Combustion Triangle Essential conditions for combustion to occur 1. Presence of fuel . 2. Presence of oxidizer (Not essentially oxygen). 3. They must be in right proportions. 4. The proportion will be dictated by flammability limit. 5. Ignition energy.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
The Lecture Contains: What is Fuel and Oxidizer? Types of Fuels and Oxidizers Contd.. Characterization of a Gaseous Fuel Junker's Calorimeter Liquid Fuels and Oxidizers Refinery End-Products of Typical Crude Oil
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_1a.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
What is Fuel and Oxidizer? Electronegativity The ability of an element to accept or donate electrons. Amount of pull that one atom exerts on the electron that it is sharing with other atom. The term electronegativity was coined by Linus Pauling, a Noble Laureate.
Element Electro- negativity Element Electro- negativity Element Electro- negativity F 4 Br 2.8 B 2.0 O 3.5 C,S,I 2.5 Be,Al 1.5 N,Cl 3.0 H,P 2.1 Mg 1.2
Fluorine is having Highest Electronegativity (Most powerful oxidizer). Oxygen has second highest electronegativity. Carbon, Hydrogen, Aluminum and Magnesium have Low Electronegativity (Fuels).
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Types of Fuels and Oxidizers Gaseous Fuel and Oxidizer
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Contd.. Types of Gaseous Fuel and Oxidizer Sl. No. Fuel Oxidizer Application 1 LPG Air/O 2 Domestic Burner, Furnace 2 Natural Gas (NG) Air/O 2 IC Engines, Furnaces 3 Producer Gas Air/O 2 EC/IC Engines 4 CH 4 , C 3 H 8 , H 2 Air/O 2 EC/IC Engines 5 Biogas Air/O 2 EC/IC Engines, Burners 6 Acetylene Air/O 2 Gas welding, Gas cutting * EC=External Combustion IC =Internal Combustion Composition of Some Gaseous Fuels Fuel CO 2 O 2 N 2 CO H 2 CH 4 C 2 H 6 C 3 H 8 C 4 H 10 LPG - - - - - - - 70 30 Natural Gas - - 5 - - 90 5 - - Producer Gas 8 0.1 50 23.2 17.7 1 - - - Propane - - - - - - 2.2 97.3 0.5 Biogas 33 - 1 - 1 65 - - -
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Characterization of a Gaseous Fuel Heating Value: Amount of heat released per unit volume when it undergoes oxidation at normal pressure and temperature (0.1 MPa and 298 K). Lower heating value (LHV) amount of heat released by burning 1 kg of fuel assuming the latent heat of vaporization in the reaction products is not recovered. Higher heating value (HHV) heating value of the fuel when water is condensed. is the Latent heat of vaporization of water at 298.15 K Junker's Calorimeter (Figure 2.1)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Determines the heating value of the gaseous fuel. Fuel and air are burnt in a burner. Cooling water in the water jacket-absorbs the heat released during combustion. Heating value- calculated from the water flow rate and rise in temperature.
Liquid Fuels and Oxidizers Liquid fuel is one of the major energy sources in the transport sector. Crude oil is formed from organic sources, animals, vegetables which are entrapped in rocks under high pressure and temperature for million years. Fuel Oxidizer Application 1 Gasoline Air S.I. Engine, Aircraft Piston Engine 2 HSD Air C.I. Engine 3 Furnace Oil Air Furnaces 4 Kerosene Air Aircraft, Gas Turbine, Engines Ramjet, Domestic Burner 5 Alcohols Air I.C. Engine 6 Hydrazine, UDMH, MMH, Liquid Hydrogen, Triethyl Amine Liquid O 2 , RFNA (Red Fuming Nitric Acid) N 2 O 4 Liquid propellant rocket Engines 7 Hydrogen, Kerocene Air Ramjet/Scramjet
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture2/2_6.htm[10/5/2012 11:11:43 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 2: What is Fuel and Oxidizer?
Refinery End-Products of Typical Crude Oil
Crude oil undergoes several process in the refinery. Generally separation of petroleum constituents occur in the distillation column. Constituents of typical crude oil is shown below.
Bomb Calorimeter Used to determine the calorific value of the liquid fuel. Liquid is burnt in the bomb in the presence of oxygen at about 2.5 MPa . The change in temperature in the water bath provides the calorific value of the fuel. (Figure 3.2)
Properties of Liquid Fuels Specific Gravity : Ratio of mass density of fuel to mass density of water at the same temperature
Reference temperature for fuel and water: 288.8 K American Petroleum Institute (API) Scale:
Relation between APISG and HHV: For Gasoline : For Kerosene : Auto Ignition Temperature : The lowest temperature required to make the combustion self sustained without any external aid
Properties of Liquid Fuels Flash Point : Minimum temperature at which liquid fuel will produce sufficient vapors to form a flammable mixture with air. Indicates maximum temperature at which liquid fuel can be stored without any fire hazard. Fire Point : Minimum temperature at which liquid fuel produces sufficient vapors to form a flammable mixture with air that continuously supports combustion establishing flame instead of just flashing. Smoke Point : Measure of the tendency of a liquid fuel to produce soot. Properties of Common Liquid Fuels Fuel Type Automotive Gasoline Diesel Fuel Methanol Kerosene ATF (JP8) Specific gravity 0.72 - 0.78 0.85 0.796 0.82 0.71 Kinematics viscosity @ 293 K (m 2 /s) 0.8 X 10 -6 2.5 X 10 -6 0.75 X 10 -6 3.626 X 10 -6 -- Boiling point range (K) @ STP 303 - 576 483 - 508 338 423-473 442 Flash point (K) 230 325 284 311 325 Auto ignition temperature (K) 643 527 737 483 -- Stoichiometric air/fuel by weight 14.7 14.7 6.45 15 15.1 Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg) 380 375 1185 298.5 -- Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 43.5 45 20.1 45.2 43.3
Contd.. Types of Solid Fuels and Oxidizers: S. No. Fuel Oxidizer Applications 1 Biomass (Wood, Saw Dust, Rice Husk, Rice Straw, Wheat Straw, etc) Air/O 2 Domestic Burner, Engine With Producer Gas 2 Coal, Coke, Charcoal do do 3 Special Fuels Nitrocellulose (NC), HTPB, CTPB Nitroglycerine, Ammonium Perchlorate , Ammonium Nitrate, Nitrogen Tetraoxide Solid Propellant Rocket, Hybrid Rocket
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture4/4_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:13:04 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 4: Characterization of Solid Fuels
The Lecture Contains: Oxygen, Water and Ash Content of Certain Solid Fuels Characterization of Solid Fuels Various Combustion Modes
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture4/4_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:13:05 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 4: Characterization of Solid Fuels
Oxygen, Water and Ash Content of Certain Solid Fuels Moisture in Solid Fuel:
1. Free 2. Bound water Fuel moisture content will affect rate of combustion and overall efficiency. Ash: The inorganic materials, which remain as residue even after complete combustion.
Ash content affects the performance of the combustion system. Ash content causes fouling of the boilers.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture4/4_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:13:05 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 4: Characterization of Solid Fuels
Characterization of Solid Fuels: Proximate Analysis: Used to determine the moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash content in the solid fuel. To determine water content, few grams of fuel is heated around 378 K till it attains constant weight. Volatile matter is determined by heating the sample at 1173 K. Ultimate Analysis: Used to determine the major elemental composition of the solid fuel. Nitrogen content is determined by chemical method. Sulphur content is evaluated by burning the fuel to convert it into SO 4 followed by precipitation method. Calorific value can be determined by bomb calorimeter.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture4/4_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:13:05 AM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 4: Characterization of Solid Fuels
Various Combustion Modes
Premixed Flame : Fuel and oxidizer are mixed before actual combustion. Examples: Bunsen burner, LPG Stove Diffusion Flame : Fuel and oxidizer are mixed in the region where chemical reaction takes place. Laminar and Turbulent Flames : Based on the flow characteristics; Turbulent flow occurs in practical combustion devices.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_1.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:29 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
The Lecture Contains: Scope of Combustion Image Sources
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_1a.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Scope of Combustion Industrial Process Thermal energy for process chemical plants, sugar industries, food processing industries are obtained through combustion. Iron, steel and other metals are produced from raw materials through combustion. Heat treatment and annealing of metals. Rotary kilns are used to produce Portlant cement.
Sugar Industry Food Processing
Process Chemical Plant Steel Plant
(Figure 5.1)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_1b.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Transportation Surface transport vehicles are operated by reciprocating IC Engines Gas turbine combustors are used widely in air and marine transportation sectors.
(Figure 5.2)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_2.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Power Generation
Most of the thermal power plants are operated by burning coal. Recently gas turbine power plants are coming up. Fluidized Bed Power Plant Coal Power Plant Biomass Based Power Plant Gas Turbine Power Plant
(Figure 5.3)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_3.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Waste Disposal Combustion finds application in disposing waste materials. Incinerators are used to dispose domestic and industrial wastes. In modern hospitals, incinerators are used to dispose hospital wastes safely. (Figure 5.4)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_4.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Fire Sometimes fire causes damage to life and property. Forest Fire: Damages natural resources and lives. Structural Fire: Damages property and human lives. Effective fire breakers should be designed and implemented to avoid fire hazard. By using proper construction materials, Fire hazard can be minimized. Marine life is very much affected by oil spill fire. (Figure 5.5)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_5.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:30 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Environmental pollution
Combustion of any fuel produces certain amount of emissions such as smoke, ash, soot, and other harmful gases. Major pollution generated in combustion system are CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 2 , ash, etc. These are due to incomplete combustion and can be minimized by increasing the residence time of fuel-oxidizer mixture in the combustor. Sources Particulates Carbon Monoxide Unburnt Hydrocarbon Nitrogen oxides Sulfur dioxides Transportation 7 79 60 15 6 Stationary Combustion Systems/Electricity 8 <1 <1 2 69 Industrial Process 23 8 32 13 25 Miscellaneous 62 13 8 70 <1
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_6.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:31 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_7.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:31 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Image Sources
Gas Turbine Engine : http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=90 Furnace : http://www.macarthurcoal.com.au/Operations/Products /MetallurgicalProducts/tabid/96/Default.aspx Process Chemical Industry : http://www.hasbrouckengineering.com/aroma_engineering.htm Steel Plant : http://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/industries.aspx?id=system Biomass Power Plant : http://www.treehugger.com/files/2006/10/tallahassee_flo.php Gas Turbine Power Plant : http ://www.power-technology.com/ projects/knapsackccgt/knapsackccgt6.html Fluidized Bed Power Plant : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/1424725/113942/ Schematic-diagram-of-a-fluidized-bed-combustion-boiler Forest Fire : http://www.cartridgesave.co.uk/news/30-amazing-pictures-of-forest-fires/
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture5/5_8.htm[10/9/2012 4:09:31 PM] Module 1: Introduction to Combustion Lecture 5: Scope of Combustion
Image Sources Oil Spill Fire : http://zeroequalsthree.blogspot.com/2010/09/chaos-oil -spill-chaos.html Structural Fire : http://www.forensicmed.co.uk/pathology/fire-deaths/fire-destruction-of- bodies/ Dust Explosion : http://www.industrialairsolutions.com/industrial-vacuums/ explosion-proof/explosion-proof-vacuums.htm Gas Turbine Engine : http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/ Chapt.1_6/gasturbine/gas_turbine.html Car : http://dodge-sprinter.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dodge-Sprinter- Van-Side-View.jpg Ambassador Car : http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_rMX3SfIKwNc/TEuA4BHyCSI/AAAAAAAAAQk/ BO7ZOgEVHtQ/s1600/ambassador Aeroplane : http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-564300/Passenger-jet-makes- terrifying-10-000ft-climb-dodge-plane-pilot-showing-child.html Ship : http://www.a1-discount-cruises.com/cruise-ships.htm IC Engine : http://www.birkey.com/technical -illustration/engine-piston-pin-sketch/
First Law of Thermodynamics First law applied to a closed system:
Where, Heat added to the system (Path Function) Work done by the system (Path Function) Total energy change in the system (Point Function) First law applied to an open system: Where, Specific enthalpy Velocity of flow Height of inlet and outlet port
Second Law of Thermodynamics Clausius inequality: For any system undergoing a cyclical process, the ratio of the sum of all heat interactions to its temperature is equal to or less than zero.
Increase in entropy principle: Second law of thermodynamics for control volume:
Stoichiometry: The elemental mass balance in a chemical reaction, describing exactly how much oxidizer has to be supplied for complete combustion of certain amount of fuel.
Example:
Mass is conserved (Figure 8.1) Lean Mixture: Quantity of oxidizer > Stoichiometric quantity Rich Mixture: Quantity of oxidizer < Stoichiometric quantity
Thermochemistry Where, H R Total enthalpy of reactants; H P Total enthalpy of products
n iR No of moles of i th reactant; n iP No of moles of i th product h iR Enthalpy of formation per unit mole of i th reactant h iP Enthalpy of formation per unit mole of i th product Standard heat of reaction Heat of reaction depends on temperature
(Figure 8.4)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture9/9_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:30:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 9: Heat of Combustion
The Lecture Contains: Heat of combustion Hess Law
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture9/9_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:30:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 9: Heat of Combustion
Heat of Combustion
For the reaction : Heat of reaction is given by :
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture9/9_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:30:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 9: Heat of Combustion
Heat of formation of important species at 25 C and 0.1 MPa Species Formula State Heat of formation (kJ/mol) Oxygen O 2 Gas 0 Hydrogen H 2 Gas 0 Hydroxyl OH Gas 42.3 Water H 2 O Gas -242 Water H 2 O Liquid -286 Carbon monoxide CO Gas -110.5 Carbon dioxide CO 2 Gas -394 Methane CH 4 Gas -74.5 Propane C 3 H 8 Gas -103.8 Butane (n) C 4 H 10 Gas -124.7 Kerosene CH 1.842 Liquid -51.6 Nitrogen dioxide NO 2 Gas 33.9 Nitric acid NO Gas 90.4
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture9/9_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:30:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 9: Heat of Combustion
Hess Law
Illustration: Determine the heat of reaction for water gas shift reaction
Intermediate Reactions:
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The Lecture Contains: Adiabatic Flame Temperature Effect of Equivalence Ratio on Adiabatic Flame Temperature Effect of Initial Temperature on Adiabatic Flame Temperature Effect of Pressure on Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Equivalence Ratio on Adiabatic Flame Temperature (Figure 10.1)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_2a.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Where,
S.W - K.E - P.E - Shaft work Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Initial Temperature on Adiabatic Flame Temperature
(Figure 10.2)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Pressure on Adiabatic Flame Temperature (Figure 10.3)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture10/10_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:32:00 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 10: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Effect of Pressure on Adiabatic Flame Temperature System T u (K) P (MPa) T ad (K) CH 4 Air 300 0.1 2200 CH 4 - Air 300 2.0 2270 CH 4 - Air 600 2.0 2500 CH 4 - O 2 300 0.1 3030 C 3 H 8 - Air 300 0.1 2278 H 2 - Air 300 0.1 2390 H 2 - O 2 300 0.1 3080 CO - Air 300 0.1 2400
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture11/11_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:33:26 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium
The Lecture Contains: Chemical Equilibrium Procedure for Determining Equilibrium composition Summary
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture11/11_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:33:26 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical reaction proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy
If the system is not adiabatic, we have to invoke Gibbs free energy, G From 1 st Law,
At constant pressure and temperature,
From 2 nd Law, of Thermodynamic
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture11/11_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:33:27 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium
Procedure for Determining Equilibrium Composition Equilibrium products can be estimated by adopting the following steps Step 1: Identify probable equilibrium species Step 2: Identify equilibrium reactions scheme Step 3: Find out equilibrium constant Step 4: Strike balance for elemental conservation Step 5: Strike overall mass conservation Step 6: Solve all equations by iterative method (Newton- Raphson Method) For a ideal gas mixture, Gibbs function of i th species is given by
-Gibbs function per mole of i th species. -Partial pressure of i th species. -Temperature -Universal gas constant Gibbs function for a ideal gas mixture At equilibrium, In the above equation, (Since pressure remains constant)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture11/11_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:33:27 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium
Consider the reaction
Where, a, b, c and d are stoichiometric coefficients Change in number of moles of each species is given by,
Substituting above equation in Gibbs function, We can get,
In terms of mole fraction,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture11/11_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:33:27 AM] Module 2: Thermodynamics of Combustion Lecture 11: Chemical Equilibrium
Summary
The basic thermodynamic principles are useful in estimation of properties related to combustion. Stoichiometric calculations are useful in estimation of fuel-air requirements for a combustion process. Adiabatic flame temperature indicates maximum possible temperature in combustion process. Thermodynamic relations can be used to relate the change in Gibbs free energy with equilibrium constant. Equilibrium composition can be used to calculate adiabatic flame temperature using an iterative procedure.
After asking a question about the unknown thing, Examination of it is a must by own reasoning, As reasoning is the backbone of everything, That is the sole objective of all our learning.
Newton's Law of Viscosity can be expressed as, Where, is dynamic viscosity (kg/ms) dVx/dy is the shear strain rate -ve sign: momentum flux in the direction of decreasing velocity
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction Two parallel plates- separated by Y' Lower plate is fixed At t < 0; two plates are at the same temperature At t = 0; upper plate is suddenly heated (T 1 >T 0 ) Lower plate Maintained at temperature T 0 (Figure 12.2)
Fick's Law of Species Diffusion Two parallel plates-separated by Y'. Upper plate is maintained wet. Lower plate is kept dry (Dehydrating agent) Water vapour evaporates at upper plate Partial pressure of water vapour is maintained at saturated vapour pressure of water Thus concentration gradient exists between the two plates Mass flux-proportional to concentration, C A inversely proportional to distance Y
Differential form of Fick's law (Figure 12.3) Binary diffusitivity of species A through B
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture13/13_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:38:36 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture
The Lecture Contains: Transport properties for gas mixture Mass conservation equation Momentum conservation equation
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture13/13_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:38:36 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture
Transport properties for gas mixture Viscosity of gas mixture Wassilijewa equation
Mason and Saxena modification
is the viscosity of the pure component is the mole fraction of the i th component
Thermal Conductivity of gas mixture Wassilijewa equation
Mason and Saxena modification
is the thermal conductivity of the pure component
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture13/13_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:38:36 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture
Diffusion Coefficient of any component in a gas mixture Wilke equation
Where,
is the collision diameter in
is the pressure (Bar)
is the molecular weight of the components
is the collision integral
=Boltzman's constant
=Intermolecular potential
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture13/13_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:38:36 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture
Mass conservation equation Principle of mass conservation
------ (1) Rate of accumulation in fluid element = ------ (2) Rate of mass in fluid element across face A = ------ (3) Rate of mass leaving fluid element across face B = ------ (4) The net efflux in x-direction = ------ (5) The net efflux in y-direction = ------ (6)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture13/13_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:38:36 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 13: Transport properties for gas mixture
Substituting (2), (5) and (6) in (1)
Differential form of continuity equation In vector notation,
Where, is the gradient operator is the divergence of For incompressible flow,
Rate of accumulation in fluid element= Rate of mass of species A into fluid element across face A = By Taylor's series expansion, the rate of mass of species A leaving fluid element across face B = Net efflux in x direction = Net efflux in y direction = Mass production rate of i th species due to chemical reaction = According to Fick's law, Species transport equation is given by,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture15/15_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:41:53 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 15: Energy transport equation
The Lecture Contains: Energy transport equation Boundary layer concept
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture15/15_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:41:53 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 15: Energy transport equation
Energy transport equation
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture15/15_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:41:54 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 15: Energy transport equation
Heat accumulated in the fluid element =
Amount of heat entering into fluid element through face A' is given by:
Amount of heat leaving from the fluid element through face B' is given by:
Net efflux in x direction
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture15/15_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:41:54 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 15: Energy transport equation
Amount of heat interaction in y-direction through faces C' and D' is
In a fluid element, heat may be absorbed or removed due to chemical reaction
The amount of heat interaction in fluid element per unit area:
By striking out an energy balance, the energy equation for a multi-component reactive system because.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture15/15_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:41:54 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 15: Energy transport equation
Boundary layer concept Velocity of fluid increases from zero at wall to free stream velocity Velocity gradients appear near a thin region adjacent to wall
(Figure 15.1) The thin region adjacent to wall surface is the boundary layer Wall friction-causes reduction in velocity near the wall Boundary layer thickness times the free stream velocity
Using Pohlhausen method, Nusselt number (Nu) can be expressed as Valid for can be used for most of the gases
For laminar fully developed pipe flow, Valid for constant temperature For laminar fully developed pipe flow, Valid for constant heat flux
Average Nusselt number for developing pipe flow,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_1.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:37 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
The Lecture Contains: Transport in Turbulent Flow Characterization of Turbulent Flow Turbulent Boundary layer
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_2.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:37 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
Transport in Turbulent Flow Turbulent Flow: At high Reynolds and Grashof's number, the properties, velocity and temperature exhibits random variation. Eddies move randomly back and forth across the adjacent fluid layers. Turbulence reduces the B.L. thickness. Enhanced mass, momentum, and energy transfer rates.
(Figure 17.1) Where, Time averaged value of velocity Fluctuating component of velocity Turbulent diffusivity is given by,
(Figure 17.2)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_3.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:37 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
Characterization of Turbulent Flow Length scale of Turbulence: The distance covered by an eddy before it disappears or loses its identity. Intensity of Turbulence: Measure of violence of eddies. Turbulence Intensity:
Length Scales used in Turbulent Flow: 1. Macroscopic scale, L (Characteristic width of flow) 2. Integral Scale, 3. Taylor micro scale, 4. Kolmogorov length Scale,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_4.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:37 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
Taylor microscale, where, is the mean strain rate Kolmogorov length scale, Note: Kolmogorov length scale ( ) is related to integral length scale ( ) ( ) - Thickness of the smallest vortex present in turbulent flow Turbulent Reynolds number based on the length scales Note: is the characteristic velocity
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_5.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:38 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Boundary layer Consider 2D steady incompressible turbulent flow over a flat plate, Momentum equation in x direction is given by, The term is known as Reynolds stress Energy equation for turbulent boundary layer is given by, A simple model for Reynolds stress suggested by Bossinesq, Similarly, ; where, is the turbulent diffusivity ; where, is the eddy diffusivity
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture17/17_6.htm[10/5/2012 11:47:38 AM] Module 3: Physics of Combustion Lecture 17: Transport in Turbulent Flow
In analogy to kinetic theory of gases, Prandtl suggested an expression for turbulent diffusivity Where, is the mixing length, and I is the turbulence intensity Combining these two equations, C, is the constant, obtained from the experimental data
Asking a question is not the end of a thing, One can assume it to be a humble beginning, If explored earnestly without bothering, One can definitely have a happy ending. -Dr. D.P. Mishra
Chemistry of combustion Introduction Chemical kinetics: The specialized branch of physical chemistry dealing with the study of chemical reactions and their governing factors.
Reaction rate: Rate of decrease of reactant concentration or rate of increase of product concentration. Expressed in terms of mole/m 3 s Compact expression for chemical reaction: Where, and are stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products. N is the total number of species M is the arbitrary specification of all chemical species
Bimolecular reactions Reaction between two molecules,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_1.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:39 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
The Lecture Contains: Law of Mass Action Collision Theory Elementary Reactions
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_2.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:40 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
Law of Mass Action The rate of reaction, RR of a chemical species is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the participating chemical species, where each concentration is raised to the power equal to the corresponding stoichiometric coefficient in the chemical reaction.
Where, is the specific reaction rate or rate coefficient
Note : -depends on temperature and activation energy and not on concentration. Law of mass action holds good only for elementary reactions
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_3.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:40 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
Collision Theory (Figure 19.1) The colliding molecules must possess higher energy than the mean energy Boltzman's energy distribution law: The probability of a molecule possessing the threshold energy, E is proportional to exp
Conditions for chemical reactions to occur: Suitable molecule must collide with each other The molecules must collide with proper orientation (Determined by steric factor) Colliding molecules must possess energy greater than the threshold energy(E).
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_4.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:40 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
From collision theory,
- Collision frequency, - Steric factor, - Boltaman's energy probability factor - Activation energy
(Figure 19.2) From kinetic theory, - Average effective collision diameter between molecules A and B, - Boltaman's constant = 1.381 X 10 -23 J/K - Reduced mass Reaction rate (Pre-exponential Factor)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_5.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:40 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
The form of equation in previous section is Arrhenius law Limitations of Arrhenius law: It cannot simulate combustion process over wide range of temperature. Rate law matches experimental data at high temperature, but not so at low temperature. Variation of RR with temperature: (Figure 19.3) An increase in temperature by 10% for same activation energy can cause RR to be enhanced by 250 % (Figure 19.4)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture19/19_6.htm[10/5/2012 3:59:40 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 19: Law of Mass Action
Elementary Reactions If the reaction occurs successfully at molecular level, the reaction is termed as elementary. Molecularity : Number of molecules or atoms participating in each reaction leading to product. 1. Unimolecular reaction 2. Bimolecular reaction 3. Trimolecular reaction
Order of Reaction: Number of molecules or atoms whose concentration would determine the reaction rate. Example:
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_1.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
The Lecture Contains: First Order Reaction Second Order Reaction Third Order Reaction Reverse Reaction Chain Reaction
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_2.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
First order reaction, Consider the first order reaction,
Reaction rate,
Sepataring the variables and integrating, (Figure 20.1) First order combustion reactions!
Note : concentration decreases exponentially with time (Refer Fig), All unimolecular reactions obey first order kinetics! All first order reactions need not to be unimolecular!!
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_3.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
Second Order Reaction Consider the second order bimolecular reaction, Reaction rate for the above reaction, General second order reaction Concentration of species A and B Reaction rate for the above reaction,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_4.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
Multiplying both sides by Integrating, Second order combustion reactions! By applying we will get
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_5.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
Third Order Reaction Consider the third order, trimolecular reaction, RR proportional to third power of concentration of participating species, Third order combustion reactions !
Reverse Reaction Chemical reactions may proceed in both forward and reverse directions. Net rate of consumption of A, Substituting in the above equation, we will get By integreting the above equation, we can get can be estimated from the knowledge of
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture20/20_6.htm[10/5/2012 4:00:51 PM] Module 4: Chemistry of combustion Lecture 20: Order reaction
Chain Reaction In reality, combustion process involves several reactions The overall stoichiometric chemical reaction is unlikely to occur in nature. The elementary reactions can be classified as; Chain initiating Chain branching Chain carrying Chain terminating Chain branching The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant > 1 Chain carrying The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant = 1 Chain terminating The ratio of number of free radicals in the product to the reactant < 1
Chain Branching Explosion To begin with, stoichiometric mixture of H 2 and O 2 is kept in a container. Temperature is increased beyond 773 K. Result: Very rapid chemical reaction with explosion. (Figure 21.1) Regimes in the explosion chart 1. First limit 2. Second limit 3. Third limit (Figure 21.2)
Quasi-Steady State Approximation Radicals are formed during combustion Half life period of radicals - Very small Rate of formation = Rate of destruction
Relate radical concentration with measurable concentration of other species Consider the two step chain reaction, ; ; Reaction rate of the three species,
Partial Equilibrium Approximation (PEA) PEA expresses concentration of unknown species in terms of known concentrations. Consider NO formation mechanism, Reaction Rate (RR) for NO species:
Note 1: O and N 2 concentration are required to determine RR Note 2: Rate of formation and destruction of O is very high Difficult to measure the concentration of O!!!
Single step methane combustion: Overall reaction rate (CH 4 ) Global kinetic scheme for an arbitrary hydrocarbon (C x H y ): Overall reaction rate (C x H y )
One has to pursue questions earnestly, Like a faithful shadow meticulously, One should bear questions in mind, Like a small innocent inquisitive child. -Dr. D.P. Mishra
Premixed Flame Introduction Premixed Flame: Fuel and oxidizer are mixed well at the molecular level before combustion Examples of premixed flame : Bunsen burner, LPG domestic burner, SI Engine, Afterburner in jet engine
Analysis of 1D Flame Continuity Equation : State Equations: Momentum Equation : Energy Equation :
are the density, velocity, pressure and temperature q is the heat release per unit mass is the mass fraction of species heat of formation of species Combining Continuity and Momentum Equations and expressing them in terms of Mach number,
Hugoniot Curve .. Hugoniot Curve : vs. for a fixed value of q, inlet pressure , and inlet density Region I: Pressure of burned gas Pressure of C-J detonation wave Strong detonation Gasvelocity relative to wave front is slowed to subsonic speed
Pressure and density increases significantly for will be rarely observed (Figure 22.5) Region II: Pressure of burned gas Pressure of C-J detonation wave Weak detonation Gas velocity relative to wave front is slowed to subsonic speed Burned gas velocity > speed of sound at isochoric condition weak detonation attains infinite velocity Region III: In this region Therfore Hence in this region is imaginary and physically impossible
Structure of 1D Premixed Flame Preheat zone: Negligibly small heat release (Figure 23.1) Certain chemical reactions take place in this zone Reaction zone: most of the chemical energy is released in the form of heat Decomposition of fuel takes place, leading to intermediate radical formation Reaction zone is very thin as compared to the preheat zone. Temperature gradient and concentration gradient are high. Recombination zone:
CO 2 and H 2 O are formed; No heat release in this zone
Laminar Flame Theory Assumptions: 1D, steady, inviscid flow. Flame is quite thin. Ignition temperature is very close to flame temperature. No heat loss including radiation; Adiabatic flame. Pressure difference across the flame is negligibly small. Binary diffusion, Fourier and Fick's law are valid. Unity Lewis number. Constant transport properties Mass conservation: (1) Species conservation: Energy equation: Fuel: (2) (5) Oxidizer: (3) Global reaction mechanism:
Laminar Flame Theory (Contd.) Heat release due to chemical reaction: (7) Now energy equation becomes In the reaction zone, (8)
Boundary conditions (For preheat zone)
(10)
(11) Recasted energy equation for preheat zone, Rewriting, E.g. (11). (9) (12) Heat transfer due to conduction is balanced by convective heat transfer.
Laminar Flame Theory (Contd.) Combining equations (10) and (13), (14)
(15)
Also, Mean fuel burning rate can also be expressed as, (16) (19) Combining equations (15) and (16), Expression for burning velocity becomes, (17) Mean fuel burning rate per unit volume, (18)
The Lecture Contains: Tube Method Combustion Bomb Method Soap Bubble Method Stationary Flame Method (Bunsen Burner) Flat Flame Burner Effect of Equivalence Ratio on S L
Procedure: Combustible mixture is filled in the tube On ignition at one end, the flame propagates through the tube Features: Inner dia of tube should be greater than the quenching diameter The flame is planar in the beginning and curved towards downstream, due to buoyancy Natural convection distorts the planar flame front due to difference in densities Friction at the tube wall is also a reason for parabolic shape of the flame The burning velocity is given by : Flame front velocity : Unburnt gas velocity : Cross-sectional area of tube : Flame surface area
The Lecture Contains: Effect of Oxygen Concentration on S L Effect of Initial Pressure and Temperature on S L Effect of Inert Additives Flame Extinction Flame Quenching Simplified Analysis for Quenching Diameter
Effect of Initial Pressure and Temperature on S L This relation is supported by experimental data n: Overall order of global chemical reaction for HC flames with for HC flames with for HC flames with Pressure index, For , m is negative, indicating burning velocity increases with decreasing pressure (Figure 25.2) For , m is constant, indicating burning velocity is constant For , m is positive, indicating burning velocity decreases with decrease in initial pressure (Figure 25.3)
Fuel Oxidizer SL (cm/s) dq (mm) CH 4 Air 40 2.5 CH 4 O 2 0.3 C 3 H 8 Air 45 2.0 C 3 H 8 O 2 0.25 C 2 H 2 Air 140 0.8 C 2 H 2 O 2 0.2 CO Air 2.8 H 2 Air 210 0.5 H 2 O 2 0.2
Quenching diameter for various stoichiometric fuel-oxidizer ratio.
Simplified Analysis for Quenching Diameter Rate of heat generated per unit volume Heat generated in flame volume Heat loss rate due to wall conduction (Figure 25.5) Assuming linear temperature distribution in flame,
The Lecture Contains: Flammability Limits Effect of Pressure on Limit Mixture Ignition Flame Stabilization Flame Stabilization by Burner Rim Turbulent Premixed Flame
Reynolds number for turbulent flame: Chemical reaction time: Chemical reaction time: Damkohler number If Da >> 1, fast chemistry regime If Da <<1, fast mixing regime
The Borghi Diagram Borghi Diagram The plot of Da against on a log- log scale Depicts various regimes of turbulent flames (Figure 27.1) Weak turbulent flame Upper region of the Borghi diagram Wrinkled laminar flame Region between and Chemical reaction takes place in a thin zone Flamelets in eddies Region between upper bold line and Distributed reaction regime Region below Reaction sheets are distributed in the turbulent flame surface This type of combustion can be established in a well stirred reactor.
(Figure 27.4) Fuel mass burning rate, Typically, is root mean square of fluctuating fuel mass fraction, is the turbulent kinetic energy per unit.
References 1. D. P. Mishra, Fundamentals of Combustion, PHI leaming, Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2010. 2. Stephen R. Turns, An Introduction to Combustion, McGraw Hill Publication, Singapore, 1996. 3. Irvin Glassman, Combustion, Academic Press, New York, 1977.
Theoretical Analysis Consider a 2D diffusion flame, (Figure 29.1) Assumptions: i. 2D steady laminar inviscid flow. ii. Velocity above the channel is constant everywhere iii. Fuel and oxidizer react in stoichiometric proportion at the flame surface with infinite reaction rate (Thin flame approximation). iv. Binary diffusion between participating species. v. Mass diffusion is along x-direction only. vi. Unity Lewis number. vii. Single step irreversible reaction. viii. Radiation heat transfer is negligibly small. ix. Constant thermophysical properties. x. Mass diffusivity of both fuel and oxidizer are the same. xi. Buoyancy force is neglected.
Theoretical Analysis (Contd.) Conservation equations: Mass conservation: Using assumption (ii), we can have, Axial momentum conservation: Species conservation equation:
Theoretical Analysis (Contd.) By thin flame approximation,
Single step irreversible reaction, Universal concentration variables, Rate of fuel transport from the centre to the flame surface is equal to stoichiometric rate of oxidizer transport. Let be the mass fraction of the reactant, Instead of solving two equations (For fuel and oxidizer), we can solve a single equation as given below, This analysis is known as the Burke-Schumann's analysis
Theoretical Analysis (Contd.) Above equation can be converted into a diffusion equation by substituting Inner wall exists at and outer wall at The initial and boundary conditions are as follows. Applying boundary conditions, we obtain a closed form series solution where, is the non-dimensional mass fraction of the reactant.
The infinite series must have a constant value at the flame surface as given below
Theoretical Analysis (Contd.) The series solution depends on and At the burner rim, the series constant (E) becomes a square wave When F/A ratio is stoichiometric E becomes zero. Roper extended the Burke-Schumann model by varying the velocity to vary along the axial direction. The flame height is given by, (Figure 29.2)
Factors affecting the shape of the flame front: Condition under which combustion takes place! Zero gravity : Spherical flame front (No buoyancy) Normal gravity : Elongated (Due to natural convection) Forced convection condition : Fame aligned with flow Energy required to vaporize the liquid fuel:
Liquid Fuel Combustion (Contd.) Assumptions 1. Single droplet in quiescent atmosphere. 2. Droplet temperature is uniform. 3. Density of liquid fuel much higher than the gas phase. 4. Fuel is a single component with no solubility for gases. 5. Flow velocities are assumed to be low 6. Single step irreversible reaction! Thin flame approximation. 7. Constant thermo-physical properties. 8. Unity Lewis number. 9. Radiation heat transfer is neglected. 10. No other phase is formed in the liquid fuel droplet. (Figure 30.2)
Liquid Fuel Combustion (Contd.) The transfer number, B is given by
Values of transfer number, B for some typical fuel: Combustion in air B Combustion in air B ISO-Octane 6.41 Kerosene 3.4 Benzene 5.97 Gas oil 2.5 n-Heptane 5.82 Light fuel oil 2.0 Avation gasoline 5.5 Heavy fuel oil 1.7 Automobile gasoline 5.3
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_1.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
The Lecture Contains: The Temperature Profile Droplet Burning Time Droplet Combustion in Convective Environment
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_2.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
The Temperature Profile No oxygen exists in the inner flame region. No fuel exists in the outer region of flame. Using the transfer function for fuel and oxidizer, Temperature profile for the inner region, (Figure 32.1) Rearranging the above equation,
Temperature profile for the outer region,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_3.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
Droplet Burning Time Importance of droplet burning time: Essential for desining combustion chamber For complete combustion, residence time > life time of largest droplet in spray. Factors dictating residence time of droplet: Air stream velocity Droplet velocity Fuel injection angle Combustor geometry Continuity equation at the surface of the droplet: (Figure 32.2) -------(1)
Droplet mass is evaluated as follows,
-------(2) Where, D is the droplet diameter at any instant
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_4.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
Droplet Burning Time (Contd.) Recall, Burning constant for typical hydrocarbons ------- (3) Fuel k 10 -7 m 2 /s (Calculated) k 10 -7 m 2 /s (Measured) Ethyl alcohol 9.3 8.1 N-Heptane 14.2 9.7 ISO-Octane 14.4 9.5 Kerosene 9.7 9.6 Benzene 11.2 9.7 Toluene 11.1 6.6 Using (1) & (2) in (3), ------- (4) Expressing droplet diameter in terms of ,
------- (5)
In this expression, varies linearly with time (See figure 32.3). Slope of the plot is the burning rate constant, K -------(6) Integrating (5) with time, is law
(Figure 32.3)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_5.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
Droplet Combustion in Convective Environment In practical devices, both free and forced convection will prevail, Flow past the fuel droplet for Re > 20 Front portion of the droplet Boundary layer. Rear portion Wake region In practical devices, forced convection is more predominant Boundary condition at the droplet surface, -------(1) Where, -------(2) - Convective heat transfer coefficient
Combining the above two expressions, -------(3)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_6.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
Droplet Combustion in Convective Environment Rearranging the above equation, -------(4)
-------(5) For high Reynolds number, -------(6) For unit Prandtl number, Re >> Pr, -------(7)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture32/32_7.htm[10/5/2012 4:19:18 PM] Module 6: Diffusion Flame Lecture 32: The Temperature Profile
Droplet Combustion in Convective Environment -------(8) Then Eq. (7) becomes,
The above expression would not provide accurate prediction Wake region behind the droplet is not considered here. For predicting the experimental data, the above expression is modified as, -------(9)
Under convective condition, laminar droplet burning rate follows
Spray Combustion Model Assumption: Steady, 1-D flow, Laminar, inviscid Mono-dispersed droplets. Pressure remains constant during combustion. Droplets move with same velocity as that of air. Vaporization and ignition begins at x=0. Mixing and chemical reaction times are quite small as compared to droplet vaporization time. Constant thermophysical properties. Dilute spray. (Figure 33.1)
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio: -------(1) =Density of liquid = Cross sectional area
Spray Combustion Model Number of droplets, -------(2) From mass conservation, -------(3) - Density of droplet laden air -------(4) From above two equations, -------(5) Energy equation across the element dx -------(6) - Heat release rate
Spray Combustion Model Simplifying, -------(7) Heat release rate per unit volume, -------(8) Relationship for quasi -steady state droplet vaporization, -------(9) Where, K droplet combustion rate constant that can be experienced as -------(10) By using Eqs. (7) , and (10), we can have, -------(11)
Spray Combustion Model Droplet diameter will vary by law -------(12) Boundary and initial conditions -------(13) By using above condition in Eq. 6.11 and integrating it, we can get -------(14) Adiabatic flame temperature is given as -------(15) By using Eng. (14), we get -------(16)
Theory For Single Coal Combustion 1. Burning process is quasi steady. 2. Burning takes place in quiescent, infinite ambient air medium. 3. No interaction with other particles. 4. Effect of natural convection is ignored. 5. Burning is diffusion controlled. 6. Constant thermodynamic properties 7. Unity Lewis number 8. Gaseous species do not enter into gaseous species 9. No radiation heat transfer 10. Ideal gas law
Theory For Single Coal Combustion Mass conservation --------(1) Oxidizer species conservation --------(2) Energy conservation --------(3) Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio --------(4) Boundary Conditions: --------(5) --------(6) Combining Eq. 4 and 6, --------(7)
Theory For Single Coal Combustion At moderate temperature and for small particle, the oxygen mass fraction at the surface is given by --------(11) B is the mass transfer number --------(12) The carbon sphere burning rate is also governed by Law where is the carbon burning constant.
You can question everything around you, You may find tangible answers to few, You can question everything around me, The answers, I posses are not necessarily mine. - Dr. D.P. Mishra
Atmosphere (Contd..) Troposphere Region where we are living. Contains 90% of the mass of the atmosphere. Starts at ground level with 228 K and ends at 18 km (200 K) with 6 K drop in temperature per km altitude. Beyond 18 km, temperature rises. This inflection point is called Tropopause. Tropopause divides troposphere from stratosphere. Atmospheric boundary layer - 2 km from the ground level. Combustion byproducts instantly affects this region. Photochemical chain reaction begin with dissociation of ozone as given below --------(1) The atomic oxygen reacts with water vapor to form hydroxyl radical --------(2) The OH radical reacts with CO and initiates other chain reactions as below --------(3) --------(4)
Atmosphere (Contd..) The peroxy radicals are recycled to OH by the following reaction: ----------(5) Cycling of OH and is turned off by several reactions involving OH, and
----------(6) NO and pair is produced via the following chain reactions. ----------(7) ----------(8) ----------(9) --------(10)
Concentration of ozone and can also be influenced by non-photolytic reactions during night time.
Atmosphere (Contd..) Stratosphere Region between tropopause (18 km) and stratopause (50 km). Contains 9.5% of atmospheric mass. The temperature increases from tropopause (220 K) to stratopause (280 K). The chemicals from troposphere that are not destroyed are dissociated in this region. CFC is converted into HF and mixture of CI compounds. The photochemistry in the stratosphere is strongly affected by ozone layer. The short wavelength cannot reach below 25 km due to the photochemistry. This is how we are protected from the harmful UV rays. Stratospheric column is the major absorber of solar UV between 220 and 320 nm. Depletion of ozone layer will change the tropospheric chemistry in two ways i. Lowers the flux of into troposphere ii. Enhances the production of OH
Chemical Emission From Combustion Most of the fossil fuels can be depicted by the following chemical equation Fuels contain sulphur , oxygen, nitrogen and certain heavy metals. Air contains large amount of nitrogen. Combustion process leads to the formation of The quantities are sufficient enough to affect the quality of atmospheric air. Total amount of fossil fuel burnt was around 6.2 Gt/Yr. Another source of pollutant emission from combustion process is the biomass. Total amount of biomass fuel burnt was around 3 to 5 Gt/Yr. The combustion conditions for biomass combustion leads to higher emissions.
Chemicals From Combustion (Contd..) Emission of It has been observed that there is an imbalance in the atmospheric carbon-oxygen cycle. CO is released directly into the atmosphere by incomplete combustion. About 40% of CO in the atmosphere is contributed by the burning of fossil fuel. CO level in southern hemisphere in around 50 ppb and in northern hemisphere it is 120 ppb. Is the major portions CO produced form combustion? NO! from the oxidation of methane generated by anaerobic bacteria in swamps and paddies. Why there is a climate change? Due to the change in CO 2 level. Deforestation in recent days is the main cause for the accumulation of CO 2 in the biosphere. Changes in land used by human beings contribute around 1 Gt(C)/yr CO 2 to atmosphere. Global carbon cycle involves exchange of atmospheric CO 2 with carbon reservoir in ocean and biosphere in several time scales. It has been predicted that the freezing of current emissions would not really solve our problem immediately. CO 2 emission does not impact atmospheric chemistry directly but changes the temperature and circulation, which indirectly changes the chemistry and climate.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_1.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
The Lecture Contains: Major Sources of CO Emission Chemicals From Combustion Major Sources of NO Emission Chemicals From Combustion (Contd..) Quantification of Emission Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_2.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Major Sources of CO Emission Source category Emissions (Millions tons per year) % Gasoline motor vehicles 95.8 36.69 Diesel, aircraft, trains, vessels 5.6 2.14 Off-highway vehicles 9.5 3.64 Coal 0.5 0.19 Fuel oil 0.1 0.038 Natural gas 0.1 0.038 Wood 0.1 0.038 Total stationary sources 0.8 0.30 Total fuel combustion 111.7 42.78 Industrial processes 11.4 4.36 Agricultural burning 13.8 5.28 Solid waste disposal 7.2 2.75 Miscellaneous 4.5 1.72 Total 261.1 100.0
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_3.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Chemicals From Combustion Emission of NO and are main components producing in troposphere. The life of these gases are quite short even less than 1 day. Combustion of fossil fuel is the largest source of . The quantities are sufficient enough to affect the quality of atmospheric air. Combustion of fossil fuel is the largest source of around 22 Mt/yr. Stationary source contribution is around 13 Mt/yr. Contribution of emission by biomass is quite small. Due to combustion, there is a four fold increase in the tropospheric . The major sources of emission and their contributions are depicted in the next section.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_4.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Major Sources of NO Emission Source category Emissions (Millions tons per year) % Gasoline motor vehicles 7.8 17.53 Diesel, Aircraft , trains, ships 2.0 4.49 Off-highway vehicles 1.9 4.27 Coal 3.9 8.76 Fuel oil 1.3 2.92 Natural gas 4.7 10.56 Wood 0.1 0.22 Total fuel combustion 21.7 48.76 Industrial processes 0.2 0.45 Agricultural burning 0.3 0.67 Solid waste disposal 0.4 0.90 Miscellaneous 0.2 0.45 Total 44.5 100
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_5.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Chemicals From Combustion (Contd..) Emission of Hydrocarbon Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) are short lived and highly reactive. Oxidization of these hydrocarbons leads to the formation of . Volatile organic compounds include NMHC as well as oxygenated species such as aldehydes and alcohols. These are mainly contributed by gasoline vehicles, solvent evaporation and biomass burning. These bio-organic hydrocarbons are quite reactive and are usually destroyed within the boundary layer. Emission of Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphate Aerosols Sulphur content of fossil fuels such as coal and oil is in the range of 0.5 2.5 by mass. Sulphur in the fossil fuel is usually emitted as and leads to the formation of sulphuric acid. takes very less time to get converted into sulphate to wet or dry deposition on the earth surface. Combustion of fossil fuels contributes significant amount of in troposphere, which is about 80 Mt/yr.
Source SO 2 (Million tons per year) Fossil fuel 80 Metal smelting 8 Biomass burning 2 Natural sources (Ocean, oil, vegetables) 25
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_6.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Quantification of Emission Emission levels are reported in several different ways while dealing with different devices. Gas turbine combustors: ppm by volume at 15% O 2 Furnace: ppm at 3% O 2 Automobiles: g/km Boiler: g/kW Species emission and its corrected value Generally combustion system is characterized in terms of level of emissions. Confusion prevails due to the change in sampling condition Degree of dilution Dry or wet condition If the moisture is removed from the exhaust sample then it will yield dry concentration. In some situations, it may not be possible to remove moistures, then it is known as wet concentration.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture37/37_7.htm[10/5/2012 4:45:40 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 37: Major Sources of CO Emission
Species Emission and Its Corrected Value Consider a hydrocarbon fuel-air mixture at lean or stoichiometric condition Wet mole fraction of species is defined as Dry mole fraction of species is defined as Carrying out an atom balance for O atom, Ratio of total number of moles in wet mixture to dry mixture is
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_1.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:46 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
The Lecture Contains: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value Emission Control Methods SO x Emission and Its Control
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_2.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:46 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
Species Emission and Its Corrected Value The oxygen coefficient is given by OR The measured concentration of species at given oxygen level can be corrected to a specific oxygen level as below In order to assess the emission in a combustor or engine, it is important to define a normalized indicator of emission level as below, For combustion of hydrocarbon fuel, the emission index species is given by,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_3.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:46 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
Emission Control Methods Best method of reducing emission is to avoid using excess fuel. Public awareness must be initiated to avoid unwanted burning of fuels. Eco-friendly combustion devices have to be designed and developed. Cost effective methods can be devised to treat the combustion products before allowing them to the atmosphere.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_4.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:47 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
Emission Control Methods CO x Emission control
Storage in oceans may not be feasible due to non-availability of technology, however, geological reservoirs are promising options for CO 2 storage.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_5.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:47 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
Emission Control Methods Figure: Schematic diagram of a CO 2 capture pilot plant for coal-based power plant (Figure 38.1) CO 2 is separated by means of absorption using mono-ethanol amine (MEA). The plant consists of three parts i. Absorber, ii. Regenerator, iii. Exchanger. Exhaust gas is cooled to to 40-50C and fed to the absorption tower. In the absorber, exhaust gas is mixed with mono-ethanol amine (MEA), which captures 90% of CO 2 in the exhaust gas. Amine stripper is used in the regenerator, which separates MEA and sends back to amine absorption tower. This plant captures 1 million CO 2 per hour.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_6.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:47 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
SO x Emission and Its Control Sulphur is relatively inert and harmless to human beings. Oxides of sulphur poses serious environmental problem. Sulphur oxides are corrosive in nature. Organic fuels such as coal, oil, wood, etc contain some sulphur. SO is a highly reactive radical and its life time is few milliseconds. Under fuel rich conditions, in addition to sulphur oxides, hydrogen sulphide, carbonyl sulphide, and elemental sulphur are formed. Understanding of the mechanism of sulphur oxides have not evolved to a maturity level. (Figure 38.2)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture38/38_7.htm[10/5/2012 4:46:47 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 38: Species Emission and Its Corrected Value
SO x Emission and Its Control Hydrosulphurization method Effective method of desulphurizing coal and oil fuels. This method treats fuels in the presence of hydrogen at high pressure and temperature. Finely grounded coal is mixed with anthracene oil along with hydrogen to produce slurry. The dissolved coal is passed through a pressure filtration unit in which pyretic sulphur is removed. A flash evaporator is used to convert the dissolved coal to low sulphur coal. (Figure 38.3)
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_1.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:38 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
The Lecture Contains: SO x Emission and Its Control Forced Oxidation Limestone Wet Scrubber Zeldovich Mechanism Fenimore (Prompt) Mechanism Fuel (N 2 O Intermediate) Mechanism
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_2.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:39 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
SO x Emission and Its Control Gasification method Sulphur dioxide emission due to burning of coal or fuel oil can be minimized by gasifying them. During gasification, coal undergoes partial oxidation resulting in CO and . Sometimes, and other gases can also be produced during gasification of coal. In this case, sulphur content gets converted into hydrogen sulphide , which can be removed by absorption or adsorption method.. In absorption method, gases are scrubbed with alkaline reagent such as sodium carbonate or ethylamine. Subsequently elemental sulphur is produced. In adsorption method, ferric oxide is used to adsorb hydrogen sulphide using fluidized bed around 400C.
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_3.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:39 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_4.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:39 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
NO x Emission and Its Control Nitrogen in atmosphere forms 8 different oxides during combustion. The important oxides are NO, . Is NO harmful to health than ? is more harmful as compared to NO. By what reaction NO and are formed ?
For any chemical reaction, Gibbs free energy attains a minimum value for a particular temperature and pressure Equilibrium constant Standard Gibbs free energy change Table: Equilibrium concentration of NO and NO 2
300 7 X 10 -31 1.4 X 10 6 3.4 X 10 -10 2 X 10 -4 500 2.7 X 10 -18 130 7 X 10 -4 0.04 1000 7.5 X 10 -9 0.11 35 1.9 1500 1.07 X 10 -5 0.011 1320 6.8 2000 0.0004 0.0035 8100 13.2 2500 0.0035 0.0018 24000 20.0
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_5.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:39 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
Zeldovich Mechanism From the above table it is clear that emission can be reduced by decreasing the temperature. (Figure 39.2) Thermal are formed by simple heating of oxygen and nitrogen. The radical N' can react with to form NO. Thermal NO contribution is low till 1300 K and beyond which it increases rapidly. The thermal mechanism consists of the following two chain reactions. --------(1) --------(2) --------(3)
Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
Fenimore (Prompt) Mechanism Prompt mechanism refers to the which are formed very quickly by interaction of active hydrocarbon species derived from fuel with nitrogen and oxygen. They are generally not observed in flames of non-hydrocarbon flames. They cannot be formed by just heating nitrogen with oxygen. During initial phase of combustion, the radials with carbon atom react with to produce N. --------(4) This reaction is the main path which dictates the rate at which radical N' is formed. The radical N' can also be formed by the following reaction. --------(5) When the equivalence ratio is less than 1.2, HCN can be converted to NO as follows,
Objectives_template file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20D.P.%20Mishra/Local%20Server/FOC/lecture39/39_7.htm[10/5/2012 4:47:39 PM] Module 7: Combustion and Environment Lecture 39: Emission and Its Control
Fuel (N 2 O Intermediate) Mechanism Thermal NO is quite small below 1300 o C Thermal NO rises sharply with temperature Both fuel NO & prompt NO do not vary with temperature But prompt NO increases marginally with temperature. N 2 O intermediate mechanism plays a very important role for NO control in lean premixed combustion. Three steps of N 2 O intermediate mechanism are given below; (Figure 39.3)
Several techniques are devised to control in combustion as described in next section.
Combustion Modification Methods Staged Combustion (Figure 40.4) Most effective method to control formation. Upstream burner operates in fuel rich mode. Additional air is added in the downstream for burning of fuel in stages. emissions can be reduced by 10 to 40%.
Combustion Modification Methods Flame Cooling Thermal NO can be controlled by reducing the temperature. These three methods reduce the peak temperatures. May lead to the formation of CO. 10 to 15% reduction in NO can be achieved by these methods (Figure 40.5)