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History Paper-I

Sources of Ancient Indian History:
There are 3 sources of ancient Indian History:
1) Archaeological Sources
2) Literary Sources
3) Foreigners Accounts
Archaeological sources: These sources include inscriptions, numismatics and monuments.
Literary sources: Buddhist literature, Jain Literature, Vedic Literature and Sangam Literature.
Foreign Accounts: Greek and Romans, Chinese, Arab
We can study the remains material of the past with the aid of the archaeology. To study the
period before the creation of writing archaeology is very important. During Harshas period the
important archaeological sources are inscription and seals. Inscription Banskhera situated in the
Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. This inscription gives lot of knowledge. A two seals of Harsha
found in Nalanda (Bihar). One seal is made up of clay and other is made up of copper. These
two sales contain names of all kings from Rajyavardhana I to Harshavardhana. Archaeology is
the study of the historic and prehistoric people and their culture through coins, inscriptions,
monuments and sculptures. The sources of Archaeological are direct affirmation. Literary
source: A source is any written article that you quote as your source material. These sources
began to increase other sources.
Primary sources created by someone who experienced the event and secondary resources are
the information created by someone who didnt experience the event.
Example of primary sources: Diaries, photographs, artifacts, letters, news, film footage, art,
buildings.
Secondary sources example: Textbooks, encyclopedias

Pre-history and Proto-history: Geographical factors
India is jump on north by Himalayas and south by ocean. The Persians gave the name of Hindu
or India. The Persians called Hindu or India as Hafta Hindu or Sapta Sindu. They called sapta

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Sindhu because a land watered by the river Sindhu. In ancient literature, the ancient name
Bharatvarsa has its originality. The huge range of Himalayas on the north provide strong
frontier to this country. Hindukush and Vindhyachal equally played conclusive roles. Mountains
have several passes i.e. Khyber, Tochi, Bolan, Gomal and Kurram are the five passes of
Himalayas. These five passes worked as main ways for migrations and occupations. These
affect the formation of the history of the land. Khyber and Bolan are the vital passes of
Himalayas. Rig Veda introduces to Tochi-Kurram pass. These are used by Aryan invaders.
Hindukush range has 2 passes i.e. Qora-Kottal and Dandan-Shikan. It connects Western
Afghanistan and Hari Rud Valley with Balk. This way facilitates the eastward movement towards
Kabul. These people when settled themselves in hard mountains belts, it became easier for
them to order Indian Plains. Along these passes the Huns, Persians, Greeks, Sakas, Turks and
Afghans entered the country. The trade relations with Rome, china, Malaysia and South East
Asia were grow or spread. North India plains were fertile. By the climatic changes history of the
region changed in north western India.
The literature of ancient India offers 6 geographical divisions of the country:-
i) Middle Region (Madhya Desa)
ii) Himalayan Region (Himavanta)
iii) North-West Region (Uttarpatha)
iv) Deccan (Dakshinapatha)
v) Eastern India (Purvanta)
vi) Western India (Aparanta)
During various periods the geographical feature of the country attracted the people from
outside.
Paleolithic Period (The Old Stone Age):
The Paleolithic is a prehistoric period of human history .this name is applied to earliest people.
Humans are hunters-gathers in this period of Paleolithic. They developed tools of ESA (Early
Stone Age) or Paleolithic period consist of cleavers, hand-axes, discoids etc. In this period man
survived by hunting animals and gathering roots, berries, leaves and seeds. They had no ideas
or knowledge of cultivation and house building.
Till 9000 B.C. this phase continued. The Paleolithic tools could be old as 1, 00,000 B.C and has
been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. Such tools are belonging to 20,000 B.C. 10,000 B.C.

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have been found in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. These Paleolithic tools were made up of species
of hard rock called quartzite. In India Paleolithic men are called as Quartzite men. The people
of Stone Age hunt in groups. They hunted animals like manmoth, wild boar, reindeer etc.
During this period man used stone, wood, and bone tools to survive.
Mesolithic Age: Around 9000 B.C. with the end of the Ice age the climate became dry
and warm. This climatic change brought changes in flora and fauna. It made it possible
for human beings to move to new areas. In 9000 BC began a middle stage in Stone Age
culture which is called Mesolithic age. Mesolithic tools kits were based on chipped
stone.
Beginning of agriculture (Neolithic and chalcolithic).
The Neolithic or new Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology. From
about ten thousand years ago groups of people in several areas around the world began to
gather , cultivated and settle around , patches of cereals grasses and to domesticated animals
for meat , labor, skins and other materials and milk.
Wheat and barley first appeared in the Middle East. All the earliest civilizations depend on
cereal agriculture. Cultivation of fruit trees began in 3000 years later. About seven thousand
years ago cultivation of rice began in Asia. The respective contributions of each cereal to
current total productions are:
Wheat (28%)
Corn/Maize (27%)
Rice (25%)
Barley (10%)
Others (10%)

Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600-1900 BCE):
It was a Bronze Age Civilization and also called as Harappan civilization. It was named
after the city of Harappa. Harappa was the 1
st
site to be excavated under the
supervision of Daya Ram Sahni.
Contemporary civilization of Harappan civilizations belongs are Mesopotamian or
Sumerian civilization, Egyptian civilization or Chinese civilization.

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It extends in from northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
One of the worlds significant urbanization was Indus Calley civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization after Harappa.
The Indus is the longest river in Pakistan.
Nearly 3000 Km it flows to the Arabian Sea. It is earliest known civilization of the Indian
Subcontinent.
The first city of Indus Valley was Harappan city.

The discovery of Indus valley civilization was made when Harappan city was diged out

Origin:
Indus Valley Civilization discovered in 1920. Different archaeological
researches indicated that IVC (Indus Valley Civilization) or Harappan
Civilization has marked its origin some five hundred years ago.
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are 2 most significant sites of Indus valley
civilization. These two cites namely Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were
discovered in the banks of Ravi River and Indus River respectively.
A group of wandering (nomadic) people from Sumeria recognized as
Iran. The first person used the term Indus civilizations was Sir John
Marshall.
Five rivers namely Sutlej, Chenab, Beas, Ravi and Indus River influenced
them to settle down. Indus Valley civilization was an Urban Civilization.

Extent of Indus Valley civilization: -
It was believed that within Indus Valley, the extent of Harappan
civilization was limited. At many places outside the Indus valley the
Archaeological Department of the Government of India and Pakistan
have unearthened the relics of Harappan culture.

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From north to south the extent of the Harappan civilization covered an
area of 1550 Km and 1100Km from west to east. The traces of the
Harappan civilization found in the Narmada Valley in Deccan.
Main centres of the Harappan civilization as revealed by recent excavations are:-
i) Mohenjo-Daro in Sind and Town was located on the banks of the Indus.
ii) Harappa in Punjab. The town was situated on the bank of the Ravi.
iii) Kalibangan in Rajasthan located on the bank of the Gharghara.
iv) Rangpore and Lothal in Gujarat.
v) The Narmada and the Tapti belt.

Features of Indus Valley civilization:-

Harappan cities were expanding in block pattern.
Town planning: - On grid planning the cities were built. Main streets,
roads set in a line. Most of the roads, streets and building were built
of burnt bricks. Town planning also called first urbanization.The cities
were divided into 2 parts i.e. the citadel and the lower town. Some
buildings have a lamp post and a well.
Drainage system: The Kitchen and the bathroom had drains leading
out. Drains were covered with slabs and street drains had manholes
at regular intervals.
So far, Great Bath is the most impressive structure excavated at
Mohenjo-Daro. Great Bath constructed with Kiln burnt bricks. This
Monumental Bath is a pool 12m long, 7 m wide and 2.5 m deep.
Gypsum has been used to make the floor and sides of the pool water-
tight.
The granary at Harappa is made of burnt bricks.
The Assembly hall covers an area of 750 sq. m
The Stable foods of the people were wheat and barley.

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Domesticated animals were humped bulls, oxen, buffaloes, goats,
sheep, cats and dogs
Weapons such as axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows were used
Seal were the greatest artistic creations of the Harappan culture.
These seal have been used for trade.
Both men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver, copper
and other metals. Men wore finger rings and armlets of various
designs and shapes.
Blacksmith, goldsmith, jewelers, stone cutters and potters were the
important part of society.
Indus people had developed the art of writing and worshipped the
Shiva or Pashupati.
The art of measurement was known by the Harappan cities.
The Indus people can be classified into 4 racial groups :-
i) Proto-Australoid
ii) Mediterranian
iii) Mongolian
iv) Alpine

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
A signs of a slow decline began to emerge around 1800 BCE. Most of the cities
were left by around 1700 BCE.
On the decline of Harappan civilizations there are 3 view points of historians.
The decline of the Indus Civilization was caused by the invasion of an Indo-
European tribe from Central Asia called the Aryans according to Sir Mortimer
Wheeler.
For the decline of Indus valley civilizations Aryans were not responsible
according to G.F.Dales and Marshall.

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According to James Marshall the natural calamities were responsible for this
decline.
Survival and significance: With the decline of Indus valley civilization the region of the
Indus civilization didnt become extinct. In later Hinduism many important features of
Harappan religion were adopted. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati Shiva. It give
towards the advancements of Mathematics. Cultivation of cotton was the Harappan
peoples another remarkable contribution.
Art and architecture:
There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals
Scripts were consisted of about 400 symbols.
In the 2
nd
half of the 3d millennium B.C. the earliest Indian art emerged from the
valley of the Indus River.
Harappa is the best known sites destroyed in the 19
th
century. The Indus
civilization produced many statuettes.
These statuettes made of steatite and limestone. Domestic animals were used to
control farming tools.

Megalithic Cultures: A megalith is a large stone. It has been used to construct or
monument. Megalith describes structure made of large stones and there is vast variety
of Megalithic tombs.
Distribution of pastoral and farming cultures outside the Indus:
A community of human entered a new stage of culture. They started to produce food by
cultivating cereals like barley, wheat and rice. The people started to domesticate some
species of animals. Neolithic tools are revealed in the beginning of this stage of human
cultire.

Aryans and Vedic Period:
Vedic Period (1500 BC-600 BC) or Vedic age: In this period the Vedas oldest scriptures of
Hinduism were composed. A group of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into North western

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India after the end of Indus valley civilizations. The propounders of vedic period
civilizations are Aryans. The language of Aryans was similar to Sanskrit.
During 2
nd
millennium B.C the Aryans came to India. A completely new civilization and
culture has developed around 1500 BC to 600 BC in India. Since the Bronze Age the
country had seen various cultures and civilization. Around 500 BC due to various
unknown factors including invasions of Aryans and deforestation the most popular Indus
Valley Civilization has declined. According to Archaeologists the main reasons of
collapsing the Harappan civilization is the invasions of Aryans. Through Khyber Pass the
Aryans came from the central Asia and invade to India. Aryans introduced their own
culture and civilization. The people of Indus began to follow Aryans culture and
civilizations.
In 1500 BC, Aryan appeared in India and Iran were the first place of Aryan appearance.
Philological evidences state that the Rig Veda is the oldest of Veda. Between 1700 and 1100 BC
Rig Veda were composed and is also referred to as Early Vedic period. Aryans were the author
of the Vedic Hymns. Sapta Sindhu is the area where the early Vedic Aryans lived. Meaning of
Sapta-Sindhu is area of 7 rivers i.e. Sindhu, Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi),
Vipash( Beas), Shutudri(Sutlej) and the Sarasvati. In this area people of rig Vedic lived. Rig Vedic
people fought battle and grazed their herds of cattle. During the Later Vedic period they are
moving to eastward. They come in contact with people whose language is different from their
own language. In this area they live for long.
Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of ant indo Europeans language. According to Rig Veda early
Aryans fist settle in the region called Sapta-Sindhava. As they settle down in village they
became cultivators using ox to draw their ploughs. They were ruled by warriors who depend
upon priest to protect their crops and cattle and insecure victory in war. After the Bharata
Tribe, the Indian Subcontinent got its name Bharat Varsha. The Aryans moved away from their
original home of Aryans.

ORIGINAL HOME OF VEDAS:
Central Asia -Max Muller
Tibet -Dayanand Saraswati
German Plain -Prof.Penka
Pamirs -Mayor

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Turkistan -Hurz Feld
Bactria -J.C.Rod
Steppes -Brandstein
Arctic Region -B.G Tilak
Central India -Rajbali Paney
Kashmir -L.D. Kala
Sapta Sindhu -A.c.Das

RIVER MENTIONED IN RIG VEDA:
Old Name New Name
Gomati Gomal
Kruma Kurram
Kubha Kabul
Suvastu Swat
Sindhu Indus
Drishadvati Ghaghar/Chitang
Satudri Satluj
Vipas Beas
Parushni Ravi
Asikni Chenab
Vitasta Jhelum

Metal Known:
Gold Hiranya

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Iron Shyama(Krishna Ayas)
Copper Ayas
The Sun Gods surya similar to that of the Greek God Helios; savitri. The famous Gayatri mantra
is addressed to Savitri. The main function was guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.
Vedic Literature:
The Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word. Meaning of Veda is to know or knowledge par
distinction. Vedic Texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing) which is definite from
Smriti (based on memory).
Aryans: Political, social and economical life
Political life of Aryans:
Aryans came in the form of tribes when they came to India. This tribal system of Aryans
survived for many centuries. A tribal leader was the chief of the tribe in early stage. Elected
chief was the most efficient protector. There are two tribal assemblies.. An exclusive council of
the tribal elders was the Sabha and Samiti. Both have been a general assemblys and played an
important role.
Social life: The Aryan lived in joint families and the eldest male member in the family
known as Kulapa or Gritapati. The duty of the eldest male member in the family was to
perform sacrifices or Yajnas. Mother was the second important member in the family.
Women were given right education. In early stages child marriage, polyandry and the
custom of sati were unknown. The Aryans took wheat and barley, lot of milk and milk
products like butter, ghee, curd and cheese. Their dresses consist of the Vesas and the
Adhivasa.
Economic life: Primary occupation of Aryans was cultivation of land and domestication
of animals. Irrigation sources water-wells, canals, and people of Aryans depend upon
rains.

Period of Mahajanapadas:
A List of 16 Mahajanapadas were present by Buddhist literature Anguttara
Nikaya, Maha Vastu and Jain literature Bhagavati Sutra The Mahajanapadas
refers to ancient Indian kingdoms.

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Between the 6
th
and 3
rd
centuries BCE Mahajanapadas existed. Iron implements
began to be widely used about the sixth century. The new agriculture tools
improved the Knowledge of cultivation.
This helped in the production of Surplus food grains which could be collected by
the kings to meet their military and administrative needs.
According to Anguttara Nikaya,they
were:Kashi,Kosala,Anga,Magadha,vajji,Malla,Chedi,Vatsa,Kuru,Panchala,Matsya,Surasena,Assak
a,Avanti,Gandhara and Kamboja. These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republicans
in character.
Important Republics: The Mahajanapadas republicans states were Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal
and Kamboj. The King in these state had the supreme authority. Lichavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga
and Moniya were other smaller states. These republican had a:-
Gana parishad : It had the supreme authority in the state.
An Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. Two types of the Republic:-

i) The republic comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the kollis and the Mallas.
ii) The republics comprising a number of tribes or the confederacy like the Vrijjis.

Rise of urban centres IN Mahajanapadas : Planned township is the first known
urbanization in India. There are different factors responsible for urbanization. Soon the
capitals of various kingdoms became urban centres. Due to economic activities other
township grew in the 6
th
century. In the Urbanization religion played important role in
the Gangetic plain. Kausambi were important places for economy, religion and
administration. It was an urban centre.

Republics and Monarchies:-
Monarchical and Non-Monarchical/Republician were 2 types of states Mahajanapadas.
Trade Routes: Pali Texts mention to sea voyages, and of trading journeys to the coast of
Burma, the Malay world, Ceylon and Babylon. Bharukachcha (Broach), Suparaka(Sopara,

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north of Bombay) and Tamralipti (Tamluk in West Bengal) were the principal sea-ports.
Silk, embroidery, ivory, Jewellery and Gold were the chief articles of trade.
Introduction of coinage: For the first time these cities began to use coins made of
metals. The coins which are earlier belong to 5
th
B.C. They are called punch-marked
coins. The standard unit of value was the copper Karshapana. Copper Karshapana
weighing a little more than 146 grains.
Spread of Jainism and Buddhism
Buddhism: Buddhas Life:
Gautam Buddha is also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata. In 563
BC he was born on the Vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini near Kapilvastu capital
of the Sakya republic.
At the age of 29 he left home. At the age of 35 he attained Nirvana a Bodh gaya.
In 483 BC he attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara . He delivered his first
sermon at Sarnath.
Buddhist councils:
The first council was held in 383 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha to compile the
Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka.
The second council was held at Vaishali in 483 BC. The monks of Vaisali wanted
some change in the rites.
The third council was held at Pataliputa during the reign of Asoka and 236 years
after death of Buddha. It was held under the President ship of Moggliputta Tissa to
revise the scriptures.
During the reign of Kaniska in Kashmir the 4
th
council was held under the president
ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in the division of Buddhists into
Mahayanists and Hinayanists.
Buddhist Scriptures:
The Vinaya Pitaka:
a) The Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulation which the Buddha promulgated.
b) It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.

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c) An account of Life and leaching of Buddha is also given.

The Sutra Pitaka:
a) It Consist chiefly of discourses delivered by the Buddha himself on different occasions.
b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others are also included.
c) It lays down the principles of Buddhism.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka:
a) Contain the profound philosophy of the Buddhas teachings.
b) It investigates mind and matter to help the understanding of things.
The Khandhakas contains regulation on the course or life in the monastic order and
have 2 sections-the Mahavagga and the Cullavega. The third part is the Parivara is an
significant composition by a Ceylonese monk.
Important Facts:
i) Asvaghosha is contemporary of Kaniska and lie as poet, dramatist, musician,
scholar and debater.
ii) Nagarjuna was a friend and contemporary of Satavahana king Yajnasri
Gautamiputra of Andhra. He propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist
philosophy popularly known as Sunyaveda.
iii) In the 4
th
century AD, Asanga and Vasubandhu were two brothers who
flourished in the Punjab region.Asanga was the most important teacher of the
Yogachara or Vijananavada School founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha.
iv) Buddhaghosha who lived in the fifth century AD was a great Pali scholar. In the
Tripitaka literature, the commentaries and the Visuddimaga written by him are a
great achievement.
v) Dinnaga is the last mighty intellectual of the fifth century is known as founder of
the Buddhist logic.
vi) Dharmakirti lived in the seventh century AD was another great Buddhist logician.
He was subtitle philosophical thinker and diaelectician.

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Buddhist Philosophy:
a) Idealism: Two sources of valid knowledge: a) Perception and b) Inference.
b) Doctrine of dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist
Philosophy. It tells us that in empirical worried dominated by the intellect, everything is
relative, conditional dependent, subject to birth and death.
c) Theory of Momentaries: It tells that world is merely a conglomeration of perishable
qualities. According to it, things that can produce effect exist.
Five Great Events Of Buddha:
Life and their Symbols:
Birth: Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation : Horse
Nirvana: Bodhi tree
First Sermon: Dharmachakra or wheel.
Parinirvana or Death: Stupa
Four Noble Truths:
The world is full of sorrows and desire is root cause of sorrow.
If desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed.
Desire can be removed by following the eight fold path.
Eight Fold Paths:
Right understanding.
Right speech.
Right livelihood.
Right mindfulness.
Right thought.
Right action.

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Right effort.
Right concentration.
Three Ratnas:
I. Buddha
II. Dhamma
III. Sangha
Sacred Shrines:
I. Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath and Kusinagar where the tour principal events of
the Buddhas life namely Birth Enlightment. First Sermon and Mahaparinirvana
took place and these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vishali and
Sankasya.
In ancient India, other centres of Buddhism-Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in
Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar, Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujrat; Sanchi and
Bharhut in MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharastra, Daulagiri in Orissa and Jagadala in
West Bengal.
Buddhist architecture developed essentially in 3 forms viz.
a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha).
b) Chaitya (prayer hall).
c) Vihara (residence).
Types of Buddhism:

Hinayana:
a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
b) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
c) They did not believe in idol-worship.
d) Hinayana like Jainism is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.

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e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.
f) The oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Stharviravada or the Doctrine of elders.
g) Its Sanskrit counterpart is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the doctrine
which maintains the existence of all things physical as well as mental.
h) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched another school called Sauntantrika
which was more critical in outlook.
Mahayana:
a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all
through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
b) Believes in idol worship.
c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss.
d) Mahayana had two chiefly Philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.
e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromosing realism of Hinayanism
and idealism of Yogachara.
f) The Yogachara School founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of
Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.

Vajrayana:
a) It followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical
power which they called Vajra.
b) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.
c) It became popular in Eastern India particularly Bengal and Bihar.
The Important Facts:

i. The Buddha extends the teaching of two elder contemporaries: Lara
Kalama and Udlaka.
ii. According to Buddhism there is no self neither God nor spirit.

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iii. There is very little theological or philosophical speculation involved.
iv. Buddhism is scientific in approach, a search for cause and effect
relationship, Knowledge of reality as each individual human beings
experiences it.
v. It is psychological in approach begins with human beings. If women
were not admitted into the monasteries, Buddhism would have
continued for a thousand years because this admission has been granted,
it would last only five hundred years-Buddha.

Roots of Buddhism in the past:

The Vedanta.
Sankhya Philosophy.
The Upanishads: Ideas about Karma, soul, rebirth, moksha, ahimsa etc.
Contribution of Buddhism:
i. In Later days, the Doctrine of Ahimsa was incorporated with Hinduism so
strongly stressed, preached and sincerely practiced by the Buddhists.
ii. The practice of worshipping personal Gods making their images and erecting
temples in their honor became a part of the later day Hinduism.

Jainism: Life of Mahavira:
He was born in 540BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
His father was Siddharth; Trisala his mother, Yasoda his wife and Jameli was the
daughter of Mahavir.
In eastern India at the age of 42, he attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama.
He died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.
He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira.

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Way to Nirvana (Three Ratnas):
1. Right faith (Samyak Vishwas).
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnan).
3. Right conduct (Samyak Karma).
The principle of Jainism as preached by Mahavira:
Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals.
He did not believe in the existence of God.
He believed in Karma and the transmigration of soul.
He laid great emphasis on equality.
Five main Teachings:
I. Non-injury (Ahimsa).
II. Non-lying (Saryai).
III. Non-stealing (Asatya).
IV. Non-possesion (aparigraha).
V. Observe continenece (Brahmacharya).
(The first four principles are of Parsavanath and the 5
th
Bramacharya was included by
Mahavira).
Sacred Literature: The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in form of Prakrit called
Ardhamagadhi and classified as follows:
a) The twelve Angas.
b) The twelve Upangas.
c) The ten Parikarnas.
d) The six Chhedasutras.
e) The four Mulasutras.
Jaina philosophy:

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Syadvada: All our judgement are necessarily relative, conditional and
limited.According to Syadvada seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are
possible. All judgment is conditional, absolute affirmation and absolute negation
both is wrong.
Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is realistic and realitivistic pluralism and
called Anekantavada or the doctrine of the Manyness of reality. Matter
(Pudagal) and spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.
Spread of Jainism: Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time including
Chandragupta Maurya. In the south, Royal Dynasties such as Gangas, Kadambas,
Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.In Gujarat,Patronage came from wealthy
Merchants. The concrete expression of Jainisms relegious Zeal is seen over all the
country in works of art and architecture. The 57 foot high statue of Gomateshvara at
Sravanabelagola in Mysore erected in 983 or 984 AD is marvel of its kind. The temples of
Mount Abu and those at Palithana in Gujarat and Moodabidri, Karkala in the south
make a rich contribution to the Indian heritage.
Jaina Council: By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Gangas
valley leading to a great exodus of many monks to the Deccan and South India along
with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to Gangetic valley after 12
years. The leader of the group which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu.The
changes that took place in the code conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the
division of the Jaina into Digambaras(sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras(white clad).
i. First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14
Purvas.

ii. Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5
th
century AD under the leadership of
Devaradhi Kahamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12
Upangas.

Rise of Magadha:
The most powerful Mahanjanapada were Magadha between the 6
th
and the 4
th

centuries BCE. Under the leadership of Bimbisara, Magadha came into famous position.
Bimbisara (542-493 BC) was a member of Haryankas dynasty.

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The Mauryan Empire (323 -183 BC): A Very important source of Maurya period is
Arthashastra which was written by Kautilya in classical Sanskrit. Megasthenes written
Indica is an important source.
Foundation of the Mauryan Empire: In 321 BC Chandragupta founded the Mauryan
Empire. The Mauryas came from the region where there was full of peacocks according
to the Buddhist writers. They came to be known as Moriyas.
Chandragupta Maurya (340 BC-298 BC)
He was the founder of Mauryan Empire in India. He was born in 340 BC.
Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nikator in 305 BC, who surrendered a vast
territory.
Megasthenese, a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya
by Seleucus.
Chandragupta became a Jain. He went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu where
he died by slow starvation (Sale/than).
Under Chandragupta Maurya for the 1
st
time the whole of northern India was
united.
Trade flourished, agriculture regulated, weights measures were standardized
and money came into use.
Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the state.

Kautilya and Arthashastra : Arthashastra written by Kautilya. Kautilya more popularly
known as Chanakya. Kautilya was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya. It
was written at the end of the 4
th
century BC. The title Arthashastra means the
science of material grain or science of polity. The ruler should use any means to attain
his goal and his action according to Kautilya. In all of Indian Literature Arthashastra
remains unique. Kautilya helped the Chandragupta Maurya who was a Vaishya.
The treatises lay down various rules that should be formulated for a ruling monarch.

Bindusara(272-232 BC) :

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Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the south as far as
Mysore and patronized Ajivikus.
Bindusara asked Antiochus I of syria to send some sweet wine, dried figs and a
sophist.
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara. Bindusara is known as
Amitraghat means killer of enemies.
After the death of Bindusara a war of succession followed by 4 years.
Asoka killed his 6 brothers. In 272 BC he became king.
Ashoka:
Asoka ruled like a cruel king for the first 4 years. He maintained discipline.
Asoka mother was Subhadra Ngi or Janapada Kalani .
Ashoka fought Kalinga war in 260 BC. He killed many people.
Asoka left his records inscribe on stones.
The birthplace of Buddha visited by him.
Asoka issued an edict called Rummindei Pillar Edict near Lumbini. Un this he
declared a reduction in tax for the people of Lumbini.
Asoka has 4 sons i.e. Mahendra, Tivara, Kunala and Jalauka and had 2 daughter
namely sanghamitta and charumati.
In Asoka line, Brihadratha was last Mauryan King.



Asokas Dhamma:
Asokas Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its objective was to
preserve the social order that people should obey their parents, pay respect to
Brahmanas, Buddhist monks and show mercy to slave and servants.

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He held that if people behaved well, they would attain Nirvana which was goal of
Buddhist Teachings.
Asokas Inscription:
The Inscription of Asokan is found in, Nepal, India, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
In Prakrit Language they were composed.
The Inscription of Asokan divided into 2:-
Rock Edicts and Pillar edicts.
There are 10 pillar edicts and 14 major rock edicts . These rock edicts found on the order
of the empire. In pillar edicts major pillar edicts are 7 and 3 minor pillar edicts .

Ashokas Policy of Dhamma
Dhamma is the set of edicts. It was formed a policy of the Mauryan emperor
Ashoka Maurya.
In Sanskrit the word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of Dharma. Dhamma cannot be
translated as religion because Dhamma was not a religious faith.
The King could have found a means of solving the existing problems in his policy
of Dhamma.


Administration:
The important sources to know about the Mauryan administration are Kautilyas
Arthashastra and Megasthenes Indica.
The King made his decisions only after ask his ministers. Extensively he travelled
to gain a firsthand account.
The tax money was used in building and maintaining roads, wells, rest houses
and the army.
The empire was divided into 4 provinces. Further Province were divided into
districts and districts divided into villages.

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Mauryan period Society-Culture and Architecture
Megasthenes tells us 7 caste of Mauryan Society. Seven caste were:-
Philosopher, farmer, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans , Magistrates and Councillors.
He stated that in India slavery didnt exist.
The Asokan Pillars had a capital on the top with animal figurines. Horses, bull,
elephants and lions were the main animals figurine.


Asoka Religion:
Asoka had his personal faith in Buddhism. In Ashoka Rock edicts he described
himself as a Buddha Sakya. Asoka had faith in the Buddhist Trinity.
His inscription contains the Buddhist doctrines of Arya satya. He was a great
humanitarian.

Disintegration of the empire; Sungas and Kanvas.
Sunga Empire (185 BC-75 BC)
The last Mauryan king was Brihadratha. He was killed by his own commander n-
Chief Pushyamitra Sunga. The First Mauryan King was Pushyamitra.
The sungas were Brahmanas.
Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasas drams, Malavikagnimitram. Pushyamitra was
succeeded by his son Agnimitra.

Kanva Dynasty (72-25 BC)
Kanva ruled in western part of India. The last sungas were killed by Vasudeva. Kanvas
replaced by the Satavahanas.
Foreign Dynasties:
The Indo Greeks

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Menander (165-45 BC) ruled from his capital Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan.
Antialkidas was an Indo-Greek king .
Milindapanha is the book containing question of Menander (milinda) to Nagasena and
answer of nagasena.
Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena
The Indo-Greek rulers are the first ones whose coins take the portrait of kings
and their names.
To issue gold coins they were the first rulers and influenced
Indian Science and astronomy.
Gandhara School of Art was growing under Indo-Greeks.
The Sakas (1
st
BC TO 4
TH
AD):
From 1
st
century B.C to 4
th
century AD Sakas ruled and through Bolan pass Sakas entered
India.
The Sakas were divided in 5 branches in many parts of India.
1st branch settled in Afghanistan,
2
nd
branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as its Capital,
3
rd
branch settled in Mathura,
4
th
branch established its hold over western India where the Sakas continued to rule until
the 4
th
Century AD.
5th branch established its power in upper Deccan.
Kanisha Dynasty succeeded Kadphises II. Kanishka was the greatest king. Saka Era (78AD)
founded by Kanishka . Purushapura was his capital. He established the Peshawar Stupa.


Post - Mauryan Period (20 BC-300 AD):
Kharavela, King of Kalinga(193 BCE-after 170 BCE). He was the 3
rd
and greatest emperor
of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga.
One of the famous territories in India was the ancient country of Kalinga. Hathigumpha
inscription at Udayagiri caves is the chief source of information about emperor Karavela.
Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan according to the inscription.
Kharavela is the Prakrit transformation of Sanskrit. In the middle of the 1
ST
century BC
under the king Kharavela , Kalinga rose to power .
He was a Jaina and refers to irrigation canals built by the Nandas.

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The Satavahanas Dynasty:

o The Satavahana Empire was a royal Indian dynasty.
o It also known as Andhras in Deccan and the Andras were ancient people.
o It was a dynasty who ruled Southern and Central India starting from around 230
BCE.
o The dynasty belongs to Andra Maval a region in western Maharashtra. Junnar
near a Pune was their first capital.
o Simuka was the founder of Satvahanas dynasty.
o The Satavahanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. Soon after
the death of Ashoka, they declared independence soon.
o From the Satavahana kings Buddhists and Brahminical literature found much
encouragement.
o The Satavahana Kings were the earliest Indian monarchs to issue coins with their
images. T
o he Satavahan kings were excellent administrators. Each was administered by a
minister or Amatya.

The Sangham Age:
Sangam Age: Sangam is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word Sangha. The meaning of
Sangha a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an
Academy of poets and bards. The Sangham Literature speaks highly of three
South Indian Kingdoms. South Indian Kingdoms Chola , Pandya and Chera.

Three Early Kingdoms:
The Pandyas(Emblem-Fish):
The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthanese, who said that kingdom was
famous for pearls.

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The Pandyan territory included modern districts of Tirnelvelli; Ramanand and Madurai in
Tamil Nadu it had its capital at Madurai, situated at the banks of Vaigai River.
The Pandya king profited from trade with Roman Empire and sent emissaries to Roman
emperor Augustus and Trojan.
The Pandyas find mention in the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi who ruled from Madurai and
accused Kovalan of theft. As a result, the city of Madurai was laid under a curse by
Kannagi (Kovalans wile).

The Cholas (Emblem-Tiger):
The Chola Kingdom called as Cholamandulum situated to the north-east of Pandya
kingdom between Pennar and Vellar rivers.
The Chola Kingdom corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts .
Uraiyaur, an inland capital was a famous for cotton trade. One of the main sources of
wealth for Cholas was trade in cotton cloth.
Puhar identical with Kaveripattanam was the main port of Cholas and served as
alternative capital.
In the 2
nd
century BC, the earliest know king was Elara who conquered Sri Lanka and
ruled over it for nearly 53 years.
The greatest king was Karikala(man with charred leg) who founded Puhar and
constructed 160km of embankments along die Kaveri River.
The Cholas were wiped out in the attack of Pallavas from north and maintained an
efficient navy.
The Cheras(Emblem-Bow):
The Chera country occupied the portion of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The capital of Cheras was Vanjji, main ports were Muzris and Tondi.
The Romans set up two regiments at Muzris in Chera country.They also built a temple of
Augustus at Muzris.

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Udiyangeral was one of the earliest and better known among Chera. It is said that he led
both armies of Kurukshetra war and earned the title Udiyangeral.
However,the greatest of Chera king was Senguttuvan of Red Chera.It is said that he
invaded north and crossed the Ganga and found the famous Pattini cull to worship of
goddess of chastity-Kannagi.
Sangam Administration: The King was the center of administration and was
called Ko, Mannam, Vendan Korravan or Iraivan.
Officials:
a) Avai - court of crowned monarch
b) Amaichhar -Ministers
c) Purohitar -Purohits
d) Dutar -Envoys
e) Senapatiyar -Senapati
f) Orar -Spies
The kingdom was divided into mandalam, nadu(province),ur(town),sirur(small village),perur(big
village)

Sangam Literature: In Madurai, Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets
held probably under royal patronage of Pandyan Kings. According to tradition,
the assembly lasted for 9990 years and was attended by 8,598 poets and 197
Pandyan kings. The first Sangam was attended by Gods and legendary sages and
its entire works have perished. In the second Sangam, the only surviving work is
Tolkappiyam an early work on Tamil grammar written by Tolkapiyyar. The
narrative texts are called Melkannaku and eighteen majors works consist of
eight anthologies (Btutogai) and ten idylls (Pattupattu). They did acetic works are
called Kilkannaku or eighteen minor works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar.
The Epics:
Silappadikaram(The Jewel Anklet) written by Mango Adigal. It deals with story of
Kovalam and Madhavi of Kaveripattinum.

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Manimekalai written by Sattnar which deals with the adventures of Manimekalai
daughter born of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Gupta Empire (319 AD-550 AD):
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire.
Maharaja Sri Gupta founded the Gupta Empire.
In ancient India, the Gupta Empire was largest political and military empires. It
was ruled by Gupta Dynasty.
The Main Gupta rulers were: Chandragupta, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II,
Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta.
Hinduism had a very strong impact on Gupta society and cultural life. Important
discoveries were made by Gupta scientists and Mathematicians.
After 200 years the Gupta Empire declined because of weak rulers and foreign
invasions.
Chandragupta I (319 AD TO 335AD):
In 320 Ad, he succeeded his father Ghatotkacha.
He is the founder of Gupta Empire.
He was the first Gupta King to adopt the Maharajadhiraja title.

Administration Of Guptas: The Gupta Kings assumed title like Parambhattarka ,
Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin according to
inscription. Supreme head of the state was the King. The King was helped in his
administration by a council of chief minister, a senapati or commanderin chief of
the army. Land revenue was the basis of finance. The King was considered
personification of Vishnu. Main task of king was to defend the country against
foreign invasions. He had the largest share in the formulation of state policy. The
Judges were helped by Seths and Kayasthas and other representatives in the
district headquarters.

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Gupta Empire Literature: Kalidas is known as Shakespeare of India resided in the
court of Chandragupta II. Kalidas wrote many Sanskrit classic like:
Abhijinanashkuntalam
Malvikagnimitram
Kumarasambhava
Raghuvamsa
Meghaduta
Vikramorvasiyam


Regional States during Gupta Era:
Kadambas dynasty: It was ancient dynasty of Karnataka, India. In 345 CE,
Mayurasharman founded the Kadamba dynasty. The Kadambas of Banavasi ruled
large parts of modern Karnataka state. The armies of Pallavas of Kanchi were
defeated by the king Mayurasharman.
Chalukya dynasty: It was an Indian royal dynasty. Between the 6
th
and 12
th

centuries, the dynasty ruled large parts of southern and central India. Pulakesi I
was the founder of chalukya dynasty.

Tamil Bhakti movement: It was a Hindu religious movement of the medieval
period. The Bhakti movement is related to Islamic Sufism and originated in 7
th

century Tamil Nadu. The movement spread northwards through India.

Pala Empire: During the 8
th
to 12
th
century CE the Pala Empire was a Buddhist
imperial power in classical India. After the death of Sasanka in Bengal the Pala
dynasty of India originated. Gopala, who ruled from 750-770 was the founder of
Pala dynasty. Dharmapala was a successor of Gopala ruled from 770-781. He
made the dynasty a dominant power of Northern India. The Pala Dynasty was
followers of Buddhism.

The Senas:- The Senas dynasty established its rule in Bengal after the decline of
the Palas. Samatasena was the founder of the Sena Dynasty. Viyaysena was the

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greatest ruler of the dynasty. He conquered the whole of Bengal. He was
succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He was a great scholar. He wrote 4 books
including one on astronomy.


The Rashtrakutas:- It was a royal dynasty between the 6
th
and the 10
th

centuries ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent. A seventh century copper
plate grant is the earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription. This dynasty was great
guarantor of art and literature.

Arab conquest of Sind: In 712 A.D, the establishments of Arab rule in Sind. In 637, the
1
ST
military expedition was sent to Tahan near Bombay. In the seventh century Islamic
conquests or Arab conquests began with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He
established a new unified polity in the Arabian Peninsula.

Origin and the rise of Rajputs: Rajputs mean son of Kings. It is a regional word of
Rajasthan. There were 3 major types of Rajputs drop in the medieval Indian History:-
The Suryavanshi, the chandravanshi and the Agnikula. In Rajasthan, there were twenty
one small kingdoms. Different Rajputs dynasty ruled their own kingdom.
The Sisodias Rajput had ruled in the state of Mewar(now in Udaipur)
The kachwahas Rajput had ruled in Amber of state (now in Jaipur)
The Rathors Rajput had ruled in state of Marwar (now in Jodhpur and Bikaner)
The Hadas Rajput had ruled in state of Jhalwawar.
The Bhattis Rajput had ruled in state of Jaisalmer.
The Shekhawats Rajput had ruled in the state of Shekawati and the
Chauhans Rajput had ruled in the state of Ajmer.


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The Rathod Rajputs : At the eleventh century in the state of Marwar in Northern India
the Rathod Rajputs were raise in power. Chandradeva was the creator of the Rathod
power. After that Chandra son was succeeded. The most powerful Rajput of this dynasty
was Govindchandra. From the capital Kannauj he ruled his domain. He was determinate
to protect his empire from Muslims attack. A new tax system Turushka Danda
established by him. Jai Chandra Ghadwala played a terrible role in Indian medieval
history.

Prithviraj Chouhan: A great Rajput character of Indian medieval history was Prithviraj
Chouhan. A strong Hindu Kingdom established by him. He was loving, polite and brave
person. Ajmer princess Sanyogita fell in love with Prithiviraj chouhan and they got
married. Princess Sanyogita , was the daughter of JaiChandra Rathod. In the reign of
1189 AD to 1190 AD there was fight between Jaichandra Rathod and Prithiraj chouhan.
Jaichandra Rathod was disagreed of Prithviraj and Sanyogita marriage.

The Rajput period was considered as Dark Age of India. For a period of 500 years the
Royal Rajputs of Rajasthan ruled successfully over Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Rajputs
were an image of feudalism and fought among themselves and weakened their empire.

Cholas Dynasty: It was longest ruling powers in south India. At the second century BC
of Indian ancient history they rose in power of the state of Tamil. In the Sangam
Literature the early Cholas kept their real evidence. Until the thirteenths century they
were able to maintain their control.
2 types of Cholas existed in Dynasty:-
Karikala Cholas
Kocengannan Cholas. From two capital city, they control their Kingdoms.
Two capital cities were: Urayur (now in Thiruchirapalli) and Kaveripattinam. A Chola King was
known as Elara. Cholas was beaten by the Pandyas and Pallavas after the Sangam age (after 300
BC) and captured the Tamil country. Kalabhras an unknown dynasty attacked the country. They
displaced the existing empires and ruled for around 3 centuries.

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The Pallavas and Pandyas regained the century after sixth century. There was a little known of
Cholas during the succeeding 3 centuries until the attainment of Vijayalayain 850 A.D. After the
ninth century , Cholas became most powerful dynasty.

Administration of Cholas Dynasty:-
As the whole of South India was brought Administration of Cholas Dynasty was unique
under a single government.
The Cholas dynasty administration was monarchical. The empire of Cholas consisted of
whole south Indian Peninsula.
It extends from east to west from coast to coast.
The Cholas superiority expands up to banks of Godavari River. The king was a kind-
hearted dictator and also the supreme commander.
His orders a powerful bureaucracy help the king in the tasks of administration. The
Justice of the orders of the king depends on the goodness of the man.
The King enjoyed an absolute power. All handles and levers of the administration were
controlled by King.
In running the administration of central government councils of ministers and officials
took active part.
Peruntaram were called as the higher officials and Siruntaram were called as the lower
officials. The Cholas had a well organized army and navy.
Armies of Cholas were consisted of elephant, cavalry and foot guards.
Village economy and society: In the Cholas kingdom, the people economic life was well
balanced with their social life. Economy under Cholas dynasty was prosperous. Villages were
completely self adequate. Most of the needs of the villagers were satisfied. They grew their
own food and manufactured their own clothes.
Indian Feudalism is the feudal society. Until Independence in 1947, it made up Indias social
structure.
Society: The temples were the main center for social gatherings. The temple was an institution
in itself where students were taught the Holy Scriptures and ancient Vedas. The temples were
built in the form of citadels. Societies were divided into two:-

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Brahmins and
Non-Brahmins.
Trade and commerce: Under the Cholas empire trade and commerce develop. The cholas tried
to encourage trade with China.
The Thirteenth Century:
- Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate: The Delhi Sultanate refers to the Muslims rulers who
ruled India through Delhi. The Delhi Sultanate established in northern India by central Asian
Turkish. The Delhi Sultanate is a noble example for glory of ancient India. The 5 dynasties which
are together termed as the Delhi Sultanate are mentioned below:-
Mamluk Dynasty: 1206 AD to 1290 AD
Khilji Dynasty: 1290 AD to 1320 AD
Tughlaq Dynasty: 1320 AD to 1414 AD
Sayyid Dynasty: 1414 AD to 1451 AD
Lodi Dynasty: 1451 AD to 1526 AD
The Vijayanagra Empire (1336-1646):
The Vijayanagar Empire also called Karnata Empire. It referred to as the Kingdom of
Bisnagar by the Portuguese.
The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336.
Harihar and Bukka was founded the kingdom of Vijayanagar.
These two had served in the administration of both Kakatiya and Kampili. The Empire
based in the Deccan in peninsula.
Lodis Dynasty (1451-1526):
After the Sayyid dynasty the Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451.
It was confirmed by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans.
The last ruling family of Delhi Sultanate of India was Lodi Dynasty.
Three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty:-

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I. Bahlul Khan Lodi
II. Sikander Lodi
III. Ibrahim Lodi.
Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489):
Bahlul Lodi reigned from 1451-89 was the 1
st
Lodi ruler.
He was the most powerful of the Punjab chiefs.
In 1451, he replaced the last king of the Sayyid dynasty.
He was a powerful leader.
He was the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern UP.
He appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the viceroy of Jaunpur during his reign in
1486.
Sikandar Lodi:
His second son succeeded him as the king after the death of Bahlul Khan.
He was a loyal ruler.
The title of Sultan Sikander Shah was given to the Sikander Lodi.
He made all efforts to expand his territories.
His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar.
He signed a treaty with Alauddin Hussain Shah , the ruler of Bengal.
He founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was a kind and
generous ruler.
Ibrahim Lodhi:-
He was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death.
His younger brother was Jalal Khan.
Jalal Khan was given a small share of Kingdom due to the demands of the nobles.

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He was the ruler of Jaunpur. I
brahim men executed him soon.
The Kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. He was severe ruler.
The governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of babur, Kabul to invade his
kingdom because to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim.
In a battle with Babur Ibrahim Lodi was killed. Babur was the founder of the Mughal
dynasty in India. The Lodhi dynasty came to an end.

Mughal Empire (1526-1858): Muslims rulers established the Mughal Dynasty. Chagatai
Turkic prince named Babur was founded the Mughal Dunasty. He defeated the Ibrahim Lodi the
last at the battle of Panipat. Islam was the religion of the Mughals.
The Great Mughal Empire was:-
Babur (1526-1530) the first of the Mughals
Humayun (1530-1556) the Luckless leader
Akbar (1556-1605) the Great
Jahangir (1605-1627) the Paragon of stability
Shah Jahan (1627-1658) the Master Builder
Aurangzeb (1658-1707) the Intolerant
First phase: Babur and Humayun
Babur (1483-1530):
On 14 February, 1483 Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was born in Farghana.
His father name Umar Shaikh Mirza was the ruler in Farghana.
He was the greatest grandson of Mongol conqueror Timur Lenk invaded India in
1398.Babur was a military adventurer.
He was a poet, soldier, diarist of Genius and a statesman.
He came from the Barlas tribe of Mongol Origin.

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The empire he founded was Turkish in character. Family of Babur becomes members of
the Chatagatai.
Babur was descended from 2 central Asian warriors: Timur, the Turkish hero and
Changiz Khan the leader of the Mongols.
On the side of His father, he was the 5
th
descendent of Timur and through his mother
Kutulugnigar Khanum he was the 14
th
descendant of Changiz Khan.
He was commonly known as Mughal and his family belonged to Chaghtai section of the
Turkish race.
In 1526 AD Babur entered India with his well trained expert army of 12,000 to meet the
sultans age.
At the battle of Panipat, he defeated the sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Babar had beaten a Rajput
Kingdom in 1527 AD by Rana Sangha.
He was driven from Samarkand by the Uzbeks. He established his rule in Kabul in 1504.
He defeated the Lodi Sultan for the battle of panipat.
At the age of 48, Babar died on December 30, 1530. Babur attacked

Humayun(1530-56):
Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun(reign 1530 AD to 56 AD).
He faced many difficulties.
He was attacked by the Afghan and Rajput ruler.
The second Mughal emperor was Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun. He spent 10 years
as a guest at the court of Safavid.
He gained foothold in Kabul in 1545 AD.
He was beaten the strongest Afghan emperor Sher Khan Sur and captured the control of
Delhi in 1555.
Babur son Humayun inherited a difficult task when Babur died. Babur nominated his son
Humayun as his successors.

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In 1556 Humayun died and left his thirteen years old son Jalal-ud-din Akbar popularly
known as Akbar.
From 1530-1540 he rued Pakistan Afghanistan and the parts of Northern India. He lost
his kingdom.
Sher Shahs administration: Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in North India.
He also known as the Lion King or Sher Khan. He was greatest administrators of medieval
Indian. His administrative divisions and sub divisions were taking from the past. He has huge
empire for administration. Sher shahs divided the whole kingdom in forty seven divisions and
called them Sarkars. There were forty two Sarkars and were divided into Parganas .
Every Pargana was under a shikqdar. Shikqdar looked into the law and order of his Pargana. At
Pargana Level: To collect the revenue Munsifs were appointed and Amir was to hear the civil
cases. Sher Shah introduced the first Rupee (Silver coin) and was called Rupia. He established a
strong administrative system. He introduced reform system of currency.
After the model of the Sultanate period Sher Shah had 4 ministers:-
Diwan-i-Wazarat,
Diwan-i-Ariz,
Diwan-i-Risalat, and
Diwan-i-Insha.



Bhakti and Sufi Movements:
The Bhakti movement was based on the doctrine that the relationship between god and
Man through love and worship.
Main features of Bhakti Movement:-
Discarded ritual and sacrifices.
Focus attention on purity of heart and mind, humanism and devotion.
God has form Saguna or be formless Nirguna.
Bhakti saints: Ramanuja, Ramananda, Kabir, Vidyapati and Mirabai.

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Sufi Movements: In Islam Sufism is the mystical movement. The Sufi doctrine was based on
union with God. It can be achieved through love of God, prayers, fasts and rituals.
Features of Sufi Movements: Organised in different Silsilas and absorbed variety of ideas and
practices from Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. Sufis aimed at service of mankind.

Akbar the Great (1556-1605):
Akbar also known as Akbar the great. Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Jalaluddin
Muhammad Akbar.
After Babur and Humayun he was the 3
rd
Emperor of the Mughal Empire. He was the son
of Nasiruddin Humayun.
Akbar was born on October 15, 1542 in Umerkot Pakistan.
He was one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal Dynasty in India of Muslim religions.
In the field of art he made a great contribution. Akbars court had Nav. He succeeded his
father Humayun.
At the second battle of panipat in 1556 AD he obtained the success. In 1571 AD, he
established his capital Fatehpur Sikri near Agra.
He was a flower aratnas (nine Jewels). Meaning of nine Jewels is a group of nine
extraordinary people.

i. Abul Fazel (Akbars's chief advisor and author of Akbarnama)
ii. Faizi (Akbar's poet laureate)
iii. Mian Tansen (a Hindu singer who converted to Islam)
iv. Birbal (a noble known for his wittiness)
v. Raja Todar Mal (Akbar's finance minister)
vi. Raja Man Singh (trusted general of Akbar)
vii. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana (a noble and a renowned poet)
viii. Fakir Aziao-Din
ix. Mullah Do Piaza
After the death of his father, Humayun he came to throne in 1556. In his administrative
system he appoints Hindus. Din-i-Ilahi(Divine faith ) a new religion established by him.
He encouraged widow marriage and he took part in Hindu festivals Diwali.
He was a great patron of architecture, art and literature. Many of Akbars building still
survive including the Red Fort at Agra and the city of Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. He had 3
sons Prince Salim, Murad and Daniyal. He take great interest in paintings.
Conquest of Akbar: It was largely successful. The empire of Akbar extended from Kabul in the
west to the Bengal in the east and from Kashmir in the north to the Vindhyas in the south. All
through his life Akbar busy himself in war of conquest. The first task was consolidations and

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was an ambitious ruler. He invaded Malwa in 1560. In 1561, Malwa was Akbars first major
conquest.
Establishment of Jagir and Mansab systems:
Mansabdari System: It was a unique system conceived by the Mughals in India. It was
introduced by Akbar ans Mansab means a place or position. The Mansabdari system was
introduced. The system of Mansabdari was the basis of civil and military administrations under
the empire of Mughals. Ranks were expressed in numerical terms under the mansab system. It
was grading system used by the Mughals to fix Rank, Salary, and Military responsibilities.
Mansabdars had certain military responsibilities. They had to maintain certain number of sawars.
The salary and the rank determined by a numerical value called Zat. Mansabdari had 3 scale
gradations:
Mansabdar (500 zat and below), Amir (between 500-2500zat) and Amir-i-Umda (2500 zat and
above). On a Month Scale System the salary of the Mansabdar was fixed .
Jagir System: During Mughal Empire Jagir system was considered as an institution. It was used
to reserve the surplus from the class of peasants and to distribute the income resources. It was an
integral part of mansabdari system. Through an assignment of jagirs all the Mughal mansabdars
were paid.
Rajput policy of Akbar: The Rajput policy was a planned policy towards the Rajput. It was based
on the principles of educated self interest, identification of merit, justice and fair play. The
important political elements in India were the Rajput community. He is famous for his Rajput
policy.

Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century
Major administrative policies of Jahangir: Nur-ud-din Mohammad Salim known by
his imperial name Jahangir (1569-1627). He was the 4
th
Mughal Emperor. He was the
eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar. The Jahangir administration was a justly
successful and was help by his wife Nur Jahan in administrative affairs. He was a kind
ruler. He issued a proclamation of policy:
o He instructed the building of sarais, mosques and wells.
o He banned the opening of merchants bales without their permission.
o The Government officers were ordered not to take ownership of anyones house.
o He banned the impose of certain cesses.
o He stopped certain punishment (such as cutting of ears, nose etc.)
o Without royal permission no government collector was to inter marry with people of his
Parganas.
o For the treatment of poor people government hospitals were to be set in big cities.

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Shahjahan(1627-1658): He was 5
th
Mughal emperor of India and ruled from 1628 until
1658. He was the son of Emperor Jahangir. He succeeded the throne after revolting
against his father Jahangir. He constructed many beautiful monuments. One of the Seven
Wonders of the World Taj Mahal was constructed by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. In
the memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal he decided to build worlds most
beautiful Monument Taj Mahal

Shah Jahan constructed following monuments during his rule:
o Red Fort (Delhi).
o Agra Fort (Party)
o Jama Masjid (Delhi)
o Moti Masjid(Lahore)
o Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)
o Sections of the Lahore fort (Lahore)
o Jahangir Mausoleum
o Takht-e-Taus
o ShahJahan Mosque (Thatta)
He was great warriors and took active part in wars. Even in his old age he takes part in military
campaigns. He reduced the pay of Mansabdar system. He acted as chief justice in his empire. He
was a great patron of education and literature. He built colleges, schools, mosques for the good
of the people.
Aurangzeb Policy: He was a great successful ruler, educated, and religious minded person. He
was a man of firm determination. He was not successful conqueror.
Religious policies of Jahangir:

He had faith in God and believed in unity of God.
In a normal way he observed the principles of Islam.
He was not a religious man.
He came in contact with people of all faiths.
He did not praise Islam strictly.
Jahangir punished the Hindus in the state of Kashmir. He punished the Hindus because
they used to marry Muslim girls and them to Hinduism.

Religious policies of Shah Jahan:


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He favored Islam and was a Sunni Muslim
He stopped the practice of Hindus keeping Muslims slaves.
During Shah Jahan reign he were broken all temples in Varanasi, Allahabad, Gujarat and
Kashmir.
The war captives were converted to Islam during his reign.
The people who not respect the holy Quran were punished to death.
Before Hindus were marriage to Muslims they were forced to accept Islam.

Religious policies of Aurangzeb:
It was based on the Islamic Theory of Kinship.
He was a strict follower of the Sunni sect.
Besides Islam, he was non tolerant towards other religious beliefs.
He stopped celebrating the Hindu festivals like Holi, Diwali etc. at the court.
During the reign of Aurangzeb the temple of Vishwanath at Varanasi and
Somnatha at Patna were destroyed.

The Ahom Kingdom (1228-1826):
It was a Kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam, India.
Nearly for 600 it maintained its sovereignity and in 1228, the Ahom kingdom was
established.
It was based on the Paik system and the Ahom introduced wet rice cultivation in
upper Assam.
The founder of the Ahom Kingdom was Chaolung Sukaphaa the first Ahom king
in medieval Assam.
The Ahom kingdom was called Kingdom of Assam. Suklenmung were introduced
the first coins in the sixteenth century. Swargadeo , a king was ruled the Ahom
Kingdom.

Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom:
Shivaji Bhonsle:
He was a Maratha and an Indian warrior king.
He was also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle.
He was born in 19 February 1630.
The Maratha Empire was founded by Shivaji in western India in 1664. In India,
he is considered a great hero.

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He made an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital.
He established a capable and progressive civil rule.
He was the son of Shahaji and Jijabai Bhonsale.
He was the first Hindu to establish a Hindu empire. The great shivaji died in
1680.


The Maratha Empire existed from 1674 to 1818 and also known as Maratha
Confederacy. After the death of Aurangzeb the empire develops under the rule of
Peshawas (prime minister of empire).The third battle of panipat was lost by the Maratha
in 1761. Shivaji had 2 sons i.e. Sambhaji and Rajaram.

List of Maratha empire rulers and Generals were:-
Jijabai (1598-1674): Mother and Guru of Shivaji Maharaj.
Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680) founder of the Maratha Empire.
Venkoji was the founder of Thanjavur Kingdom, half brother of Shivaji Maharaj.
Chatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj(1657-1689) was the son of Shivaji Maharaj; second
emperor of Maratha Empire.
Chatrapati Rajaram Maharaj (1670-1700) was the second son of Shivaji Maharaj;
Third emperor of Maratha Empire.
Queen Tarabai(1675-1761)
Chatrapati Shahu(1682-1749); 4
th
emperor of the Maratha Empire.
Rajaram II, 5
th
Monarchs of the Maratha Empire.
Raja shahu II (1763-1808) Chatrapati of the Maratha Empire.
Indian Architecture of 16
th
and 17
th
centuries:
The 3 major architectural monuments to the Moghuls of this period are the Red Fort built
between 1565-1574, Taj Mahal at Agra built from 1628 and completed in 1658 and the Fatehpur
Sikri built between 1569 and 1574.

Culture in the Mughal Empire:
Persian histories and other literature: In India the period of Mughal was a growth of
Literature. The second largest nobility of the Mughal Empire of South Asia were the Persians.
The period Mughal Dynasty observed the development of Persian Literature. During Mughal
period the Persian Literature increases. India became a centre of Persian literature. Persian
Literature classified into 2 heads:-

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Original compositions
Translations
The talented personality of literature was Shaikh Abu-al-Fazal-ibn Mubarak. He was also known
as Abu-Fazl. His letters known as Insha-i-Abul Fazl. Translation into Persian of 1
st
rate works
of Sanskrit, Arabic, Turki and Greek was the most important achievement of the Mughal age.
The memoirs of Babur were translated into Persian by Mirza Abdul Rahim Khan Khana. Abu
Fazl translated into Persian many marvelous Sanskrit works such as the Kishan Joshi, the Ganga
Dhar, the Mahesh, the Mahanand and others. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Atharva Veda,
Lilawati, Rajatarangini was translated to Persian. He translated the Panch Tantra and Faizi the
story of Nal-Damayanti into Persian. During Mughal period, Persian and Vernacular literatures
developed and in the Deccan Urdu developed more than in Hindustan. Hindi owed its greatest
development to a number of saints and poets.
Architecture in Mughal Period: Indian Architecture was greatly influenced by Persian
styles. An excellent mausoleum, mosques, forts, gardens and cities were constructed by
the Mughals.
Characteristics features of Mughal architecture:-
The Bulbous domes, large halls, the slender minarets with cupolas at 4 corners, massive
vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation.
The mausoleums are octagonal and have verandahs around them cover by huge domes.
The verandahs have three smaller domes on each side.
Purana Qila was built by the Shah Jahan and Humayun completed it. It was built of red
and buff sand stone.
It is ornamented with black and white marble and colored titles. Example of the
development of architecture and ornamentation during Sher Shahs reign:-
A beautiful mosque inside the Quila with ornamental arches, decorative panels,
geometrical designs and inscription.
In 1549, Sher Shahs tomb at Sasaram in Bihar built. It is in the centre of a large square
tank. It rises at 46m high. It is 2 storey constructions on a terraced platform. The Upper
terrace has pillared domes. The base of the large central dome has 32 sides and tomb is
decorated with coloured titles.
Akbar constructs many forts, palaces, mausoleums, towers and gateways.
Humayun Tomb: In 1565 A.D. Tomb was built by Humayun widow Haji Begum. The
mausoleum stands in the centre of a square enclosed garden. The garden is sub-divided
into squares, typical of Mughal Gardens. The lofty doubled storeyed structure is built on
a huge high platform terrace. The central chamber is contains the tomb. It is octagonal in
shape. It is planned by a Persian architect and built by Indian workers. It is a mixture of
both Persian and Indian styles of architecture.
Agra Fort: Akbar constructed a greater part of the fort at Agra. The Agra fort was started
in 1565 and completed it in 1574 AD. The Agra Fort was located on the bank if the river
Jamuna. It is an enormous and impressive structure.

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Feature of Agra Fort: - It is the 2.5 kilometers long and 21 m high winding wall of solid
red sand stone. The stones are connecting with iron rings so close. The entry to the fort is
by two gateways. Delhi Gate main entrance was the ceremonial entrance to the fort. Hathi
Pol or Elephant Gate is the other smaller gateway. These two elephants on either side of
the gate and the gateway are decorated with colored titles. The Fort contained many
buildings of red sand stone.
The important buildings inside the fort are: - Jahangir Mahal construct for Jahangir and
his family. It is a magnificent structure. It has a courtyard surrounded by double
storeyed rooms and hall.
Fatehpur Sikri: The construction of Fatehpur Sikri near Agra was the greatest
achievements of Akbar architectural. The religious building mentioning are the Jama
Masjid and Salim Chistis Tomb built in 1571 A.D. The Tomb built in the corner of the
Mosque compound. It is a marble chamber with Verandah.
Buland Darwaza, Akbars Tomb Sikander, Itamad-Ud-Daulas Tomb, Jama Masjid
Delhi, Red Fort, Taj Mahal, Bibi ka Maqbara, Sikh Temples

Mughal paintings:

Mughal Paintings are most famous in the world.

The paintings of Mughal were mostly developed in the court of Mughal Empire in the
16
th
and 17
th
century.

Indian and Persians ideas are developed the art of paintings. These are mostly classified
into 2 types: - Murals and Miniatures.

The art of paintings were loved by the Mughals.

The most famous painter was Aga Raja, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad,
Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan in Jahangir reign.
Mughals Classical music: The Mughals were respect music and Babur is said to have composed
songs. Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa were famous musicians in Akbar court.

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Janardhan Bhatta and Jagannath were two great Hindu musicians of Akbar time. Akbar the great
was devoted to music.
Science and technology:
Fathullah Shirazi (1582) originated the autocann(the earliest multi-shot gun).
He was a Persian- Indian polymath and mechanical Engineer.
He also worked for Akbar the great in the Mughal Empire.
In metallurgy, the seamless globe and celestial globe observe one of the most amazing
achievements.
These two globes were created by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in Kashmir (998AH (1589-
90 CE)) during Mughal empire. Akbar was the first to utilize metal cylinder rockets.

Reasons for the Decline of Mughal Empire:-
Religious policy of Aurangzeb was the most important cause of the decline of
Mughal Empire.
He urged Jajiya on all Hindus in the country.
He abandoned the Hindu officials from state service
Aurangzeb inappropriate the policies weakened the strength of the Mughal Polity.
Aurangzeb failed to make good association to defense his empire. He went on
making more enemies.
Aurangzeb was responsible for the decline of the empire.
The successors of Aurangzeb were weak. Law of succession did not follow by the
Mughals.
Due to constant wars the stability of economic of the empire was destroy.
New powers (the Sikhs, Jats and Marathas broke off from the Mughal domination.
They created their own independent states. The Europeans or the British put an
end to the Mughal Empire.
Battle of Panipat: 1761:
On January 14, 1761 the 3
rd
battle of Panipat took place at Panipat between Maratha
Empire and coalition of the king of Aghanistan, Ahmad shah Abdali with 3 Muslim
allies.
In the eighteenth century battle of panipat 1761 is one of the largest battles fought.
The battles of Panipat were between the Marathas and forces of the Afghan ruler Ahmad
Shah Abdali and his allies.
It was most significant battles.



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