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AN EDUSAT LECTURE ON

1


T1
A
B
C
T2
O
Fig. 1 . A CURVE
CURVES
Curves are regular
bends provided in
the lines of
communication like
roads, railways and
canals etc. to bring
about gradual
change of direction.
2
T1
A
B
C
T2
O
Fig. 2. A CURVE
CURVES
They enable the
vehicle to pass from
one path on to another
when the two paths
meet at an angle. They
are also used in the
vertical plane at all
changes of grade to
avoid the abrupt
change of grade at the
apex.

3
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have
the gradual change in direction are known as
horizontal curves.
VERTICAL CURVES
Curves provided in the vertical plane to obtain
the gradual change in grade are called as
vertical curves.
Curves may be circular or parabolic. Curves
are generally arcs of parabolas.
Curves are laid out on the ground along the
centre line of the work.
4
NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES
Curves are needed on Highways, railways
and canals for bringing about gradual change
of direction of motion. They are provided for
following reasons:-
i) To bring about gradual change in
direction of motion.
ii) To bring about gradual change in grade
and for good visibility.
5
NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES Contd
iii) To alert the driver so that he may not fall
asleep.

iv) To layout Canal alignment.

v) To control erosion of canal banks by the
thrust of flowing water in a canal.
6
CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCULAR CURVES
Circular curves are classified as :

(i) Simple Curves.

(ii) Compound Curves.

(iii) Reverse Curves.

(iv) Deviation Curves.
7
T1
A
B
C
T2
O
Fig. 3. A SIMPLE CURVE
i) Simple Curve:

A simple curve
Consists of a
single arc of
circle connecting
two straights. It
has radius of the
same magnitude
throughout.
8
R
R
ii) COMPOUND CURVE
A compound Curve consists of two or
more simple curves having different radii
bending in the same direction and lying on
the same side of the common tangent. Their
centres lie on the same side of the curve.
A
T1
M P N
C
O1
O2
Fig.4 Compound Curve
9
R
2
R
1

iii) REVERSE OR SERPENTINE CURVE
A reverse or serpentine curve is
made up of two arcs having equal
or different radii bending in
opposite direction with a common
tangent at their junction .
Fig. 5. A Reverse or Serpentine Curve.
M
Their centres lie on
opposite sides of the curve.
Reverse curves are used
when the straights are
parallel or intersect at a
very small angle.
N
O2
O1
A
T1
T2
p
B
10
R
1
R
2
R
2
R
1
REVERSE OR SERPENTINE CURVE
Fig.6 A Reverse or Serpentine Curve.
They are commonly used
in railway sidings and
sometimes on railway
tracks and roads meant
for low speeds. They
should be avoided as far
as possible on main lines
and highways where
speeds are necessarily
high.
A
T1
T2
O2
O1
M
N
B
P
11
iv) DEVIATION CURVE
T1 T2
O2
O1
O3
Building
A deviation curve is
simply a combination
of two reverse curves.
it is used when it
becomes necessary to
deviate from a given
straight path in order
to avoid intervening
obstructions such as
bend of river, a
building , etc.
Fig. 7 A Deviation Curve
12
B
B
T1 T2
O
R
C
A
E
F

I

/2
Fig. 8 SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE
13
NAMES OF VARIOUS PARTS OF CURVE
(i) The two straight lines AB and BC which
are connected by the curve are called the
tangents or straights to the curve.
(ii) The point of intersection of the two
straights (B) is called the intersection point
or the vertex.
(iii) When the curve deflects to the right side of
the progress of survey ,it is termed as right
handed curve and when to the left , it is
termed as left handed curve.
14
NAMES OF VARIOUS PARTS OF CURVE
(iv) The lines AB and BC are tangents to the
curve. AB is called the first tangent or the
rear tangent . BC is called the second
tangent or the forward tangent.
(v) The points ( T
1
and T
2
) at which the
curve touches the tangents are called
the tangent points. The beginning of
the curve ( T
1
) is called the tangent
curve point and the end of the curve
(T2) is called the curve tangent point.

15
NAMES OF VARIOUS PARTS OF CURVE
(vi) The angle between the lines AB and BC
(

ABC) is called the angle of intersection


(I).
(vii) The angle by which the forward tangent
deflects from the rear tangent (

BBC) is
called the deflection angle () of the curve.
(viii) The distance from the point of intersection
to the tangent point is called tangent length
( BT
1
and BT
2
).
(ix) The line joining the two tangent points (T
1

and T
2
) is known as the long chord.


16
(x) The arc T1FT2 is called the length of curve.
(xi) The mid point(F) of the arc (T
1
FT
2
) is called
the summit or apex of the curve.
(xii) The distance from the point of intersection
to the apex of the curve BF is called the
apex distance.
(xiii) The distance between the apex of the curve
and the mid point of the long chord (EF) is
called versed sine of the curve.
(xiv) The angle subtended at the centre of the
curve by the arc T
1
FT
2
is known as
central angle and is equal to the deflection
angle () .


17
ELEMENTS of a Simple Circular Curve
(i) Angle of intersection +Deflection angle = 180
0
.
or I + = 180
0

(ii)

T
1
OT
2 =
180
0
-
I
=


i.e

the central angle = deflection angle.

(iii)Tangent length = BT1 =BT2= OT
1
tan /2

= R tan /2

18
ELEMENTS of a Simple Circular Curve
(iv) Length of long chord =2T
1
E
=2R sin /2
(v) Length of curve = Length of arc T
1
FT
2

= R X (in radians)
= R /180
0

(vi) Apex distance = BF = BO OF

= R sec. /2 - R

= R (1 cos /2 )=R versine /2



19
A curve may be designated either by
the radius or by the angle subtended at the
centre by a chord of particular length.
In India, a curve is designated by the
angle (in degrees) subtended at the centre by a
chord of 30 metres (100 ft.) length. This angle
is called the degree of curve (D).
The degree of the curve indicates the
sharpness of the curve.
DESIGNATION OF CURVE
20
DESIGNATION OF CURVES.
In English practice , a curve is defined
by the radius of the curve in terms of chains,
such as a six chain curve means a curve having
radius equal to six full chains, chain being 30
metres unless otherwise specified.
In America,Canada,India and some
other countries a curve is designated by the
degree of the curve. For example a 4
0
curve
means a curve having angle of 4 degrees at the
centre subtended by a chord of 30m length
unless otherwise specified.
21
RELATION between the Radius of curve and
Degree of Curve.
The relation between the radius
and the degree of the curve may
be determined as follows:-


Let R = the radius of the curve in metres.
D = the degree of the curve.
MN = the chord, 30m long.
P = the mid-point of the chord.

In OMP,OM=R,
MP= MN =15m

MOP=D/2
Then, sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R


M
N
O
D
D/2
R R
Fig.9 Degree of Curve
P
PTO
22
RELATION between the Radius of curve and
Degree of Curve.
Then,sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R
Or R = 15
sin D/2
But when D is small, sin D/2 may be
assumed approximately equal to
D/2 in radians.
Therefore:
R = 15 X 360
D
= 1718.87
D
Or say , R = 1719
D


M
N
O
D
D/2
R R
Fig. 10 Degree of Curve
P
This relation holds good up to 5
0
curves.For higher degree curves the
exact relation should be used.
(Exact)
(Approximate)
23
METHODS OF CURVE RANGING
A curve may be set out
(1) By linear Methods, where chain and tape
are used or
(2) By Angular or instrumental methods,
where a theodolite with or without a chain is
used.
Before starting setting out a curve by any
method, the exact positions of the tangents
points between which the curve lies ,must be
determined. Following procedure is adopted:-
24
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure :-
i) After fixing the directions of the straights,
produce them to meet in point (B)
ii) Set up the Theodolite at the intersection
point (B) and measure the angle of
intersection (I) .Then find the deflection
angle ( ) by subtracting (I) from 180
0
i.e
=180
0
I.
iii) Calculate the tangent length from the
following equation
Tangent length = R tan/2



25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Instrumental Methods
(i) Tape and Theodolite Method (Rankine's
method) and
(ii) Two Theodolite Method
RankinesMethod
In this method, both the linear and angular
measurements are carried out simultaneously
to stake points along which curve will be set
out.
A tape is used for the linear measurements,
whereas a theodolite is used for the angular
measurements.
This method is quite accurate and is
commonly used in practice
37
Rankines Method
In this method, curves are staked out by use of deflection
angles turned at the point of curvature from the tangent to
points along the curve.
The curve is set out by driving pegs at regular interval
equal to the length of the normal chord.
Usually, the sub-chords are provided at the beginning and
end of the curve to adjust the actual length of the curve.
The method is based on the assumption that there is no
difference between length of the arcs and their
corresponding chords of normal length or less.
The underlying principle of this method is that the
deflection angle to any point on the circular curve is
measured by the one-half the angle subtended at the
centre of the circle by the arc from the P.C. to that point
38
Let points a, b, c, d, e are to be identified
in the field to layout a curve between T
1

and T
2
to change direction from the
straight alignment AV to VB.
To decide about the points, chords ab, bc,
cd, de are being considered having
nominal length of 30m. To adjust the
actual length of the curve two sub-chords
have been provided one at the beginning,
T
1
a and other, eT
2
at the end of the curve.
The amount of deflection angles that are
to be set from the tangent line at the P.C.
are computed before setting out the
points. The steps for computations are as
follows:
39
let the tangential angles for
points a, b, c, be d
1
, d,, d, d
n

and their deflection angles (from
the tangent at P.C.) be D
a
, D
b
, ..
, D
n
.
Now, for the first tangential
angle d
1
, from the property of a
circle
Arc T
1
a = R x 2d
1
radians
Assuming the length of the arc is
same as that of its chord, if C
1
is
the length of the first chord i.e.,
chord T
1
a, then

40

41

Thus, the deflection angle for any point on the
curve is the deflection angle upto previous
point plus the tangential angle at the previous
point.

42
Procedure : RankineS Method
1. A theodolite is set up at the point of curvature T
1
, and get it temporary adjusted.
2. The vernier A is set to zero, and get the upper plate clamped. After opening the lower
plate main screw, sight the point of intersection, V. Then the lower plate main screw
gets tightened and get the point V bisected exactly using the lower plate tangent screw.
Now the line of sight is in the direction of the rear tangent T
1
V and the vernier A reads
zero.
3. Open the upper plate main screw, and set the vernier A to the deflection angle D
a
. The
line of sight is now directed along the chord T
1
a. Clamp the upper plate.
4. Hold the zero end of the tape of a steel tape at T
1
. Note a mark equal to the first chord
length C
1
on the tape and swing an arrow pointed at the mark around a' till it is
bisected along the line of sight. The arrow point then indicates the position of the first
peg a'. Fix the first peg at a'.
5. Unclamp the upper plate, and set the vernier A to the deflection angle D
b
. The line of
sight is now directed along T
1
b.
6. With the zero end of the tape at a, and an arrow at a mark on the tape equal to the
normal chord length C, swing the tape around b until the arrow is bisected along the
line of sight. Fix the second peg at the point b at the arrow point.
It may be noted that the deflection angles are measured from the tangent point T
1
but
the chord lengths are measured from the preceding point. thus, deflection angles
observed are cumulative in nature but chord lengths swung are individual in nature.
7. Repeat steps (5) and (6) till the last point is reached. The last point so located must
coincide with the tangent point T
2
already fixed from the point of intersection.
43
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure :-

iv) Measure the tangent length (BT
1
)
backward along the rear tangent BA from
the intersection point B, thus locating the
position of T
1
.

vi) Similarly, locate the position of T
2
by
measuring the same distance forward
along the forward tangent BC from B.


44
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd) :-
After locating the positions of the tangent
points T
1
and T
2
,their chainages may be
determined. The chainage of T
1
is obtained by
subtracting the tangent length from the known
chainage of the intersection point B. And the
chainage of T
2
is found by adding the length
of curve to the chainage of T
1
.
Then the pegs are fixed at equal intervals
on the curve.The interval between pegs is
usually 30m or one chain length. ...............


45
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd) :-
This distance should actually be measured along
the arc ,but in practice it is measured along
the chord ,as the difference between the chord
and the corresponding arc is small and hence
negligible. In order that this difference is
always small and negligible ,the length of the
chord should not be more than 1/20
th
of the
radius of the curve. The curve is then obtained
by joining all these pegs. ...............


46
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd) :-
The distances along the centre line of the
curve are continuously measured from the
point of beginning of the line up to the end .i.e
the pegs along the centre line of the work
should be at equal interval from the beginning
of the line up to the end. There should be no
break in the regularity of their spacing in
passing from a tangent to a curve or from a
curve to the tangent. For this reason ,the first
peg on the curve is fixed .


47
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd) :-
at such a distance from the first tangent point
(T
1
) that its chainage becomes the whole
number of chains i.e the whole number of peg
interval. The length of the first sub chord is
thus less than the peg interval and it is called a
sub-chord. Similarly there will be a sub-chord
at the end of the curve. Thus a curve usually
consists of two sub-chords and a no. of full
chords.

48
Example : A simple circular curve is to have a radius
of 573 m .the tangents intersect at chainage 1060 m
and the angle of intersection is 1200. Find,
(i) Tangent Distance.
(ii) Chainage at beginning and end of the curve.
(iii) Length of the long chord.
(iv) Degree of the curve.
(v) Number of full and sub chords.

Solution: Please see fig.11
Given,
The deflection angle, = 180
0
120
0 =
60
0
Radius of curve = R = 573 m

PTO
49
Fig.11
1060 m
O
729.15 1329.15
T1 T2
60
0
120
0
330.85
R=573m
=
L=600m
50
(i) We know ,tangent length = R tan /2
= 573 x tan 30
0


= 573x 0.5774
= 330.85 m (Ans.)
(ii) Length of curve is given by: R
180
0


= x 573x60
0
180
0
= 600 m (Ans.)
Chainage of first tangent point (T
1
)
= Chainage of intersection point tangent length.
= 1060 330.85
= 729.15 m (Ans.)




PTO
51
(iii) The length of long chord is given by:
L = 2R sin /2
= 2 x 573 x sin 30
0

= 573 m ( Ans.)

(iv) Degree of Curve
We know the relation , R= 1719
D

or D = 1719
R
=3
0

Therefore , degree of curve is =3
0
(Ans.)



PTO
52
(v) Number of Full and sub chords:
Assuming peg interval =30m
Chainage of T
1
= 729.15 m = 729.15
30
= 24 full chain lengths + 9.15 m
Chainage of Ist peg on the curve should be 25 full chain lengths.
The length of Ist sub chord= (25+00) (24 + 9.15)
= 20.85 m
Chainage of T
2
= 1329.15 Chain lengths.
30
= 44 full chain lengths + 9.15 m.
Chainage of last peg on the curve =44 full chains.

Therefore length of last sub chord = (44+9.15) (44+00)
= 9.15m





PTO
Chain lengths.
53
No. Of full chords = chainage of last peg chainage of Ist peg
= 44 25 = 19
So, there will be 19 full chords and two sub chords.
Check:
Length of full chords = 19x30 =570.00m
Ist sub chord = 20.85m
last sub chord = 9.15m

Total length of all chords = 600.00m






PTO
(Same as length of curve)
54
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
The following are the methods of setting out
simple circular curves by the use of chain
and tape :-
(i) By offsets from the tangents.
(ii) By successive bisection of arcs.
(iii) By offsets from chords produced.
55
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
1. By offsets from the tangents. When the
deflection angle and the radius of the
curve both are small, the curves are set out
by offsets from the tangents.
Offsets are set out either
(i) radially or
(ii) perpendicular to the tangents
according as the centre of the curve is
accessible or inaccessible
56
B
B
T1
T2
O
R
C
A

Fig. 12 By Radial Offsets
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
Ox
x P
P
1
90
0
57
B
By Radial Offsets
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
Offsets is given by :

O
x
= R
2
+x
2
R .. (Exact relation.)
When the radius is large ,the offsets may be
calculated by the approximate formula
which is as under
O
x
= x
2
(Approximate )
2R


58
B
O
(ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents

LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
Ox
x
P
P
1
P
2

B
A
B
T
2 T
1
Fig. 13.
59
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
1. (ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents
O
x
= R R
2
x
2
(Exact)



O
x
= x
2
(Approximate )
2R



60
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure

(i) Locate the tangent points T
1
and T
2.


(ii) Measure equal distances , say 15 or 30 m
along the tangent fro T
1
.

(iii) Set out the offsets calculated by any of
the above methods at each distance ,thus
obtaining the required points on the
curve.

61
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure.

(iv) Continue the process until the apex of
the curve is reached.
(v) Set out the other half of the curve from
second tangent.
(vi) This method is suitable for setting out
sharp curves where the ground outside
the curve is favourable for chaining.

62
Example. Calculate the offsets at 20m intervals along
the tangents to locate a curve having a radius of
400m ,the deflection angle being 60
0
.

Solution . Given:
Radius of the curve ,R = 400m
Deflection angle, = 60
0
Therefore tangent length = R. tan /2
= 400 x tan 60
0
= 230.96 m
Radial offsets. (Exact method)




O
x
= R
2
+ x
2
- R

(Exact)
63
Radial offsets. (Exact method)




O
x
= R
2
+ x
2
- R

(Exact)

O20 = 400
2
+20
2
- 400 = 400.50 - 400 = 0.50 m

O40 = 400
2
+40
2
- 400 = 402.00 - 400 = 2.00 m

O60 = 400
2
+60
2
- 400 = 404.47 - 400 = 4.47 m

O80 = 400
2
+80
2
- 400 = 407.92 - 400 = 7.92 m

O100 = 400
2
+100
2
- 400 = 412.31 - 400 = 12.31 m

And so on.








64
B) Perpendicular offsets (Exact method)












O
x
= R R
2
x
2
(Exact)

O
20
= 400 - 400
2
- 20
2
= 400 -399.50 = 0.50 m

O
40
= 400 - 400
2
- 40
2
= 400 -398.00 = 2.00 m

O
60
= 400 - 400
2
- 60
2
= 400 -395.47 = 4.53 m

O
80
= 400 - 400
2
- 80
2
= 400 -391.92 =8.08 m





O
100
= 400 - 400
2
-100
2
= 400 -387.30 =12.70 m

And so on..

65
B) By the approximate Formula
(Both radial and perpendicular offsets)













O
x
=
2R
Therefore O
20
= 20
2
= 0.50 m
2x400

x
2

O
40
= 40
2
= 2.00 m
2x400
O
60
= 60
2
= 4.50 m
2x400





O
80
=

80
2
= 8.00 m
2x 400
O
100
= 100
2
= 12.50 m
2 x 400
and so on.
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