1 Running Head: CRITIQUE AND REVIEW OF GENDERED CAPITAL

EDPS 650 Article Review and Response to

Gendered Capital: Childhood Socialization and
the Boy Crisis in Education
Jacqueline Munroe
University of Calgary






2 Running Head: CRITIQUE AND REVIEW OF GENDERED CAPITAL

Purpose of the Study: Explanatory
Orr (2011) conducted explanatory research to identify implications of gender
socialization at the kindergarten level in an attempt to explain the academic outperformance of
girls compared to boys. Orr explored the influence on gender typed activity, predicting that more
time spent in female activity would correlate with positive social behaviour and school attitudes,
whereas more time spent in male activity would depict an opposite effect. Parenting is the
childhood agent of socialization applicable in this study, where gender typed activities are
reinforced and encouraged and may actually influence educational outcomes.
Sample
Pre-established data was used from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-
Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) class of 1998/99 (NCES, 2006). Parent rating scales, teacher
rating scales, standardized assessment, cognitive tests, and teacher grades/assessments, made the
data appropriate for use in the context of this study. An adequate sample size (6, 394
kindergarten children) of the original data of 21, 000 was represented and excluded children who
had missing data or had changed schools. Excluding children who had changed schools could
potentially create a difference in those who were included in Orrs study versus those who were
not. While some findings are mixed, children with higher rates of mobility have also shown
decreased academic performance (Eckenrode & Rowe, 1995). However, Orr (2011) noted that
no significant difference was shown from the original sample, regarding key characteristics.
Special populations are clearly defined in the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES,
2006), yet, are unmentioned in Orrs participant description. Location of data collection was also
unmentioned in Orrs study. However, further research of the NCES, revealed representative
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regions, community, and school types (2006). Orr (2011) did not state the overall ethnicity of the
sample; rather mention was given to identify 15% of participants (as African American). The
remaining 85% were unspecified (when looking up the NCES study, the sample was
predominantly Caucasian, 2006). Other ethnicities represented in the original NCES sample
(2006) included Asian, Native American, or Unknown. A more accurate representation of
participants in the sample could have been provided. Although not necessarily depicted in Orrs
participant description, the ECLS- K data is a representative sample of children attending
kindergarten during the 1998/99 school year (NCES, 2006). This would suggest that NCES (and
Orrs) findings should be generalized to other populations.
Theoretical Framework of Gender Socialization
According to Mickelsons (1989) sex-role socialization, female socialization suggests
girls follow commands and accept rules from teachers and that girls do well in school because
they are socialized to be good (Mickelson, 1989, p. 57; as cited in Orr, 2011). In male
socialization, opposing authority is more encouraged (2011). Dumais (2002, as cited in 2011)
describes the term habitus as dispositions that influence courses of action (p.46) and childrens
participation in gender stereotyped activities may produce very different habitus (Entwisle et al.,
1997; as cited in 2011). In boys, sports, interactive games, and explorative play are likely to
establish a social identity of being competitive, assertive, and independent. Alternately, female
activities encourage nurturing, building relationships, and learning rules or roles, within less
physical and more highly structured activities (Martin & Dinella 2002; as cited in 2011). In terms
of social structure, girls are more likely to establish an identity based on increased dependence,
passivity, cooperation, social activities. Orr (2011) proposes that gender socialization (and the
habitus of girls) may assist in an understanding of the academic outperformance of girls in
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kindergarten classes. The theoretical framework, appropriate to the research question, is built
upon by Orr (2011) who attempts to determine the variables responsible for this outperformance.
Review of Previous Studies on Gender and Socialization
While, it seems that overlap does occur regarding activities reinforced for both boys and
girls, it is also found that children are encouraged towards gender specific activities (Orr, 2011).
Boys are encouraged towards physical play (Ruble et al., 2006; as cited in 2011) while girls are
encouraged towards play with toys related to motherhood (Dunn & Hughes, 2001; as cited in
2011). Girls are also encouraged to help with chores, have stories read to them, or participate in
cultural activities (dance lessons, music lessons, or arts) (Dumais 2002; as cited in 2011). While
a fairly comprehensive review of relevant previous studies was conducted, Orr (2011) could have
expanded upon relevant background research in terms of gender and education, in order to
enhance the utility of the study to those unfamiliar with gender and educational outcomes. For
example, Buchmann, DiPrete and McDaniel (2008) noted that 66% of children who repeat
kindergarten are boys. Since elementary school achievement is associated with the level of
education eventually reached (Buchmann, DiPrete, McDaniel, 2008), boys are lagging behind in
higher educational enrollment (U.S Census Bureau, 2009; as cited in Orr, 2011).
Hypotheses
Seven hypotheses were presented by Orr (2011) pertaining to a) engagement in gender
typed activities, b) female activities and increased grades, c) positive social behaviour from girls
in comparison to boys, d) positive social behaviour and an increase in grades, e) school attitudes
by gender, f) positive attitudes and positive grades, g) and lastly, the interaction between
importance placed on positive social behaviour and increase in grades. The above mentioned
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hypotheses are sufficiently warranted based upon previous research. Similarly, the hypotheses
are relevant to the theoretical framework provided by the understanding of the habitus, formed in
girls and boys.
Variables
Composite variables in the analysis included: Female Activities, Male Activities,
Positive School Attitudes, Negative School Attitudes, Positive Social Behaviour, and Evaluate
Social Factors (Orr, 2011, p. ). Information for the first 4 variables was derived from a parent
rating scale of either 0 (less than 3 times per week), or 1 (more than 3 times per week) (2011).
For example, prevalence of parent/child engagement in female activities such as art projects,
chores, singing, or reading was assessed and Cronbachs alpha value for this composite was .4.
Prevalence of male activities were rated by parents and included how often parent/child
engagement in sports, games, nature or science activities, or building tasks occurred and
Cronbachs alpha was .51. Standardized testing was used to develop a mathematics score
(reliability coefficient of .92). Orr (2011) explains that since the scales are multidimensional
(various factors make up a scale and may not be correlated to one another) Cronbachs alpha
levels may be low.
Results
Significant gender differences were found on the following variables of interest by
employing a one way multivariate analysis (MANOVA) (2011). A MANOVA was an
appropriate statistical tool in this study, as it is meant to be used when multivariate effects are of
interest (Keselmen et al., 1998). Teacher reported mathematics grades of girls were higher than
boys; however, no significant difference on the standardized math tests was observed between
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genders (2011). Girls were significantly more likely to participate in girl activities and exhibit
positive attitudes towards school and likewise for boys and boy activities and exhibit more
negative attitudes towards school (2011). When adding male/female activities to determine any
effect upon on grades, it was found that participation in female activities had positive effects on
grades, while participation in male activities had no effect, yet due to the significance of the
gender coefficient, participation in gender activities could not entirely explain the gap in
achievement. Findings also revealed that children, who showed positive attitudes or behaviour,
received higher grades. When attitude/behaviour variables are included in the analysis, gender
differences in grades no longer exist. Orr proposes the effect of participation in female activities
on grades may work indirectly though these variables (2011, p. 279). Lastly, a students ability
to follow directions, show effort, progress, and demonstrates cooperative skills may exert
influence on how children are graded. Teachers rated these factors to be either very or extremely
important. When adding these variables, variance in grades is more wholly accounted for and the
effect of all other variables decreases significantly.
Discussion
Socialization of girls (and their resulting habitus) may act to instill behaviours that are
better suited to an academic environment and could help to explain for the positive attitudes girls
have regarding the school experience. Socialization of girls may make them better prepared
when they reach the kindergarten classroom to demonstrate positive social behaviours, skills of
listening, ability to attend to structure, and direction from teachers, which could lead to increased
school engagement. Socialization of boys on the other hand, may lead them to act out, make
them less likely to take instructions from teachers, and engage in behaviours which are
unfavourable to learning and receiving high grades. In conclusion, are teachers also partially
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responsible for the discrepancy seen in grades by gender, due to the importance placed on
positive social skills, and other factors unrelated to academics? Orr (2011) sufficiently,
represents the findings in the discussion and expanded those findings to social learning theory for
possible future directions. These may include an exploration of rewarding positive attitudes and
behaviours with increased grades, and punishing negative behaviour and attitudes with decreased
grades.


















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Works Cited
Buchmann, C., DiPrete, T. A., & McDaniel, A. (2008). Gender inequalities in education. Annu.
Rev. Sociol, 34, 319-337.
Eckenrode, J., Rowe, E., Laird, M., & Brathwaite, J. (1995). Mobility as a mediator of the effects
of child maltreatment on academic performance. Child development, 66(4), 1130-1142.
Files, E. K. F. G. D., & Codebooks, E. (2006). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,
Kindergarten Class of 1998/99.
Keselman, H. J., Huberty, C. J., Lix, L. M., Olejnik, S., Cribbie, R. A., Donahue, B., ... & Levin,
J. R. (1998). Statistical practices of educational researchers: An analysis of their ANOVA,
MANOVA, and ANCOVA analyses.Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 350-386
Orr, A. J. (2011). Gendered capital: Childhood socialization and the boy crisis in
education. Sex roles, 65(3-4), 271-284.
Tourangeau, K., L, T., & Nord, C. (2005). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten
Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K). Fifth-Grade Methodology Report. NCES 2006-037. National
Center for Education Statistics.










9 Running Head: CRITIQUE AND REVIEW OF GENDERED CAPITAL