TIMBER / WOOD

Timber Structure
 TIMBER
Wood is one of the
oldest known materials
used in construction
It is the only naturally
renewable building
material
Species of wood in
Malaysia – more than
2500
 Names of wood
Vernacular – given by
the local community e.g.
Cengal – Cengai or
Penak
Botanical – given by
botanical member e.g.
Balanorcarpus Heimeii
(Cengal)
Commerce – given for
trading e.g. Cengal
Design Concept
 Wood popular for Lightweight
Construction

Simplicity in fabrication
Lightness
Reusability
Material availability
Simpler connections
Environmental
compatibility
Adaptability to
modifications and
remodeling
 Wood in Construction
In the form of lumber –
pieces of wood cut from tree
trunks
Wood products – glue
laminated timber, pressed
wood, chip board etc.
Tree trunks → Log → Lumber
USE OF TIMBER
 Classification of Wood
Hardwood – tree has broad
leaves, seeds with hard
shell, mostly grow in
tropical climate e.g. jati
Softwood – species that
has needlelike leaves,
seed without hard shell,
mostly grow in
seasonal climate e.g.
Pine trees

This classification is based on the Botanical aspects, not the hardness of the wood
 Cont.

Generally, most
hardwoods are harder to
work with than softwood
The term hardwood and
softwood do not
necessarily indicate the
relative hardness or
density between the two
categories
 Growth Ring/Annual Ring

Earlywood – cell
Growth ring = with larger opening,
earlywood + latewood during winter
Latewood – cell with
smaller opening,
during summer
Growth Ring
Growth Ring
 Wood Cell Cell Wall

Cell Cavity
Wood Cell
 Forest Research Institute of Malaysia
(FRIM)
Hardwood in Malaysia – classified based
on the density and durability
Three categories
Heavyweight hardwood – density greater
than 880 kg/m3, very durable e.g. balau,
cengal
Normal/Intermediate weight hardwood –
density in the range of 720 to 880 kg/m3,
less durable compared to heavyweight
hardwood, e.g. kempas, keruing
Lightweight hardwood – density less than
720 kg/m3, not durable except being
preserved, e.g. meranti
 Properties of Wood
The most important properties
that affect strength and durability
of wood are:

1) Moisture content
2) Specific gravity
Effect of Moisture Content
 Moisture content
The weight of water in wood expressed
as a percentage of its oven-dry weight
Determining moisture content – oven
or moisture meter
Wood is a hygroscopic substance – it
can absorb water/moisture
The ability to absorb or lose
moisture depends on
environmental conditions

Relative Humidity
Temperature
Variations of moisture content in
living trees

Moisture content 400%, specific gravity

0.2
Moisture content 100%, specific gravity
1.15
Typical trees contain water about two
times the weight of its solid material
 Water exist in wood
FREE WATER – in the cell
cavity
BOUND or ADSORBED
WATER – in the cell wall
The amount of water in cell
cavities varies with the
amount of drying
Lumber has moisture
generally in excess of 50%
at the time of its
manufacture
FIBRE SATURETION POINT (FSP)

FSP is when the cell cavity

contains only air and the cell
wall is saturated with water
Moisture content at FSP can
vary from 20 to 30%
depending on the species of
wood
 Effect of Moisture Content

Above FSP – volume

and mechanical
properties unchanged
or constant, although
the density of wood
decrease
Below FSP – wood
shrink and strength
increase
Amount of water in cell will affect:

Physical properties
Mechanical
properties
Durability
Dimensional
stability
 Equilibrium Moisture Content

The moisture content at

which wood neither gains nor
loses moisture to the
surrounding
Its values range between 5
and 17% at 70 °C and relative
humidity between 2 to 80%
 Specific Gravity
Is the ratio of the weight of wood
(oven-dry) to the weight of an equal
volume of water
Specific Gravity = (Ws)/(wwV)
Ws – oven-dry weight
ww – density of water
V – volume of (green) wood
Wood is composed of:
Solid matter
Water
Air
Volume = Vsolid + Vwater + Vair
 Specific gravity
Determined in three conditions:
1) Green (moisture content in excess
of 19%)
2) Air-dry (moisture content – 12%)
3) Oven-dry (moisture content 0%)
 Cont.
Strength and stiffness of wood increase with
the increase in specific gravity
Physical and mechanical properties of wood
are related to specific gravity
Density of wood is defined as the mass or
weight per unit volume
It is directly related to porosity or proportion
of voids and calculated using the total weight
of wood
 PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Strength is one of Strength – the

the main properties ability of material to
that determines the resist external load
suitability of wood without failure
in construction
Strength of Timber
Tensile strength
Compressive strength
Flexural strength
Shear strength hardness
Impact strength
Splitting strength
Loading Condition
 Strength of wood
Varies according to the direction of
the applied load
1) Parallel to grains
2) Perpendicular to grains
Wood grains – direction of wood
fibre with respect to the main axis
of wood
 Wood Grains
Straight grain
Edge grain
Flat grain
Cross grain
Spiral grain
Diagonal grain
The slope of grains will
affect the strength of
wood
Effect of Wood Grain
 Cont.
Tensile strength and
compressive strengths
parallel to wood grains
are higher than
perpendicular to wood Tensile strength parallel to
grains. wood grains is
Compressive strength approximately 2 to 4 times
perpendicular to wood than compressive strength
grains is between 12 and parallel to wood grains
18% of compressive Shear strength
strength to wood grains perpendicular to wood
grains is higher than
parallel to wood grains
 Cont.
Hardness of wood is
generally defined as Impact strength –
how easy the wood to the ability of wood
be work with i.e. cut, to absorb sudden
nailed external load
It depends on the It depends on the
density, stiffness, and hardness, elasticity,
bonding between wood plasticity of wood
fibres
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
AND DURABILITY OF TIMBER

Moisture content
Density
Wood grains
Defects
Preservative
Treatment
 Moisture Content
Higher moisture
content will reduce
the strength and
durability of wood
Moisture will cause
wood to decay
 Density
Wood with higher
density will have
higher compressive
strength and better
durability due to
dense microstructure
 Wood Defects

Any irregularities in the

structure of wood or
lumber that will reduce
the strength and
durability
Types of defect:
1) Natural defect
2) Defect during processing
3) Due to insects or fungus
Natural Defects
Natural Defects
Design Consideration
Effect of Defect
 Processing Defects
Generally is due to improper drying methods
 Insects and Fungus

Wood destroying insects –

termites, pin-hole borers,
beetles
Fungi – brown rot, white rot
Conditions for fungal growth
1) Proper temperature
2) Moisture greater than 19%
3) Oxygen
4) Food (wood fibre)
 SEASONING OF WOOD
The process of controlled drying of
lumber (water in cell cavity and
wall) to increase its structural
properties
Reduction in moisture content:
1) Increase strength
2) Reduce shrinkage
3) Reduction in weight
4) More durable
 Methods of drying

Air drying – drying

naturally
Kiln/Oven drying –
controlled drying
(temperatures and
humidities)
Stacking lumber
Factors Affecting Drying Process

Temperature
Relative humidity
Air circulation
 Duration of drying
Types of wood – softwood,
hardwood
Size of lumber
Surrounding environment
Stacking method
Air-drying vs Oven drying
 Preservative Treatment
Is the process of
introducing or injecting
special chemicals into
wood cell by special
techniques
The purpose is to prevent
the destruction from fungi
and insects and to inhibit
combustion
Classes of Wood Preservatives
Creosote oil
Water-borne wood preservatives
Light organic solvent preservatives
It is important that the preservatives
must penetrate into the wood and to
such extent it is effectively protect the
wood
 Attributes of Ideal Wood
Preservatives
Easy penetration into wood cell
Permanent in the wood cell
Toxic to insect and fungi
Safe to handle
Colourless
Compatible with coatings and
finishes
Cheap
Ease of Injecting Preservatives
Wood density
Microstructure of wood
Chemical composition of cell
wall
Size of lumber
Moisture content
Methods of Treatment Process
Non-Pressure Method
Brushing
Immersion
Hot and cold open tank
treatment
Pressure Treatments
1) Full cell
2) Empty cell
 Cont.

The only method to achieve any

worthwhile degree of penetration is by
way of pressure treatment
Brushing – not very effective, chemical
will not be able to penetrate into wood
cell, need to repeat the process
 Immersion
Cold immersion – lumber is immersed in
tank for few weeks
Hot immersion – immersed in tank at
higher temperature 90 °C
Hot-Cold immersion – immersed in tank at
90 °C, during heating air in cell cavity will
expand and pushed out, during cooling
the cell will shrink and absorb the
chemical
 Pressure (full cell)
Lumber is put in container
Half vacuum (to pull out air)
Spray hot chemical, increase pressure
(chemical enters wood cell)
Half vacuum to push out extra chemical from
the cell
Cell wall and cavity filled with chemical
Suitable for construction in damp soil
In buildings, chemical may leach out
 Pressure (empty cell)

Lumber placed in container

Apply pressure (compressed the air)
Spray chemical
Increase pressure (forcing chemical to
penetrate into cell wall but air in cell cavity is
compressed)
Reduce pressure, half vacuum, air in cell
cavity will expand pushing out extra
chemical
Cell wall filled with chemical but cell cavity is
empty
More economical, cleaner lumber
 TIMBER STRESS GRADE

Divided into two

categories:

Wet condition –
moisture greater
than 19%
Air-dry condition –
moisture equal to or
less than 19%
 Design Purposes
FRIM divides stress timber into several
grades
Basic stress – stress that can be sustained
by timber without failure

Grade Design stress

Selected 80% of basic stress

Particular 63% of basic stress

General 50% of basic stress

 Strength of Timber
Divided into four groups i.e. A, B,
C, and D
Based on strength
Selection of timber based on
strength from different groups
 MANNER OF CUTTING A LOG

The method of cutting a log will affect

shrinkage
Shrinkage occurs in three mutually
perpendicular directions:
1) Along its axis
2) Along a radial direction
3) Along tangent to the radius
Tangential shrinkage is the highest, about
two times the radial shrinkage
The longitudinal shrinkage is negligible
 WOOD PRODUCTS

Wood in construction
can be divided into two
forms
1) In the form of lumber
2) In the form of wood-
based panel
Two types of panels:
veneered panels and
non-veneered panels
 Panels
Veneered panels – also called plywood,
made from thin sheet of wood
Non-veneered panels – manufactured
from wood particles or fibres

Used for structural applications such

as floor and wall panels, non-structural
applications such as in furniture and
cabinets
 Wood-Based Products

Manufactured by
bonding together
using resin under
heat and pressure
 Non-Veneered Panels
Divided into two major
categories:

Particleboards
Fibreboards
 Particleboard

Manufactured from discrete pieces of wood

particles (chipboard, flakeboard, splinterboard),
combined with a synthetic resin or glue, bonded
together under heat and pressure in a hot press
in which an entire interparticle bond is created

Particles – piece of wood smaller than veneer

sheets but larger than wood fibre
 Classifications
Low-density particleboard – density 590
kg/m3 and specific gravity of 0.59
Medium-density particleboard – density
between 590 and 880 kg/m3 and specific
gravity between 0.59 and 0.80
High-density particle board – density
greater than 800 kg/m3 and specific
gravity of 0.80
 Fibreboard
Is a generic term for a
homogeneous panel made
from wood fibres
Fibreboard panels have
density between 160 and 500
kg/m3, and specific gravity
between 0.16 and 0.50
 Cont.

Veneer, plywood, and

blockboard are natural
wood panels
Particleboard and fibre
building board – are
reconstituted wood
panels which are
manufactured mainly
from various wood
wastes
Wood Ply
 Plywood
Is a panel comprising an assembly of plies
bonded together
Glulam or Glue-Laminated Timber

Consists of sawn
lumber laminations
bonded with an
adhesive so that the
grain of all laminations
runs parallel with the
long direction
Can be manufactured
in a variety of shapes
and sizes
Glulam
Structural Section
 Application of Timber

Structural –
column, beam, truss
Non-structural –
frame, partition
Application in Construction
Floor Tile
Thank You