no<ledge o! t(e "rocess s(ould
(andle t(e ins"ection. T(at "erson s(ould not Dust c(ec- t(at t(e e@ui"ment is "er t(e
dra<ings7 3ut also t(at it is designed "ro"erly. For instance7 it t(e startu" in;entorying
li@uid contains = or could contain solids7 t(en t(e "i"ing s(ould (a;e a strainer.
Lo< "oints in t(e column internal e@ui"ment s(ould (a;e drain (oles i! <ater can
accumulate t(ere. *ne e'am"le could 3e recessed inlet sum"s on a tray. B(ile t(e sum"s
are necessary to decrease t(e li@uid ;elocity under t(e do<ncomer and minimi1e
do<ncomer 3ac-u"7 t(ey are a common "lace !or <ater to accumulate during a s(utdo<n.
.@ui"ment ins"ection re@uires some 3asic tools. De"ending u"on t(e to<er internal ty"e
and s"eci!ic column5e@ui"ment design7 t(e tools <ill di!!er. Trayed columns (a;e
do<ncomers7 <eirs and acti;e area "anels. Pac-ed columns can (a;e numerous di!!erent
ty"es o! internal e@ui"ment. Le;elness criteria must 3e esta3lis(ed !or 3ot( ty"es o!
column internals. 2ig( ca"acity trays7 !or e'am"le7 <or- on t(e "rinci"le o! a dynamic
li@uid seal and t(ere!ore7 s(ould (a;e strict le;elness and do<ncomer clearance tolerances
ot(er<ise7 at lo<er li@uid !lo<s7 t(e seal can 3e lost resulting ;ery "oor tray "er!ormance.
Pac-ed column li@uid collection and li@uid distri3ution e@ui"ment are critical to t(e "ro"er
!unctioning o! t(e column. T(ese ty"es o! e@ui"ment must 3e installed "er t(e ;endor
dra<ings7 assuming t(e design is correct and t(ey must 3e le;el.
T(e ins"ection tools are 3asic and easy to ma-e7 3ut seldom are readily a;aila3le. So7 t(e
engineer s(ould ma-e a "oint o! 3ringing t(em. B(ile some tools are distillation
e@ui"ment and ;endor s"eci!ic at a minimum t(e engineer in general s(ould (a;e :
For trayed columns : <eir and do<ncomer clearance gauges7 <ater le;el =or laser ty"e
le;el? and a metal ruler.
For "ac-ed columns : <ater le;el7 car"enter le;el7 and a metal ruler.
Bit( t(e "roli!eration o! "ro"rietary trays and "ac-ed column internal designs7 t(e num3er
o! column !ailures is increasing. So7 to minimi1e t(e c(ance !or mista-es or o;ersig(ts
during t(e ins"ection7 a detailed e@ui"ment 5ins"ection c(ec-list s(ould 3e "re"ared. T(is
c(ec-list also s(ould include e@ui"ment t(at (as not 3een modi!ied as suc( e@ui"ment
o!ten can (a;e !la<s t(at cause com"lications during startu". For e'am"le7 collector trays
t(at already (a;e 3een in ser;ice are commonly !ound to (a;e lea-s.
T(e ins"ection c(ec-list <ill 3e s"eci!ic to eac( indi;idual ty"e o! e@ui"ment and ;endor
dra<ing. During t(e c(ec-list "re"aration7 t(e critical ins"ection items s(ould 3ecome
a""arent. As an e'am"le7 !or s"ray (eader li@uid distri3utors7 t(e no11le ty"e and si1e <ill
3e s"eci!ied on t(e dra<ing and t(us s(ould 3e c(ec-ed. Li-e<ise7 t(e c(ec-list clearly
s(ould include ;eri!ying t(at t(e s"ray no11les are installed correctly7 all !lange gas-ets are
in "lace7 and !lange 3olting is tig(tened correctly.
B(en t(e !inal column internal and e'ternal system ins"ections (a;e 3een com"leted7
o"erating "ersonnel can initiate acti;ities to start u" t(e unit. $y t(is time7 all mec(anical
c(anges s(ould (a;e 3een com"leted and c(anges to t(e startu" "rocedures resulting !rom
t(e re;am" s(ould already 3e in "lace.
#C.,.' tart !p inspection
Start u" is t(e time <(en engineering "ersonnel !ind out i! t(e column modi!ications made
during t(e turnaround are going to "er!orm as desired. It is also <(en o"erations
"ersonnel !ind out i! t(e re;am" <ill im"ro;e t(eir distillation system or create additional
o"erating "ro3lems. 4n!ortunately7 many design engineers do not e'"erience t(e reality
o! an o"erating "lant. T(is undou3tedly contri3utes to t(e common com"laint !rom
o"erators t(at t(e reality is al<ays di!!erent !rom <(at t(e engineers t(in- it is.
Distillation column startu"s are c(aracteri1ed 3y non5steady5state7 o!! design conditions.
ain !ractionator !eed entries li-e an et(ylene "lant @uenc( column and a "etroleum
re!inery FCC4 main !ractionator are su3Dect to a num3er o! "ossi3le "rocess distur3ances
during startu". Not sur"risingly7 startu" is <(en a maDor "ortion o! column damage
occurs.=Figure 11?
So7 column internal e@ui"ment s(ould 3e designed to relia3ly meet startu" conditions. T(e
e@ui"ment design s"eci!ications s(ould consider startu"7 not Dust steady5state o"eration.
And t(is means loo-ing 3eyond t(e "ure t(eoretical as"ects to "ractical "rocess and
e@ui"ment considerations. For instance7 internal and e'ternal startu"5related e@ui"ment
li-e strainers s(ould 3e incor"orated. +endors7 (o<e;er7 usually do not include t(ese
items on t(eir 3ids !or !ear o! not 3eing com"etiti;e. T(at does not mean t(at suc( units
arenGt necessary. Rat(er7 t(ey can 3e essential !or a smoot( startu". Indeed7 <e can attest
t(at t(eir im"act on distillation system relia3ility and a3ility to start u" is signi!icant.
S"eci!ic distillation5startu" "rocedures necessarily di!!er !rom Mone "rocess to anot(er.
T(e num3er o! "ossi3le startu" "ro3lems is enormous. Some 3road startu" issues7
(o<e;er7 a""ly to Mmost all distillation "rocesses.
T(e startu" "rocess can 3e 3ro-en do<n into t<o distinct "eriods eac( <it( some general
acti;ities and c(aracteristicsM
Process startu"7 including remo;ing contaminants7 initial in;entorying. Commissioning
re3oilers and "rocess control instrumentation.
Feed and steady5state o"eration.
Contaminants suc( as ;essel scale t(at is s"elled !rom t(e <all <(en t(e ;essel is (eated
u" can "lug column internals ;ery @uic-ly. Failure to remo;e <ater in a (ot system can
cause "ressure surges !rom its ra"id ;a"ori1ation. In t(ese cases7 internal e@ui"ment
damage o!ten results. It is sa!e to say t(at columns t(at (a;e t(eir internals 3lo<n out on
startu" do not meet t(eir design o3Decti;es. Initial in;entorying <it( material !rom storage
or anot(er source can introduce contaminants t(at cannot 3e tolerated eit(er 3y t(e
"rocess or t(e distillation column e@ui"ment. Re3oiler systems are t(e source o! many
startu" "ro3lems resulting !rom surging7 le;el control7 design7 o! a myriad o! ot(er
situation. Some e'am"les o! startu" conditions t(at can 3e lin-ed to column o"erating
"ro3lems are:
S(utdo<n contaminants 5 air7 <ater7 and "articulateM
Column inerting 5 steaming outM
Initial column dry out 5 <aterM
In;entorying5li@uid contamination 5 "articulate and <aterM
Feedstoc- c(anges resulting !rom addition o! slo"sM
Distillation5column "eri"(eral5e@ui"ment contaminants !lus(ed into t(e column at
startu" and cryogenic ser;ices 5 <ater7 "articulate and met(anol dry5out o! e@ui"ment.
Air7 <ater7 corrosion "roducts =see Figure 12?7 storage tan- sludgeGs. Polymers7 and ot(er
contaminants generally are not meant to 3e inside columns. At startu" 7 t(ese
contaminants can cause un<anted c(emical reactions. Plugging o! e@ui"ment or
e@ui"ment damage. Re"rocessing o!!5s"eci!ication "roduct t(at (as 3een in storage can
introduce contaminants suc( as air and <ater. Air can cause se;ere corrosion Min many
"rocesses7 <(ile <ater can lead to damage !rom "ressure surges associated <it( its ra"id
;a"ori1ation. Tram" iron cataly1es some un<anted reactions in t(e c(lorination o!
aromatic. Li@uid distri3utors t(at do not (a;e a""ro"riate straining de;ices can "lug !rom
;essel scale during startu". I! 3e material is 3eing !ed to t(e column7 it s(ould 3e c(ec-ed
!or contaminants. T(e im"act t(at t(e contaminants (a;e on t(e system de"ends u"on
3ot( "rocess s"eci!ies and detailed internal5e@ui"ment design c(aracteristics.
Again7 distillation5e@ui"ment and "eri"(eral5e@ui"ment design s(ould consider condition
in(erent to t(e startu". Features suc( as e'ternal 3as-et strainers =Figure 1#? normally are
recommended !or li@uid s"ray distri3utors. T(ese strainers7 (o<e;er7 are recommended
less !re@uently !or troug( or ot(er ty"es o! li@uid distri3utors. Het7 se;eral columns (a;e
(ad to 3e s(ut do<n as a result o! t(ese distri3utors "lugging u". B(en a !eed stream
comes !rom an ela3orate (eat e'c(anger net<or- or a long run o! "i"ing made o! car3on
steel7 t(en 3as-et strainers al<ays s(ould 3e used to a;oid distri3utor "lugging. During
one startu"7 t(e 3as-et "lugged e;ery #8 min. *ne o! t(e engineers actually com"lained
t(at Qt(e strainer s(ould not (a;e 3een installed 3ecause it <as causing so muc( <or- t(e
clean.R It is 3etter to (a;e t(e e'ternal strainer remo;e t(e
solids t(an let t(em "lug a (ig( e!!iciency li@uid distri3utor inside t(e column.
Commissioning re3oilers is t(e source o! numerous column "ro3lems. any o! t(e
"otential "ro3lems are co;ered in AisterGs QDistillation *"erations Q. T(e side re3oiler
system t(at <e already (a;e mentioned could not 3e "ut in ser;ice <it(out !looding t(e
column 3ecause t(e re@uired startu" "i"ing re@uirements !or t(at side re3oiler system. T(e
startu" "ro3lems resulted !rom re3oiler surging caused 3y t(e t(ermosy"(on. Initially
t(ere is no dri;ing !orce 3et<een t(e inlet and outlet to cause t(ere 3oiler to o"erate. T(e
inlet and outlet legs o! t(e re3oiler are ;ery long 3ecause t(e re3oiler ta-es !eed !rom t(e
side o! t(e column in t(e middle o! t(e stri""ing section. To start t(e re3oiler <it(out a
source o! lo< 3oiling material7 it <as necessary to increase t(e (eating5medium !lo< rate
until ;a"ori1ation on t(e e'c(anger outlet <as su!!icient to 3egin circulation. T(e initial
re3oiler5circulation surge7 (o<e;er7 !looded t(e trays a3o;e t(e "oint <(ere it entered t(e
column . A startu" line <as installed !rom t(e o;er(ead distillate "roduct t(at su""lied a
source o! lo< 3oiling material to (el" 3ring t(e re3oiler on5line.
Failure to "ro"erly start u" a distillation column can cause unsc(eduled outages7 column
o"erating "ro3lems7 and (a1ardous or unsa!e conditions. T(ere!ore7 identi!ying
e@ui"ment issues "articular to startu"s and "otential startu" "lanning 3egin in t(e early
stages o! any re;am" "rocess7 so t(at re@uired c(anges can 3e made <it(in t(e turnaround
<indo< . Startu" re@uirements di!!er according to o"erating (istory7 ser;ice7 and design
o! distillation and "eri"(eral e@ui"ment.
Distillation column re;am"s s(ould include a com"re(ensi;e re;ie< o! startu"
"rocedures7 control instrumentation7 and o"erating "rocedures <ell in ad;ance o!
commissioning. Li-e<ise a "ro"er "ermission ins"ection "ro;ides a critical o""ortunity to
!ind and correct any o;ersig(ts. Re;am"ed5distillation5column startu" s(ould 3e t(e
culmination o! many "re;ious acti;ities7 not t(e 3eginning o! a Qs(a-e do<nR "rocess to
!ind out <(atGs <rong <it( t(e system. 0ood startu" "lanning can a;oid "ro3lems and7
t(us7 can signi!icantly cut t(e transition "eriod 3e!ore o"erating o3Decti;es are met.
#C.,., Inspection Chec*(ist
RIL ins"ection grou" (as de;elo"ed t(e ins"ection c(ec-list !or t(e column and its
internal as !ollo<ing.:
R.LIANC. IND4STRI.S LIIT.D
PATAL0AN0A
C2.CALIST F*R INSP.CTI*N *F C*L4N

PLANT :
DAT. :
.94IP.NT N*: D.SCRIPTI*N:
R.AS*N F*R INSP.CTI*N :
C*L4N D.TAILS : H.AR C*ISSI*N.D :

T*P ANBAH L*C.
IDDL. ANBAH L*C.
$T. ANBAH L*C.
*C *F C*L4N
*C *F DIS2 .ND
I.D. *F C*L4N =mm?
TRAH THP.
N*. *F TRAHS =T*TAL?
*C *F TRAHS
*P.RATIN0 FL4ID
D.SI0N : *P.RATIN0 T.P
8
C
D.SI0N : *P.RATIN0 PR.S.
$AR 0
N*INAL
=mm?
C.A. =mm? IN.
ALL*BA$
L. =mm?
.AS4
R.D
=min?
=ma'
imu
m?
S2.LL
T*P DIS2
.ND
$T. DIS2
.ND
LAST INSP.CTI*N 2I02 LI02TS :
SR.
N*.
C2.CA P*INTS STD.LIIT
C*NDITI*N
*$S.R+ATI*
NS:R.ARAS
A
1.

T*P ANBAH :
I! c(o-ing !ound in to" tray t(en c(ec- ne't
tray. *n 2nd tray i! c(o-ing o3ser;ed t(en
o"en t(e ne't # tray man<ays. I! t(ese # trays
!ound c(o-ed t(en c(ec- ne't ) trays.
2. C(ec- !or dislodging or 3uc-led trays.
#. C(ec- s(ell intemal sur!ace !or
corrosion:"itting.
%. C(ec- dis(ed end sur!ace !or corrosion:"itting.
&. C(ec- condition o! <elds !or "itting:corrosion.
). C(ec- trays:!astener !or
corrosion:"itting:t(inning.
,. C(ec- tray (oles !or "lugging7 erosion7
enlargement.
/. C(ec- do<ncomer "lates !or
corrosion:t(inning.
6. C(ec- re!lu' inlet "i"e !or "itting:corrosion.
18. C(ec- serration o! to" man<ay gas-et seating
area.
F*RAT N*:
C.SP:.C:INS:8#1#:1$
R.+ : 81
ISS4. :8#
DAT. : 2,:81:6, PA0. 1 *F #
II: inimum allo<a3le t(ic-ness is calculated at design tem" and R+ set "ressure.
SR.
N*.
C*NDITI*N
*$S.R+ATI*NS
:R.ARAS
11. C(ec- t(ic-ness =mm? o! :
Trays
Re!lu' inlet "i"e
Nom :
Nom :
$
1
IDDL. ANBAH :
o"en t(e ne't # tray man<ays. I! t(ese #
trays !ound c(o-ed t(en c(ec- ne't ) trays.
#. C(ec- s(ell intemal sur!ace !or
corrosion:"itting.
%. C(ec- serration o! man<ay gas-et seating
area.
&. C(ec- condition o! intemal <elds !or
"itting:corrosion.
). C(ec- trays:!astener !or corrosion:t(inning.
enlargement.
/. C(ec- do<ncomer "lates !or
corrosion:t(inning.
6. C(ec- !eed "i"e !or "itting:corrosion.
18. C(ec- t(e im"ingement "late !or
corrosion:erosion and "ro"er attac(ment
<it( s(ell.
11. C(ec- t(ic-ness o! :
Trays
Feed "i"e
Nom :
Nom :
C
1.
$*TT* ANBAH :
o"en t(e ne't # tray man<ays. I! t(ese #
trays !ound c(o-ed t(en c(ec- ne't ) trays.
#. C(ec- s(ell intemal sur!ace !or corrosion:
"itting.
%. C(ec- 3ottom dis( end sur!ace !or
corrosion:"itting.
&. C(ec- condition o! <elds !or
"itting:corrosion.
). C(ec- trays:!astener !or
corrosion:"itting:t(inning.
F*RAT N*:
C.SP:.C:INS:8#1#:1$
R.+ : 81
ISS4. :8#
DAT. : 2,:81:6, PA0. 2 *F #
SR.
N*.
C*NDITI*N
*$S.R+ATI*NS:
R.ARAS
enlargement.
None
/. Carry out (ammer testing <(ere e;er None
6. C(ec- serration o! 3ottom man<ay gas-et
seating area.
None
18. C(ec- t(ic-ness in mm o! :
S(ell
3ottom dis( end
Trays
Nom :
Nom :
Nom :
D
1
.FT.RNAL INSP.CTI*N :
Remo;e !ire "roo!ing on s-irt "late 12R
I12R to c(ec- t(e sur!ace condition o!
s-irt.
=*nce in & years?
2 C(ec- t(ic-ness o! s-irt "late !rom
ins"ection "oc-et and !rom inside.
# C(ec- S-irt to s(ell <eld Doint !or crac-.
% C(ec- t(ic-ness o! 3ottom outlet "i"e !rom
inside t(e s-irt =i! "ossi3le?
& .nsure relie! de;ices mounted on t(e ;essel
is tested as "er sc(edule
) C(ec- t(ic-ness o! all t(e no11les
, C(ec- <(et(er eart(ing 3oss connection is
intact.
F*RAT N*:
C.SP:.C:INS:8#1#:1$
R.+ : 81
ISS4. :8#
DAT. : 2,:81:6, PA0. # *F #
INSP.CT.D $H :
ASSIST. ANA0.R =INSP?
C"APTER ##
H$ETIONNAIRE
1. De!ine t(e Distillation "rocess and descri3e t(e ;arious met(ods o! distillation in
3rie!.
2. B(at are t(e ad;antages o! t(e Distillation "rocess o;er ot(er mass trans!er
o"erations.
#. Descri3e t(e "rinci"le o! t(e distillation tec(ni@ue.
%. De!ine - ;alue and relati;e ;olatility.
&. B(at is t(e e!!ect o! tem"erature7 "ressure and com"osition on - ;alue and
relati;e ;olatility.
). B(at is "(ase diagram.
,. De!ine 3u33le "oint and de< "oint and met(od o! t(eir calculation.
/. B(at is t(e a1eotro"e.
6. De!ine t(e ;arious section in t(e distillation column.
18. De!ine t(e mass trans!er conce"t in distillation column.
11. Descri3e t(e di!!erential distillation tec(ni@ue.
12. Descri3e t(e di!!erential recti!ication tec(ni@ue.
1#. Descri3e t(e !las( distillation tec(ni@ue
1%. Descri3e t(e met(od o! cCa3e 5T(iele diagram.
1&. Relations(i" 3et<een @7 @5line and column !lo<s.
1). Descri3e cCa3e 5 T(iele Diagram Lines.
1,. Descri3e t(e im"ortance o! minimum re!lu' ratio and descri3e t(e met(ods !or
calculating t(e met(ods o! minimum re!lu' ratio.
1/. Descri3e t(e use o! 4nder<ood .@uation !or calculating t(e minimum re!lu'
ratio.
16. Descri3e t(e Fines-e e@uation !or calculating minimum re!lu' ratio.
28. Descri3e t(e ste"s in using t(e 0illiland correlation .
21. Descri3e A1eotro"ic distillation7 .'tracti;e distillation and steam distillation.
22. B(at is sur!ace e!!ect in ;acuum distillation.
2#. Descri3e ty"e and details o! t(e trays.
2%. B(at is selection criteria !or tray ty"e.
2&. Descri3e ty"e and details o! t(e "ac-ings.
2). Descri3e t(e ad;antages and a""lications o! Structured Pac-ings.
2,. Com"arison o! structured "ac-ings and random "ac-ings.
2/. De!ine tray e!!iciency.
26. B(at is t(e e!!ect o! errors in +a"or5Li@uid .@uili3rium =+L.? on e!!iciency.
#8. B(at is t(e *GConnell correlation and .!!ect o! li@uid !lo< "atterns on tray
e!!iciency.
#1. B(at is t(e e!!ect o! tray maldistri3ution on e!!iciency.
#2. Design t(e distillation column and internals !or
Pac-ed column
Tray column
$u33le ca" column
##. B(at are de3ottlenec-ing o"tions !or t(e tray column 3eing o"erated at lo<
"ressure and (ig( "ressure.
#%. B(at are de3ottlenec-ing o"tions !or t(e "ac-ed column 3eing o"erated at lo<
"ressure and (ig( "ressure .
#&. Descri3e t(e ;arious ty"es o! re3oilers and condenser and its selection criteria..
#). Descri3e t(e ;arious ty"es o! control sc(emes and its selection criteria.
#,. B(at are t(e ste"s in;ol;ed in designing a distillation column 3y using simulation
so!t<are li-e PR*5II.
#/. Descri3e t(e normal start u" "rocedure !or t(e distillation column.
#6. Descri3e t(e trou3les(ooting ste"s in case o! !ollo<ing
No and Lo< !eed !lo<.
$ottom tem"erature too lo< and too (ig(.
Column "ressure (ig(.
%8. Descri3e t(e "recommissioning and start u" ins"ection !or t(e column.
C"APTER #'
RE8ERENCE
8o((o4ing re&erences 4hich inc(!des the Te2t boo*s and p!b(ished papers in
Ao!rna(s are avai(ab(e &or &!rther reading :
1. American Petroleum Institute7 Tec(nical Data $oo-5Petroleum Re!ining7 #d
ed.7 API.
2. Anderson 0.D.R Intial Controller Settings to 4se at Plant Startu".RC(emm
.ng. 68 =1%?7" 11# =Luly 11 16/#?.
#. $olles7 B.L.7 in $.D. Smit(7 Design o! .@uili3rium Stage Processes7
c0ra<52ill7 Ne< Hor-.
%. $ranan7 C.7 T(e Fractionator Analysis Poc-et 2and3oo-70ul! Pu3lis(ing7
2ouston7 16,/.
&. Carl $ranan7 Rules *! T(um3 For C(emical .ngineers 0ul! Pu3lis(ing Co7
Aug5166&.
). C(emical .ngineering Progress7 Accurately Assess Pac-ed Column
.!!iciency7 Luly 6&.
,. C(emical .ngineering Progress7 Dongt Neglect Li@uid Distri3utors7 arc(
166#.
/. C(emical .ngineering Progress7 Success!ully Trou3les(oot Distillation
To<ers7 arc( 6#.
6. C(emical .ngineering7 Control Distillation Bit( T(e ost Sensiti;e Tray7 Lan
166#.
18. C(emical .ngineering7 ay 1661. B(en to use 2ig( +acuum Distillation
11. C(emical .ngineersG 2and3oo-7 )t( ed.7 c(a".1/7 c0ra<52ill7 Ne< Hor-7
16/%.
12. C(emical Industry Digest7 arc( 1662.Current Trends in Pac-ed Columns
For Distillation
1#. Dre<. L. B. QDistillation Column Startu"7R C(em. .ng. 68 =2#?7". 221
=No;.1%.16/#?.
1%. .D7 ass Trans!er *"erations7 +ols. 1 and 27 A.I.C(...7 Ne< Hor-7 16/8.
1&. F.0.S(in-ey7 Distillation Control c0ra< 2ill Pu3lis(ers.
1). Fair7 L.R.7 AIC(. Sym". Ser. ,67 2#&7 17 16/#.7 C(em.Plant. Se"t 1668.
1,. Fair7 L.R.7 in $.D. Smit(7 Design o! .@uili3rium Stage Processes7 c0ra<5
2ill7 Ne< Hor-7 16)#.
1/. Fleming $. A. B. Sloey P. Nielson7 and A. $roussard7 Q*"timi1ing Lu3e
+acuum Column Design7R "resented at National Petroleum Re!iners
Association Fuels and Lu3ricants eeting. 2ouston =No;. 166%?.
16. Fonyo7 17 QDesign odi!ication and "ro"er Distillation Control7R "resented at
AIC(. S"ring National eeting 7 2ouston =ar. 166#?.
28. 0ans 7 Q T(e A to K o! Plant Start5u"R C(em .ng. /# =)? " ,2 =arc( 1&7
16,)?.
21. 0ans7 .S.A.Aior"es and F.A.Fit1gerald7 QPlant Startu"5Ste" 3y Ste".R
C(em..ng /# =)? " ,2 =arc(1&7 16,)?.
22. 0litsc(7 Inc.7 a0iltsc( $allast Trays7 A517 +517 +587 .'"erimental Test Data7a
$ulletins 1&6:1)8 =re;ised?7Dallas7 16/#.
2#. 0olden S. B. QFCC ain Fractionator Re;am"s7 Q2ydroc. Proc7 ,# =#? " ,,
=arc( 166#?.
2%. 0olden S. B. QIm"ro;ed Control Strategies Correct ain Fractionator
*"erating Pro3lems7 Q *il and 0as L7 "7 &/ =Aug 217 166&?
2&. 0olden S. B. QTem"erature7 Pressure7 and Com"osition Sol;e Column
*"erating Pro3lems7 Q *il and 0as D7"7 ,& =Dec.2&7 166&?.
2). 0olden S.B.0.R.artin and $. Fleming7R Distillation .@ui"ment Relia3ilityM
Case 2istories7 "resented at %t( International Con!. *n Process "lant
Relia3ility7 2ouston =No;166&?
2,. 0olden7 S.B. QIntegrating T(eoretical and Practical As"ects o! Re!inery
FCC4 Fractionator Re;am"s7R "resented at AIC(. S"ring National eeting.
2ouston =A"r.16/6?.
2/. 0olden7 S.B. and A.B. Sloley7 QSim"le et(ods Sol;e +acuum Column
Pro3lems 4sing Plant Data7R *il and 0as L. P. ,% =Se"t7 1% 1662?.
26. 0PA .ngineering Data $oo-7 6t( ed.7 Tules7 16/1.
#8. 2artman ..L.S. Billiams7 and D. B. 2anson7 QStart5u" S(utdo<n7 and
Control o! Re!inery Pac-ed Fractionators.R 2ydroc. Proc7 ,%=11?7 ". ),
=No;. 166&?.R
#1. 2engste3ec-7 R.L.7 Distillation5Princi"les and Design Procedures7 Rein(old
Pu3lis(ing7 16)1.
#2. 2enry K.Aister7 Distillation o"eration and design cgra< 2ill Pu3lis(ers.
##. 2olland C.D.7 Fundamentals o! ulti5com"onent Distillation7 c0ra<52ill7
Ne< Hor-7 16/1.
#%. 2olland7 C.D.7 Fundamentals and odeling o! Se"aration Process7 Prentice
2all7Ne< Hor-716,&
#&. 2olland7 C.D.7 and 0.P.Pedon7 2ydrocar3on. Processing .7&#=,?7".1%/7 16,%.
#). 2olland7 C.D.7 ulti5com"onent Distillation7 Prentice52all7 Ne< Hor-716)#.
#,. Introduction To Process Design7 4*P Training Ser;ices anual.
#/. Lant17 R.D.N. Heoman7 and C.L.2esie(7 Tray De;elo"ment Ba-es 4"7R
Proceedings o! t(e 6& C(emS(o< Con!erence7 Ne<Hor- "u3lis(ed 3y intG1
.'.5"osition Co. Best"ort CT ". 6, =Dec. 166&?.
#6. Aing C.L.7 Se"aration Process7 c0ra<52ill7 Ne< Hor- 716/8.
%8. Aister 2. K.7 Distillation *"eration7 c0ra<52ill7 Ne< Hor-7 1668.
%1. Aister 2.K.7 and L.R. 2ass7 C(em. .ng. Prog. /)=6?7 ".)#7 1668.
%2. Aister7 2.L.7 C(em. .ng.7 ay 1#7 ". ,17 16/&.
%#. Aister7 2.K. Q2o< to Pre"are and Test Columns $e!ore Startu"7R C(em .ng.
// =,?7 " 6, =A"r.)7 16/1?.
%%. Alein7 0.F.7 C(em. .ng.7 Se"t. 1,. ". 12/7 16/%.
%&. Aoc( .ngineering Co.7 Inc.7 QDesign anual 5Fle'itrayR7 $ulletin 6)8517
Bic(ita7 Aansas7 16/2.
%). Lie3erman7 N. P. QTrou3les(ooting Process *"erations7R #rd ed. P. /6
Penn<ell7 Tulsa . *A " /6 =1661?.
%,. Loc-et .L. 7 Distillation Tray Fundamentals7 Cam3ridge 4ni;ersity "ress7
Cam3ridge7 .ngland7
%/. Loc-ett7 .L.7 Trans. Inst. C(em. .ngrs. =London?&67 ".2) 16/1.
%6. Lud<ig ....7 A""lied Process Design !or C(emical and Petroc(emical Plants7
2nd ed.7;ol .2.
&8. artin 0.R.$. Fleming and S.B. 0olden7 QDistillation Column Ins"ection.R
Presented at #rd International Con!erence and .'(i3ition on Im"ro;ing
Relia3ility in Petroleum Re!ineries and C(emical Plants7 2ouston =No;.166%?.
&1. ca3e7 BL and Smit(7 LC7 4nited *"erations In C(emical .ngineering
c0ra< (ill Pu3lis(ers7 166#.
&2. cCa3e7 B.L.7 and ..B.T(iele7 Ind. .ng. C(em.1,7)8&7162&.
&#. i1sey7 P7. And Fonyo K7 QDistillation Control !or Pac-ed and Trayed
Columns7R 2ungarian L Ind. C(em7 22 =2? ". /1 =166%?.
&%. urray R. . And L. .. Brig(t7 QTrou3le5Free Startu" o! Distillation
Columns7R C(em. .ng. Progress. )# =12?.". %8 =Dec. 16),?.
&&. Null7 2.R.7 P(ase .@uili3rium in Process Design7 Biley5Interscience7 Ne<
Hor-716,8.
&). *il and 0as Lournal7 Sim"le Rules 2el" Select $est Distillation Sc(emes7
Dec166#.
&,. Perry7 R27 0reen7 D Perrygs C(emical .ngineergs 2and3oo-7 c0ra< t(is
Pu3lis(ers7 16/%.
&/. P(ili" C. Ban-at7 .@uili3rium Stages Se"arations.
&6. Process .ngineering7 Setting Targets For Distillation7 Lune1662.Pu3lis(ing7
2ouston7 16,6.
)8. R.A.Sinott7 C(emical .ngineering7=+ol. 2 and +ol.)? Pergamon Press7 166#.
Re!ining7 Bas(ington7 16,).
)1. Reid7 R.C.7L.. Prausnit1 and T.A. S(er<ood7 T(e Pro"erties o! 0asses and
Li@uids.
)2. Ro3inson7 C.S.7 and ..R.0illiland7 .lements o! Fractional Distillation7
c0ra< 2ill7 Ne< Hor-7 16&8.
)#. Se;era7 L..7 QStartu" o! Crude:+acuum Distillation 4nit7R C(em .ng.
Progress )6 =/? " 1&1 Se"t. 16,#?.
)%. Sloley7 A.B. and $. Fleming7 QSuccess!ully Do<nsi1e Trayed ColumnsR
C(em. .ng. Progress 68 =#?7 " #6 =ar. 166%.
)&. Sloley7 A.B.S.B. 0olden7 and 0.R. artin7 QB(y To<ers Do Not Bor-7R
"resented at AIC(. S"ring National eeting7 2ouston =ar. 166&?7
Summari1ed in c(em. .ng. "rogress7 61 =&?7 ". , =ay 166&?7.
)). Smit(7 +.C.7L.C. 4"c(urc(7 and D.B.Beiler7 C(em. .ng Prog. ,,=6?7 ". %/7
16/1.
),. Trey3al7 Re7 ass Trans!er *"erations c0ra< t(is Pu3lis(ers7 16/8.
)/. 4nder<ood7 A.L.+.7 Trans. Inst. C(em. .ngrs. 1#7#%716#&.
)6. +an Bin-le7 . Distillation7 c0ra<52ill7 Ne< yor-7 16),.
,8. Bat-ins RN7 Petroleum Re!inery Distillation 0ul! Pu3lis(ing Com"any7 16,6.

Distillation Manual

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Li@uid !lo< rate "er 3u33ling area A

"seudo5e@uili3rium mole !raction in li@uid

is re!lu'ed to column 17 <(ile li@uid o! com"osition '

and re!lu' is not at t(e usual ;alue o! y N

7 t(en column 1 <ould 3e a com"lete column and column 2

<5 org in org

ring (as a su"erior

and t(ere!ore ;aries !rom section to section .

in inc(es o! li@uid. .@uation

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