Final Year Project Report.

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Building Engineering

Final Year Project Report
Upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe
(Gogonya) Road to a Bituminous
Paved Surface
Projects coordinator: Eng Dr Isaac Mutenyo
Supervisor: Mr. Francis Eugene Okello
Student: Norman John Byamukama
RegNo: 06/U /190/ECD/GV
Project Report submitted as a partial fulfilment for the award of a bachelor of Engineering
in Civil and Building of Kyambogo University.
June 2010
Final Year Individual project, Upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe road to a bituminous paved surface.
Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda2009/10 i
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Authentication
.
This report is dedicated to my dear
Parents Mr & Mrs Kezire.
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Authentication
Authentication
Declaration
I declare that all the work contained in this report is a true reflection of what transpired
during the project process and has not been presented to any institution for the award of a
Bachelors degree.
Signature Date.
Norman John Byamukama
Approval
This is to certify that Norman John Byamukama (RegNo. 06/U/190/ECD/GV) carried out this
project titled Upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe (Gogonya) road to a bituminous paved surface
under my supervision.
Signature..................................... Date.
Mr. Francis Eugene Okello
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Abstract
Abstract
This report consists of a detailed proposed design for upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe
(Gogonya) road to a bituminous paved surface which stretches a distance of 1.135km. The
main objective was to a design flexible pavement with respect to the route, geometry,
drainage and pavement. This was done by assessing the current traffic using the road,
existing geometry, pavement structure and designing an appropriate drainage system. The
project road was characterised by a broken back curve, reverse curve and sharp curves,
which brought about so many delays. Lab and field tests, surveys, consultations, and
observations were some of the methods that were used to collect data.
From the results obtained, the Average Daily Traffic was 1116Vehicles/day, Motorcycles
taking up the greatest percentage of traffic (43%), the subgrade at section 0+500 was found
unsuitable having a CBR of 10%, and most of the curves were substandard having a radius
of less than 100m. A trapezoidal channel section, culverts were designed to cater for
drainage. A double surface dressing has been proposed with chippings being sprayed at
13.367kg/m
2
and 9.548kg/m
2
for the first and second layer and binder being sprayed at
1.229kg/m
2
and 0.949kg/m
2
for first and second layer.
The ADT showed that the road was due for upgrading considering the Ministry of Works
and transports criterion for upgrading a road in an urban setting with more than
300Vehicles/day.A realignment has been proposed with curves having a minimum radius of
100m, continuous maintainace of the drains is necessary so as to prevent silting. Quality
control should be ensured for materials in accordance with the specifications as stipulated.
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Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
My sincere thanks go to all those that have enabled me reach to a successful completion of
my Bachelors degree especially My Supervisor Mr Francis Eugene Okello who has guided
me professionally and been a great inspiration. Resource persons Mr Mubangizi Jude and
Mr Busuulwa Patrick for their technical advice, my parents and family members for their
moral and financial support, lastly all my friends and coursemates.
May the Almighty God richly bless you.
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Table of contents
Table of contents
Authentication......................................................................................................................ii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgement ..............................................................................................................iv
List of tables .....................................................................................................................viii
List of figures......................................................................................................................ix
Acronyms and abbreviations ................................................................................................x
List of symbols ...................................................................................................................xi
Chapter one...................................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.............................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem statement ...................................................................................................2
1.3 Main Objective........................................................................................................2
1.4 Specific Objectives..................................................................................................3
1.4.1 Geometric Design....................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Drainage..................................................................................................................3
1.4.3 Pavement Design.....................................................................................................3
1.4.4 Environmental, Impact Assessment .........................................................................3
1.5 Project Scope...........................................................................................................4
1.6 Outline Methodology...............................................................................................4
1.6.1 Data Collection and Classification...........................................................................4
1.6.2 Modeling and Analysis............................................................................................4
1.6.3 Design and Simulation.............................................................................................4
1.6.4 Storage and Retrieval ..............................................................................................5
1.6.5 Publication and Dissemination.................................................................................5
1.7 Justification.............................................................................................................5
1.8 Significance.............................................................................................................5
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Table of contents
Chapter Two................................................................................................................6
2.0 Literature review.....................................................................................................6
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Project Description..................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Project Location ......................................................................................................6
2.1.3 Demography............................................................................................................6
2.1.4 Land use..................................................................................................................6
2.1.5 Climate....................................................................................................................7
2.2 Route Selection Process...........................................................................................7
2.3 Geometric Design....................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Geometric design standards .....................................................................................8
2.3.2 Design criteria and control.......................................................................................8
2.4 Pavement Design................................................................................................... 29
2.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 29
2.5 Drainage design..................................................................................................... 47
2.5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 47
2.5.2 Types of drainage.................................................................................................. 47
Chapter Three...................................................................................................... 55
3.0 Methodology......................................................................................................... 55
3.1 General.................................................................................................................. 55
3.1.1 Data collection and classification........................................................................... 55
3.1.2 Modeling and analysis ........................................................................................... 57
3.1.3 Simulation and design ........................................................................................... 57
3.1.4 Publication and dissemination ............................................................................... 58
Chapter Four ........................................................................................................ 59
4.0 Results and discussion........................................................................................... 59
4.1 Traffic ................................................................................................................... 59
4.1.1 Horizontal alignment Data..................................................................................... 60
4.1.2 Vertial alignment Data........................................................................................... 61
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4.2 Drainage Design.................................................................................................... 62
4.3 Pav ement Design.................................................................................................. 63
Chapter Five.......................................................................................................... 66
5.0 Reflections ............................................................................................................ 66
Chapter Six..................................................................................................................67
6.0 Conclusions and Reccomendations ........................................................................ 67
Bibliography...................................................................................................................... 69
Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 70
Appendix A, Analysis and Design...................................................................................... 71
Appendix B:Tables ............................................................................................................ 83
Appendix C: Geometric Design tables................................................................................ 85
Appendix D:Pavement design ............................................................................................ 95
Appendix E: Drainage Design............................................................................................ 96
Appendix E: Financial Documentation.................................................................................100
Appendix E: Appraisals.........................................................................................................107
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List of tables
List of tables
Table1.1: Highway Length Statistics ................................................................................... 83
Table1.2: On going Projects....................................................................................................84
Table 2.1: Division into road category................................................................................. 85
Table 2.2: Division into road class....................................................................................... 85
Table 2.3: Design Vehicle Characteristics ........................................................................... 85
Table 2.4: Terrain Classification.......................................................................................... 85
Table 2.5: Design parameters............................................................................................... 86
Table 2.6: 30
th
HV as a fraction of ADT.............................................................................. 10
Table 2.7: Conversion into PCUs......................................................................................... 11
Table 2.8: Vehicle category description............................................................................... 11
Table 2.9: Minimum radius as recommended by MoW&T..21
Table 2.10: Maximum grades................................................................................................24
Table 2.11: Pavement deign life selection............................................................................ 36
Table 2.12: surface category................................................................................................ 38
Table 2.13: Traffic Categories ............................................................................................. 38
Table 2.14:Nominal size of Chippings ................................................................................. 39
Table 2.15: Conditions for determining rate of spread of binder........................................... 39
Table 2.16 Properties of unbound materials ......................................................................... 38
Table 2.17 Grading.............................................................................................................. 38
Table 2.18 Reccomended Plasticty Charactreristics of Granular subbase ............................. 39
Table 2.19 Typical PSD for sub base ................................................................................... 39
Table 4.1: Circular curve data ................................................................................................ 60
Table 4.2: Transition curve data........................................................................................... 60
Table 4.3: Grade................................................................................................................. 61
Table 4.4: Vertical alignment data ....................................................................................... 61
Table 4.5: Crossectional data............................................................................................... 61
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List of figures
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Highway location process .................................................................................. 85
Figure 2.1: Typical vertical curves....................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.3: Sight distance over crest curves ......................................................................... 25
Figure 2.4: Climbing lane outside ordinary lane................................................................... 25
Figure 2.5: Crossectional elements ...................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.6: Pavement layers.....................................................................................................29
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Acronyms and abbreviations
Acronyms and abbreviations
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
ADT Average daily Traffic
BS British Standard
CBR California Bearing Ratio
MDD Maximum Dry Density
TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory
TRL Transport Research Laboratory (UK)
SANRA South African National Roads Agency
SATCC Southern Africa Transport and Communications Commission
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials
ALD Average Least Dimension
E.S.A Equivalent Standard Axle
GB3 Granular Base-material type 3
HW Allowable Headwater depth
LL Liquid Limit
LS Linear Shrinkage
M.S.A Millions of equivalent standard axle
MC Moisture Content
MDD Maximum Dry Density
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
ORN Overseas Road Note
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
GB3 Granular Base-material type 3
UBOS Uganda Beaura of Statistics
UNRA Uganda National Roads Authority
NTMP National Transport Master Plan
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List of symbols
List of symbols
m Meters
mm Millimetres
v velocity
w weight
Kg Kilograms
L Litres
E Easting
N Northing
Z Elevation
Ft Feet
P Force
% Percent
Final Year Individual project, UpgradingNsambya-Kirombe road to a bituminous paved surface.
Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda2009/10 1
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Introduction
1.0 Introduction
Transport is very vital for the social, economic and political well being of any country;
hence it is of paramount importance. Highway transportation overwhelmingly
dominates the transportation of people, accounting for 91% of all personal trips (Wright
& Paquette 1979). Planning, design, construction and maintainace of highways depend
on highway engineers who must translate the desires of the people.
From the recent statistics, the total highway length in the world is14, 662, 278.5 km,
United States of America having the largest highway length of 6,406,296 km. Of these,
4,148,395km are paved and 2,257,902km unpaved .India has a total highway length of
3,319,644km, of which 1,517,077km are paved and 1,802,567km unpaved. Uganda
among the developing countries has 27,000km of highway length of which 1809km are
paved and 25,191km are not paved (CIA, 2008). Details of other countries are shown in
Table 1.1, Appendix B. From the statistics the following can be inferred, United States
of America, one of the most developed nations has most of its highways are paved
compared to others. This indicates that development is directly proportional to paved
highway length.
1.1 Background
In Uganda, the road network length was approximately 78,100km in 2008, made up of
10,800km of national roads, 27,500km of district roads, 4,800km of urban roads and
35,000km of community roads (NTMP, 2009).with UNRA now established to maintain
and improve national roads, a length of 8-10,000km of district roads is to be defined and
transferred to the national network giving a new total length of 20,000km each for
national and district networks. Presently, Uganda is investing most of its resources in
road construction and maintainace. There are many ongoing projects aimed at up
grading gravel roads to bitumen standards these include; Kampala Mityana road
Masaka-Mbarara road and Matugga-Semuto-Kapeeka road. These are funded by
European Union (UNRA, 2010).See details of ongoing and intended projects by 2013 in
Table 1.2 AppendixB. Nsambya-kirombe road is Located in Makidye division, Kampala
district. The road stretches a distance of 1.13 km; its a district feeder road that falls
under Kampala City Council (KCC).
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Problem statement
This road was mainly established so as to transport local bricks from Kirombe since it
was a place where they were manufactured (MOLG, 2009). Presently the manufacture
of bricks has seized and many developments are taking place around the project area.
This road connects to the National Medical Stores and other supermarkets in the area.
This has increased the level of service on this road that it accommodates an Average
Daily Traffic is more than 300vehicles per day. Since the road way was not originally
designed, it has a narrow width that cannot offer an adequate two way movement of
vehicles bringing about delays, its also dusty, with a poor alignment, drainage system is
absent along some sections, riding surface is rough, bringing about discomfort during
travel. Funds are being sought to have this road upgraded (MOLG, 2009).see Google
earth image in, Figure 1.2 in appendix H.
1.2 Problem statement
Roads deteriorate gradually, they under go either functional deterioration or structural
deterioration ,functional deterioration refers to the reduction in riding quality while
structural deterioration indicates that the pavement layers lose their bearing capacity
(Thagesen, 1996) .Failures on roads occur on the pavement layers and drainage system.
In this respect, the project road has no drainage system, has a narrow carriage way
width of approximately 4.6m, according to the geometric design manual of Uganda, the
minimum carriage width for a Gravel C road like the project road is 5.6 m, Poor
alignment such as a sharp curve on section 0+243-0+336 of 50m, the minimum radius
for the project road should be 100m.A Steep grade of 10% at section 0+580, maximum
grade for the project road should be 9% according to the Uganda road design manual.
Undulating surface that causes delays, discomfort and dust pollution amounting to
approximately 1.5 kg/m
2
/yr.The international roughness index ((IRI) for the road is 16-
17.5m/km. The road is therefore due for upgrading.
1.3 Main Objective
To design a structurally stable flexible pavement with respect to the route, geometry,
drainage and pavement with an environment impact assessment report so as to promote
adequate, safe, well maintained works, transport infrastructure and service for social-
economic development of Uganda.
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1.4 Specific Objectives
Based on the recommendations of (TRL, ORN6, 1998) the following specific objectives
were arrived at;
1.4.1 Geometric Design
a) Definition of the basic parameters of road function, traffic flow and terrain type;
b) On the basis of the above estimates, a design class is selected;
c) Determination of trial alignment;
d) Selection of design class standards;
e) Approach speed estimation;
f) Economic consequences;
g) Economic return;
h) Environmental impacts will be considered.
1.4.2 Drainage
In designing drainage the following will be considered;
a) Hydrology;
b) Hydraulics;
c) Hydraulic structures;
d) Environmental, impacts
1.4.3 Pavement Design
Basing on the recommendations of (TRL ORN 31), the following specific objectives
were arrived at;
a) Assess traffic so as to assign a traffic class;
b) Asses the subgrade strength so as to determine the subgrade class;
c) Selection of appropriate materials and layer thickness with an economic
consideration;
d) Selection of the pavement structure from the traffic class an subgrade class that
will be attained above ;
1.4.4 Environmental impacts will be taken into consideration
Basing on the recommendations of Kiely, 1997, the following components of EIA of a
road will be considered.
4
Project Scope
a) A summary of the proposed road developments and of the principal
environmental impacts;
b) General project description and alternatives considered;
c) A baseline survey of the existing environment;
d) Assessment of the environmental impacts;
e) The implications for the land use and development plans for the affected area;
f) The financial implications;
g) Mitigation measures proposed to reduce negative impacts;
h) A synoptic table summarising the individual impacts and costs of alternative
considered;
i) Conclusions
1.5 Project Scope
The project will be limited to the following; geometry, drainage and pavement design
accompanied with an environmental impact assessment report and a cost estimate of the
project.
1.6 Outline Methodology
This has been broken down into the following main headings;
1.6.1 Data Collection and Classification
Data will be collected as follows;
Laboratory and field tests, observations, use of questionnaires, documentated literature
and consultations. It will be classified by using qualitative and quantitative methods.
1.6.2 Modeling and Analysis
Modelling will be done by Civil Cad, AutoCAD Land development .Analysis will be
done by using programmed excel spread sheets and UK DCP soft ware.
1.6.3 Design and Simulation
Designing will be done using the following standards, Transport Research Laboratory,
(TRL), Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO), South.African.National.Roads.Agency, (SANRA) South. African and
5
Storage and Retrieval
Communications Commission (SATCC) and the Uganda Design Manual. While
Simulation will be done by Civil Simulate.
1.6.4 Storage and Retrieval
A data base for all information will be created using Microsoft access, folders will be
created for all the project work on the computer. A backup of all the information will be
created on an external hard disk, Compact Discs, Flash disks and E-mail address.
Information will retrieved by printing and keeping hard copies.
1.6.5 Publication and Dissemination
The project report will be published by the Author and then a copy will be forwarded to
Kyambogo University, others copies shall be given to Kampala city council and other
Public libraries. Soft copies will be converted to PDF, to prevent any distortion of the
document.
1.7 Justification
The project road has an average daily traffic (ADT) of more than 300 vehicles per day.
The Ministry of Works and Housing criterion for upgrading a road with in an urban
setting is when ADT is greater than 300 vehicles/day. Vehicle operating costs will be
saved since a smooth riding surface will be realised. Upgrading from a gravel surface to
a paved road will be justified principally by savings in vehicle operating costs arising
from the smoother running surface, but time savings may also be important (TRL 2005).
1.8 Significance
a) The roadway will be widened to 8.6m hence easy manoeuvring of the vehicles.
b) Dust pollution will be cease.
c) Employment opportunities will be created for people hence economic development.
A bout 50 people will be employed during the construction of the road.
d) More traffic will be accommodated because diverted traffic and generated will now
use this road because of the improvement of the road.
e) Comfort due to a good alignment since gentle curves will be introduced.
f) Flooding will be controlled since a drainage system will be put in place.
g) Reduced highway user costs through increased speed, lesser delays. Since traffic has
been flowing at an average speed of 30km/hr, it will now flow at 50km/hr.this will
result into a saving of 0.78 minutes per kilometre.
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Literature review
2.0 Literature review
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Project Description
Upgrading is improving the quality of something (Microsoft Corporation, 2008).
Upgrading projects aim specifically at providing additional capacity when a road is
nearing the end of its design life or because there has been an unforeseen change in use
of the road. Typical examples of upgrading projects are the paving of gravel roads, the
provision of strengthening overlays for paved roads and the widening of roads (TRL
2005).Factors that influence pavement performance include, initial structural capacity,
quality of construction, load magnitude and repetitions, drainage conditions, climate and
maintainace policies and practices (OFlaherty 2002).The appraisal of upgrading
projects is similar to that of new projects. In fact most new projects are essentially
upgrading projects (TRL 2005).
This project looks at upgrading the existing gravel road by locating an appropriate
alignment, recommending an appropriate drainage system, selecting appropriate
materials, recommending appropriate layer thicknesses for structural stability with the
necessary geometric and structural design.
2.1.2 Project Location
This project road is located in Greater Kampala Metropolitan Area (GKMA), Kampala
district, Makidye division, Nsambya, which is approximately 4.8km south southwest
of the Central business district of Kampala along Ggaba road at coordinates of
00
O
1757N and 32
o
3517 E at an elevation of 4003ft (Wikipedia,2009). It connects
Kabega road to Lukuli road.
2.1.3 Demography
Uganda has a population of about 29.6 million (UBOS, 2008). The population is
projected to be 49.3million people by 2023. Kampala has population of about 1,420,200
(UBOS, 2008) .The project road serves about 1500 people.
2.1.4 Land use
The main activity in this area is farming especially poultry.
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Climate
2.1.5 Climate
Kampala is Characterized by Tropical wet and dry seasons because of its altitude having
heavy rains from August to December and shorter rains from February to June. April
has the heaviest amounts of precipitation of about 175mm /hr, January being the
warmest (Wikipedia, 2009).
2.2 Route Selection Process
In the relocation or construction of existing highways and the establishment of new
ones, surveys are required for the development of project plans and the estimation of
costs. The performance of good surveys requires well trained engineers who have an
understanding of design, planning and economic aspects of highway location and who
are sensitive to the social and economic impacts of highway development. The work of
a highway location may include desk study, reconnaissance survey, preliminary survey
and a final location survey. See figure 2.1 in Appendix B. Road location is most easily
determined through low cost relatively underdeveloped lands, in such locales basic
engineering and construction cost considerations normally dominate analyses once the
traffic planning need has been established and accepted also provided that
environmental issues are not of major concern. The problems become more complex
and non engineering issues become more prominent as a route is sought through well
developed lands, and when interactions with existing roads and built up areas have to be
taken into account. the problems are normally in and about major urban areas where
community aspirations, interactions with existing roads, streets and economic,
environmental and planning issues become critical. Thus, whilst ideally a new major
road needs to be located where it can best serve the traffic desire lines, be as direct as
possible, and maximise its function of allowing convenient free flowing traffic
operation at minimum construction, environmental, land, traffic operations and
maintainace costs. The project road is already in existence; only the alignment will be
studied to see if its adequate.
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Geometric Design
2.3 Geometric Design
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in the terrain is designed
to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-
section, horizontal and vertical alignment. Good geometric design ensures that adequate
levels of safety and comfort are provided for drivers for vehicle manoeuvres at the
design speed, and that the road is designed uniformly and economically, blending
harmoniously with the land escape (OFlaherty, 2002).
The use of geometric design standards fulfils three inter related objectives. Firstly,
standards are intended to provide minimum levels of safety and comfort for drivers by
the provision of adequate sight distances, coefficients of friction and road space for
vehicle manoeuvres; secondly, they provide the framework for economic design; and,
thirdly, they ensure a consistency of alignment. The design standards adopted must take
into account the environmental road conditions, traffic characteristics, and driver
behaviour.
2.3.1 Geometric design standards
The design standards adopted for this project will be the Ministry of Works, Housing
and Communication design manual of 2005, TRL Over Seas Road Notes, SATCC and
SANRA.The design will be based on the road category, expected volume and
compositions. The restrictions are mainly by the terrain classification and road
environment.
2.3.2 Design criteria and control
Highway geometrics are generally affected by so many factors some of which include
the following, Design speed and limit, Road function, topography, traffic, capacity,
design vehicle, control of access and level of service.
a) Design Speed
The assumed design speed for a highway may be considered as the maximum safe
speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so
favourable that the design features govern. The choice of design speed will depend
primarily on the terrain and functional class of the highway. Other factors determining
the selection of design speed include traffic volume and composition, costs of right of
way and construction, and aesthetic considerations (Wright &Paquatte, 1979).
9
Road function Design
Design speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to
the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented
with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be
constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements (TRL, ORN6).For this project a design speed of 50km/hr will adopted as per
Table 2.5: Appendix C.
b) Road function Design
h) Division into road category
The roads in Uganda are divided into the following categories according to their major
function within the network; see Appendix C, Table 2.1 .Basing on its function, the
project road falls under category C since service is provided to smaller communities.
ii) Division into road class
The division is governed by the design speed and design traffic (MoWH&C, 1994) See
Table 2.2: Appendix C. from the above table, the project road falls under class C Gravel
from the existing characteristics of capacity, carriage width and capacity.
c) Topography
The Uganda Road Design Manual (2004) defines the following types of terrain as
shown in Table 2.4, Terrain Classification See appendix C, from the description, the
project road fall under rolling terrain since it has a traverse slope of approximately 10%
which lies between 20% and 5%
d) Capacity
Capacity can be defined as the maximum number of vehicles per unit time that
can be handled by a particular roadway component or section under the prevailing
conditions. Road capacity information is useful for
(i) Transportation planning studies to assess the adequacy or sufficiency of
existing road network to service current traffic and to estimate the time in the
future when traffic growth may overtake capacity.
(ii) It is important in design of road dimensions, number of lanes and minimum
length of weaving length;
(iii) In traffic operation analysis in improvement of traffic operation (Uganda
geometric design manual, 2004)
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Traffic
a) Level of service
Level of Service expresses the effectiveness of the road in terms of operating
conditions. It is a qualitative measure of the effect of traffic flow factors, such as
speed and travel time, interruptions, freedom of maneuver, driver comfort and
convenience, and indirectly safety and operation costs( (MoW&T, 1994).
b) Traffic
Traffic volume indicates the level of service for which the highway is being planned and
directly affects the geometric features such as width, alignment and grades (Kadiyali,
2008).
i) Design hour volume
The unit for measuring traffic on a highway is the Annual Average Daily Traffic
volume, abbreviated as (AADT). It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic divided
by the number of days in the year. This is not commonly used in geometric design,
since it does not represent the variations in traffic during various months of the year,
days of the week and hours of the day. It is not economically sound to design a facility
to be congest free every hour through the year, however it has been established that each
year the traffic volume often reaches that of the 30
th
heaviest hour, which is the hourly
volume exceeded only 29 hours a year. ( (Thagesen, 1996) hence a unit for geometric
design is the 30th highest hourly volume abbreviated as 30 HV which is defined as the
30
th
highest hourly volume during the year (Kadiyali, 2008). DHV = AADT x K Where
K is estimated from the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site and is
expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.
Table 2.6: 30
th
HV as a fraction of ADT for different traffic Conditions
Traffic Condition
30th HV as a fraction of ADT
Rural Arterial (average value)
0.15
Rural Arterial (maximum 0.25
Heavily trafficked road under
Congested urban conditions
0.08 0.12
Normal urban conditions 0.10 0.15
Road catering for recreational
or
Other traffic of seasonal
0.20 0.30
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2005)
The project road falls under Normal Urban Conditions, thus it has a K value 0.15 which
is taken as the average of (0.10 0.15) for design purposes.
11
Traffic composition
ii) Directional distribution of traffic
Traffic flow figures available are for two way flow, and the directional split ratio is 1:2
and this will be adopted for the project (Kadiyali, 2008).
a) Traffic composition
Traffic composition has a vital effect on capacity and other design considerations. It is
customary in this country to express the traffic volume in terms of passenger car units
(PCUs), also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles
and buses.
Table 2.7: Conversion into PCU
Level Rolling Mountainous
Passenger cars 1 1 1.5
Light goods vehicle 1 1.5 3
Medium goods vehicle* 2.5 5 10
Heavy goods vehicle 3.5 8 20
Buses 2 4 6
Motor cycles, Scooters 1 1 1.5
Pedal cycles 0.5 0.5 NA
Vehicle Type
Terrain
PCU
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the table.
Table 2.8: Vehicle category Descriptions
Vehicle Category Description
Passenger cars Passenger vehicles with less than nine seats.
Light goods vehicle Land rovers
Minibuses and goods vehicles of less than1500kg un-laden weight with payload capacities less than 760 kg.
Medium goods vehicle Maximum gross vehicle weight 8500 kg.
Heavy goods vehicle Gross vehicle weight greater than 8500 kg.
Buses All passenger vehicles larger than minibus
` Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
iii) Estimation of traffic flows
a) Baseline traffic flows (FO)
This is the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) which is defined as the total annual traffic
summed for both directions and divided by 365. For this project, the traffic currently
using the route was classified into the vehicle categories of cars, light goods vehicles,
trucks (heavy goods vehicles) and buses
12
Projected traffic (Fp)
b) Projected traffic (Fp)
For this project, time series was used to project traffic growth rates.
n
P O
F =F (1+r) 2.1
Where,
P
F = Cumulative number of commercial vehicles after n years;
O
F = Present number of vehicles after the traffic survey;
r = Growth rate of commercial vehicles;
n = Number of years of projection
iv) Design vehicle
The dimensions of the motor vehicle also influence design practice. The physical
characteristics of vehicles and the proportions of the various sizes of vehicles using a
road are positive controls in design and define several geometric design elements,
including intersections, on and off-street parking, site access configurations and
specialized applications such as trucking facilities. Therefore, it is necessary to examine
all vehicle types, select general class groupings, and establish representatively sized
vehicles within each class for design use. Vehicle characteristics affecting design
include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius, and travel path during a turn,
vehicle height and width. The main road elements affected are gradient, road widening
in horizontal curves and junction design. In the design of road facility the largest design
vehicle likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with
special characteristics that must be taken into account in dimensioning the facility is
used to determine the design of such critical features as radii at intersections and radii of
horizontal curves of roads. For this project the design vehicles DV 5 will be used to
control the geometric design. See appendix C,Table: 2.3 for the design vehicles.
2.3.3 Alignment
An ideal and most interesting roadway is the one that generally follows the existing
natural topography of a country. This is the most economical to construct, but there are
certain aspects of design that must be adhered to which may prevent the designer from
following this undulating surface without making certain adjustments to the in the
vertical and horizontal directions. The designer must produce an alignment in which
conditions are consistent. Sudden changes in the alignment should be avoided as much
as possible, for example, long tangents should be connected with long sweeping curves,
and short curves should not be interspersed with long curves of small curvature. The
13
Horizontal alignment
ideal locations are one with consistent alignment where both grade and curvature
receive consideration and satisfy limiting criteria. The final alignment will be that in
which the best balance between grade and curvature is achieved (Wright & paquatte,
1979).
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently, they
compliment each Other and proper combination of horizontal and vertical alignment,
increases road utility and safety, encourages uniform speed, and improves appearance,
can almost always be obtained without additional costs. it is further more important that
the choice of the standard for the above geometric design elements is balanced to avoid
the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular
location when other elements are considerably above minimum requirements.
(Thagesen, 1996) the author intends to assess the existing alignment and up grade
where necessary.
a) Horizontal alignment
Horizontal alignment of a highway defines its location and orientation in plan
view. It consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves, with or
without transition curves. (Thagesen, 1996) The design elements of a horizontal
alignment are the tangent (straight section), the circular curve, the transition curve
(spiral curve) and the super elevation sections.
The horizontal alignment should always be designed to the highest standard consistent
with the topography and chosen carefully to minimize earthworks. The alignment
design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform operating speed.
Near minimum curves shouldnt be used at the following locations;
On high fill or elevated structures, as the lack of surrounding objects reduces the
drivers perception of the road alignment.
At or near a vertical curve, especially crest curves, as it would be extremely
dangerous, in particular at night time.
At the end of long tangents or a series of gentle curves; also compound curves,
where a sharp curve follows a long flat curve, should be avoided in order not to
mislead the driver.
At or near intersections and approaches to bridges, in particular approaches to
single lane bridges (Thagesen,1996).
14
Horizontal alignment
Long straights should be avoided as they are monotonous for drivers and cause
headlight dazzle on straight grades.
i) General controls for horizontal alignment
The following general controls for horizontal alignment should be kept in view in a
sound design practice:
The alignment should be as directional as possible;
The alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally
conform to the natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves high fills
and deep cuts, mars the landscape and is difficult for maintenance;
The number of curves should, in general, be kept to a minimum;
The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of short curves
should be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation;
A sharp curve at the end of along tangent is extremely hazardous and should be
avoided. If sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is
preferable that this portion of the road be preceded by successive sharper curves.
Proper signage, well in advance of a sharp horizontal curve is essential;
Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small
deflection angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing
appearance and smooth driving on important highways. They should be at least 150m
long for a deflection angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum length should be increased by
30m for each 1 degree decrease in the deflection angle;
For a particular design speed, as large a radius as possible should be adopted. The
minimum radii should be reserved only for the critical locations;
The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut
slopes, shrubs, trees, etc., above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in
estimating the extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions;
While abrupt reversals in curvature are to be avoided, the use of reverse curves
becomes unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long
transitional curves should be inserted for super-elevation run-off;
Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300m -500m long,
and are called broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in
appearance and are hazardous;
Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken-
back arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single
15
Types of curves
circular curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, the radius of
the flatter curve should not be disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A ratio
of 2:1 or preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted; The horizontal alignment should blend
with the vertical harmoniously. General controls for the combination of horizontal and
vertical alignments should be followed (Kadiyali, 2008).
ii) Super elevation
When a fast moving vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, an outward centrifugal force
acts on the vehicle and its lateral stability gets affected. The value of this centrifugal
force P in kgs is given as
2
wv
P=
gR
2.2
Where w the weight of the vehicle and v is the speed in / m s ,
2
9.8 / g m s = and R is
the radius of the horizontal curve in metres. The centrifugal force acts in the horizontal
direction and the mass passes through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. If the value of
the centrifugal force is greater than the lateral frictional resistance between wheels and
the road surface, skidding of the vehicle may occur and if the vehicle speed is still not
reduced the vehicle may topple over. To reduce this tendency of the vehicle skidding,
the outer edge of the road pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus tilting
the road surface from the outer edge towards the inner edge. This lateral inclination to
the road surface is known as super elevation (Singh, 2004).
It is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of super elevation, usually 4
percent. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of super elevation or no super elevation
is employed within important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive
slowly because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and signals.
Super elevation is a requirement for all standards of roads. (Uganda Road design
Manual, 2004) A maximum super elevation of 4% will be employed for the project
road.
Types of curves
i) Circular curves
Circular curves may be described by giving either the radius or degree of a curve.
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve, it is subject to inertial forces which must be
balanced by centripetal forces associated with the circular path. For a given radius and
16
Circular curves
speed a set of forces is required to keep the vehicle in its path. The radius can be
expressed by the formula
2.3
Where
R = Radius of the curve (metres)
e=Crossfall of the road (%) (Is negative for adverse crossfall)
f =Coefficient of side (radial) friction force developed between the tyres and road
pavement (Uganda road design manual)
According to Kadiyali, (2008), radius is given as
2
V
R=
225e
2.4
v=is the design speed
e = Super elevation rate
ii) Transition curves
The characteristic of transition (spiral or clothoid) curve is that it has a constantly
changing radius. Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular
curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of the lateral acceleration. They may also be
used to link straights or two circular curves.
In practice, drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and
transition curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of
situations. However, they also provide convenient sections over which super elevation
or pavement widening may be applied, and can improve the appearance of the road by
avoiding sharp discontinuities in alignment at the beginning and end of circular curves.
For large radius curves the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition
curves are not normally required.
The Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, is preferred to be used. The
radius of clothoid varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to the radius of
the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of the
spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral.
The following equation is used for computing the minimum length of spiral.
2
V
R=
127(100e+f)
17
Re quirements of Transition curves
3
0.0702V
L=
RC
..2.5
Where:
L = minimum length of spiral, (m);
V = speed, km/h;
R = curve radius, (m); and,
C = rate of increase of centripetal acceleration, m/s
3
MoWT, 2004) .The factor C is an
empirical value indicating the comfort and safety involved. The value C=1 is
acceptable for railroad operation, but values ranging from 1 to 3 have been used for
roads. A more practical control for the length of spiral is that in which it equals the
length required for super elevation runoff.
Re quirements of Transition curves
Transition curves are required if the following relationship is fulfilled:
3
V
R<
432
2.6
Where:
R= Radius of curve (m); and,
V = Design speed (km/hr)
In all other cases where the above is not fulfilled, transition curve is not required.
(MoWT, 2004)
According to Kadiyali (2000), Length of the transition is given as
3
0.0215V
Ls=
cR
2.7
C=
80
75+V
Where Vis the design speed in km/hr.
The author intends to use this formula according to Kadiyali for designing transition
curves.
18
Vertical alignment
a) Vertical alignment
The vertical alignment of a road has a strong influence upon the construction cost, the
operating cost of vehicles using the road, and the number of accidents. The vertical
alignment should provide adequate sight distances over crests and should not present
any sudden hidden changes in alignment to the driver. Gradients need to be considered
from the standpoint of both length and steepness, and the speed at which heavy vehicles
enter the gradient. They should be Chosen such that any marginal increase in
construction costs is more than offset by the savings in operating costs of the heavy
vehicles ascending them over the project analysis period.
Vertical Alignment of a highway deals with its shape in profile. For a roadway with
contiguous travel lanes, alignment can be conveniently represented by the centerline of
the roadway.The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is
governed by sight distance and comfort criteria and gradient which is related to vehicle
performance and level of service (MoWT, 2004).
Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive straight
gradients. The simple parabola is recommended for these. The parabola provides a
constant rate of change of curvature and hence acceleration and visibility, along its
length and it has the form:
2.8
Where
r = Rate of change of grade per section (%)
g
1
= Starting grade (%)
g
2
= Ending grade (%)
L = Length of curve (horizontal distance (m)
y = Elevation of a point on the curve
x = Distance in stations from the BVC (beginning of vertical curve) (meters/100)
BVC
elevation
= Elevation of beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = End of the vertical curve
g - g
2 1
r =
L
2
rx
y= +g1x+BVC
elevation
2
19
Vertical alignment
A related formula is:
2.9
Where
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters)
The two main requirements in the design and construction of vertical curves are the
provision of: adequate visibility, Passenger comfort and safety.
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road
must be seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design
speed can stop or overtake safely.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle
traversing a vertical curve must be minimized. In crest curve design, this effect
could cause the vehicle to leave the road surface while in the sag curve the
underside of the vehicle would come into contact with the surface, particularly
where the gradients are steep.
i) General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment
The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view while
designing the vertical profile of a highway:
The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with
the class of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades
should be avoided;
The roller-coaster or hidden type of profile should be avoided as it is
hazardous and aesthetically unpleasant;
Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should
be appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy
trucks to Operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded
by a down grade, but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent
hazard to traffic;
2
G*L x
y=
200 L

20
Stopping sight distance
A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by
short Section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at
the bottom and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be
broken by short intervals of flatter grades;
Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable,
the Approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be
flattened to the Maximum possible extent.
ii) Sight distance
Safe highways must be designed to give the driver a sufficient distance of clear vision
ahead so that he/she can avoid hitting unexpected obstacles and can pass slower
vehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the
driver of a vehicle. When this distance is not long enough to permit passing an
overtaken vehicle, it is termed stopping sight distance (Wright & paquatte, 1979).
Stopping sight distance
Minimum distance required for stopping a vehicle travelling at or near the design speed
before reaching an object in its path. Minimum stopping sight distance is based upon the
sum of two distances (Wright& paquatte, 1979).
The distance travelled from the time the object is sighted to the instant that the brakes
are applied, and the distance require for stopping the vehicle after the brakes are
applied. The first of these two distances is dependant upon the speed of the vehicle and
brake reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends upon the speed of the
vehicle, condition of brakes, tyres, roadway surface, alignment and grade of the
highway.
Passing sight distance
When the sight distance is long enough to enable a vehicle to overtake and pass another
vehicle on a two lane highway without interference from an oncoming vehicle, it is
termed passing sight distance (Wright& paquatte, 1979).
21
Crest curves
iii) Vertical curves
A vertical curve provides smooth transition between successive tangent gradients in the
road profile. When the algebraic difference of the two gradients is positive the curve is
called a crest or summit. When the difference is negative, its called sag. As a motorist
traverses a vertical curve, a radial force acts on the vehicle and tries to force it away
from the centre of curvature and this may give discomfort to the driver. This discomfort
may be minimised by restricting the gradients and by using a type and length of vertical
curve which allows a radial force to be experienced gradually and uniformly. Sight
distance requirements are also aided by use of vertical curves on both crest and sag
(O'Flaherty, 2002).
Figure 2.2: Typical Vertical curves
Source OFlaherty, 2002
Table 2.9: Minimum radius as recommended by MoW&T
desirable minimum
desirale
"No overtaking"centreline
markings
50 1100 600 11000 5500
80 4500 3000 32000 15000
100 10000 7000 65000 24000
Stopping Overtaking
Radius(m)R (R=K*100)
Speed(Km/h)
Source, Uganda road design manual, 2004
a) Crest curves
The sight distance requirements for safety are critical to the design of a crest curve.
Thus when calculating the minimum lengths of crest curves, there are two design
conditions that have to be considered.
22
Crest curves
Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and S>L
Figure 1.3: Sight Distance over crest curves
Source, OFlaherty, 2002
For S L
2
min 2
1/ 2
1 2
2 ) (2
AS
L
h h
=
+

2.10
S>L
[ ]
2
1 2
min
2
2
h h
L S
A
+
=
2.11
Where
h
1
= Drivers eye height (Usually 1.05m)
h
2
= Object height (usually 0.26m)
L = Minimum length of sag curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed as a decimal.
D = vertical clearance (ideally taken as 5.7m) to the critical edge of the Bridge
The critical edge is assumed to be directly over the point of intersection of tangents. In
practice both equations can be considered valid provided that the critical edge is not
more than 60m from the point of intersection [OFlaherty, 2002].
If h
1=
1
.
05m and h
2=
0.26m then the above equations refer to the safe stopping sight
distance (SSD) and become, for SSD L
2
min
471
AS
L =
2.12
FOR SSD>L
23
Crest curves
min
471
2 L S
A
=
2.13
If h
1
=h
2=
1.05m then the equations refer to the full overtaking distance (FOSD), and
then, for FOSD L
2
min
840
AS
L =
2.14
For FOSD>L
min
840
2 L S
A
=
Based on Motorist Comfort
The minimum length of vertical sag curve is given by:
2 2
min
3 390
V A V A
L

= =
2.15
Where; V = design speed (km/hr), A is the algebraic difference in grade (%), and =
vertical radial acceleration (m/s
2
) usually taken as 0.3 m/s
2
for comfortable design
(OFlaherty, 2002).
Sag Curves
When a road passes beneath an overpass, the drivers line of sight may be obstructed by
the edge of the bridge. Then the minimum length of a sag curve which meets minimum
stopping sight distance requirements is given by
2
min
1 2
8(
8
2
S A
L
h h
D
=
+

When SSD L
2.16
1 2
min
8 8( )
2
2
h h
D
L S
A
+

=
When SSD L 2.17
if eye height h
1
=1.05m and object height h
2
=0.26mm the above equations becomes
24
Climbing lanes
[ ]
2
min
800 524
S A
L
D
=
When SSD L 2.18

[ ]
min
800 524
2
D
L S
A
=
When SSD>L 2.19
L= minimum length of the sag curve (m)
S= minimum stopping sight distance (m) and A is algebraic difference in grades
expressed in decimal form, and D=vertical clearance (ideally, taken as 5.7m to the
critical length of the over bridge. (O'Flaherty, 2002)
iv) Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to the horizontal
distance is termed as gradient. it may also be defined as a longitudinal slope of a road
pavement a rising grate is denoted by + sign while a falling gradient is denoted sign
Grade of a road should not be very steep, steep grades are not only difficult to climb but
also increase operational costs of vehicles. (Singh, 2004)
In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced
against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess cut to be wasted. (Wright &
paquatte, 1979) A minimum gradient of 0.5 is needed for longitudinal drainage
(O'Flaherty, 2002).
Table 2.10: Maximum grades
Speed (km/hr) Flat Rolling Mountainous
50 6-8 7 - 9 9-10
80 4-6 5 - 7 7 - 9
100 3-5 4 - 6 6 - 8
Maximum Grade (%)
For the project road a maximum grade of 9% will be considered since it is a rolling
terrain.
Climbing lanes
The maximum gradient is not in itself a complete design control, and an extra climbing
lane is often provided on long uphill climbs. the addition of a climbing lane is normally
considered when the combination of hill severity and traffic volumes and composition is
such that the operational benefits achieved are greater than the additional cost of
providing the extra lane (O'Flaherty, 2002) These improve overtaking opportunities,
25
Cross-sectional Elements
capacity and safety because of the presence of a steep uphill gradient. It is inserted into
the carriageway by means of entry and exit tapers to the left of the continuous lane so
that slow moving vehicles have to merge into the faster traffic at the termination point.
An overtaking lane serves the same objectives without a steep gradient. Climbing lanes
should be considered if the design truck speed decreases more than 20 km/h under the
truck speed limit, normally 80 km/h in rural conditions (MoWH&C, 2004).
Figure 2.4: Climbing lane outside the ordinary lane
Source, Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004
b) Cross-sectional Elements
These are elements of a roadway which form its effective width. These include a
carriage way, central reservation and the side slopes of cuttings and embankments.
Figure 2.5: Cross sectional elements for a single carriage way
Carriage way
Camber
Camber
Traffic lane Traffic lane
Shoulder
Shoulder
Foreslope
Backslpoe
cut Embarkment
Road reserve
Source, Uganda road design manual, 2004
i) Road reserve
The road reserve or right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved in
public interest for road development purposes. The road reserve should be adequate to
accommodate all the elements that make up the cross-section of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. Such as upgrading of the alignment. The
right of way must include the acquisition of land for short cuts and path of
pedestrians,(TRL,1993) ,for the project road, a road reserve of 7.5m will be considered
due to a narrow existing carriage way, it would cost around 20 billion to compensate
people e along the road.
ii) Carriage way width
26
Kerbs
The term carriageway is used here to cover the traffic lanes, any auxiliary lanes, and
the shoulders (MoWH&C, 2004). The width of traffic lanes governs the safety and
convenience of traffic and has a profound influence on the capacity of a road. Factors
that influence the width of the carriage way is: design volume, vehicle dimensions,
design speeds and road classification.
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least
3.5m, although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on
both rural and urban roads. However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane
two way rural roads decreases accident rates (OFlaherty, 2002).
For the project road a lane width of 2.8m will be considered from classification of a
gravel C, see Appendix C, Table 2.5.
iii) Central reservation strip
A central reservation strip is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways. The
functions of the median strip are: To separate high speed opposing traffic, there by
lessening the chances of head-on collisions, Provides a safe waiting place for
pedestrians crossing the high speed carriage way and provide space for road furniture
and markings. For the project road, a central reservation will not be considered because
of the existing carriageway width.
iv) Shoulders
A shoulder is that surfaced clear portion of the roadway cross-section immediately
adjacent to the carriage edge. Shoulders have several numbers of purposes such s refuge
for vehicles forced to make emergency stops, (O'Flaherty, 2002) An area out of the
Lateral support of the roadway structure. In addition, shoulders support use of the road
by other modes of transport, for example cyclists and pedestrians (SANRA,..) a slope of
the shoulder should be greater than the that of the pavement for drainage purposes
(Wright &Paquatte, 1979) for the project road a shoulder of 1.5m will be used as in
table2.as stipulated in the Uganda road design manual
v) Kerbs
A kerb is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or shoulder,
forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the
edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are: they define the edge of traffic lanes, traffic
islands and footways during both day and night (they reflect vehicle headlights)
27
Kerbs
They support pavements and island structures so that edge break-up is avoided;

They protect adjacent areas from encroachment by vehicles;
They assist in drainage of the carriageway (MoW&T, 2004).
vii) Camber
Camber, is a term used to define convexity of the carriageway cross section. Its purpose
is to drain surface water from the road and avoid ponding in the surface deformations on
the carriage way (O'Flaherty, 2002). A camber of 2.5% will be used for the project road.
Across fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so
great as to be hazardous by making steering difficult, the normal crossfall should be 3%
on paved roads and 4-6% on unpaved roads (TRL, 1993). A minimum cross fall of
2.5% is normally recommended in the form of either a straight camber extending from
one edge to the other or as one sloped from the centre of the carriageway towards both
edges. The primary aim of these cross falls is to adequately get rid of surface runoff
from the highway pavement (MOW&H, 2005).
viii) Side Slopes
According to OFlaherty (2002), soil mechanics analysis enables the accurate
determination of maximum slopes at which embankments or cuts can safely stand.
However, these maximum values are not always used, especially on low embankments
not protected by safety fences. The slopes of embankments and cut sections depend
upon the type of soil and the height of embankment or depth of cuttings. For reasons of
economy, construction of steep side slopes on embankments and cuttings is encouraged
Fore slopes steeper than 1:3 cannot be counted as part of the clear zone because they are
too steep. Slopes that can be traversed safely by out-of-control vehicles need to be at
least 1:4 or gentler. Slopes between 1:3 and 1:4 are marginal;
The back slope design in cuts with a cut drain should be designed with a 0.5 m wide
ditch bottom followed by a 1:4 back slope for half a metre and then a 1:2 slope for 2.0
m; this will help to redirect a run-off vehicle to the roadside area (MoWH&C, 2004).
ix) Vertical and Lateral clearance
Typical maximum truck heights are 4.2 meters and, to allow adequate vertical clearance
and the transport of abnormal loads, a 5.0 meters vertical clearance should generally be
28
Kerbs
allowed for in the design.Lateral clearances between roadside objects and the edge of
the shoulder should normally be 1.5 meters. This may be reduced to 1.0 m where the
cost of providing the full 1.5 meters is high.
Much smaller clearances will sometimes be necessary at specific locations such as on
bridges, although a minimum of 1.0 meter will remain desirable. Minimum overall
widths in such circumstances should be sufficient to allow the passage of traffic without
an unacceptable reduction in speed, which will depend on the length of the reduced
width section and levels of motorized and non-motorized traffic flow. Separate facilities
should be provided for pedestrians where possible (TRL, 1993).
viii) Roadway Markings
Carriageway markings should be provided on all two-way paved roads. The edge of the
carriageway should be delineated by continuous lines and may be supported by
surfacing road studs or other features. The lines should be situated on the shoulder
immediately adjacent to the running surface and should be at least 100mm in width.
Centre line markings are also recommended on roads of at least 5 meters width
designed for two lane operation in order that a driver may correctly locate his lateral
position. These markings should be 100mm wide and normally be discontinuous.
Except where overtaking is restricted and may be supported by the use of road studs.
All markings should conform to international standards (TRL, 1993).
29
Pavement Design
2.4 Pavement Design
2.4.1 Introduction
A highway pavement is a structure whose primary aim is to support the traffic loads and
transmit them to the basement soil after reducing the stresses to a level below the
supporting capacity of the soil (Thagesen, 1996).
a) Types of pavements
Based upon the structural behaviour of the materials used in the construction, the
pavements are generally classified into the following categories Flexible pavement and
rigid pavement.
i) Flexible pavements
These are pavements which have very low flexural strength and are flexible in their
structural behaviour under load (Singh, 2004).They maintain intimate contact with and
distributes loads to the subgrade, they depend on aggregate interlock, particle friction,
and cohesion for stability (Wright &paquatte, 1979).Since the author intends to design
this type of pavement; the other will be left out.
a) Elements of flexible pavements
Most pavements consist of three superimposed layers each performing different primary
functions (Thagesen, 1996).
Figure 2.5 Pavement layers
Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder course
Road -base
sub-base
Subgrade
}
Surfacing
Source, TRL, 1993
i) Surfacing
This is the uppermost layer of the pavement and will normally consist of a bituminous
surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. Where premixed materials
are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing course and the base course (binder
course) (TRL, 1993). The surfacing should be smooth and dust free, This
30
Road base
provides a riding surface for road users (Thagesen, 1996).it takes up wear and tear due
to traffic, provides water tight surface against infiltration of surface water, provides hard
surface that can withstand pressure exerted by tyres of vehicles (Singh, 2004).The author
intends to recommend surfacing materials.
ii) Road base
This is the main load-spreading layer of the Pavement. It will normally consist of
crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and sand-clays
stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen (TRL, 1993). The functions of the base course
are:
Acts as a structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute load;
It prevents intrusion of the subgrade soils into the pavement (Kadiyali, 2000). The
author will recommend road base materials for the road base.
iii) Sub base
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the road base. It will normally
consist of a material of lower quality than that used in the road base such as
unprocessed natural gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay. This layer also serves as a
separating layer preventing contamination of the road base by the subgrade material and
under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade from
damage by construction traffic (TRL, 1993).The sub base is omitted when the subgrade
is hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a CBR greater than 30% and without a
high water table (TRL, 1993). Functions include minimizing damaging effect of frost
action and facilitating drainage of free water that may get accumulated below the
pavement.
iv) Capping layer
Where very weak soils are encountered, a capping layer is sometimes necessary. This
may consist of better quality subgrade material imported from elsewhere or existing
subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilization(TRL, 1993)
.Unbound capping layers are normally made from gravely soils. A minimum CBR of
15% is recommended for material compacted to a specified density specifically 95% of
the maximum dry density obtained with modified (heavy) compaction (Thagesen,
1996).
31
Subgrade.
vi) Subgrade.
This is the upper layer of the natural soil which may be undisturbed local material or
may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. In either case it is compacted during
construction to give added strength (TRL, 1993) .Traffic load moving on the surface of
the road is ultimately transferred to the subgrade through intermediate layers of sub
base, base and wearing courses the pavement design assumes subgrade strength as the
basis for designing the pavements, if the strength properties of the subgrade are inferior
to the expected ones, its given suitable treatment to impart improvements in its
performance (Singh, 2004). The author will carry out a subgrade assessment to
determine its strength using UK DCP machine developed by TRL.
b) Pavements design process
There a different approaches to pavement design, some of which include, Analytic
empirical method, terminal condition, AASTHO, mechanistic and CBR .The authors
intends to use the CBR approach.
i) Pavements design procedures
There are three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement these
include;
ii) Traffic assessment
This involves estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent
standard axles that will use the road over the selected design life.
Loads imposed by passenger cars dont contribute significantly to the actual damage of
the road pavements by traffic, therefore, for the purpose of pavement design, private
cars are ignored and only the total number and axle loading of heavy vehicles; that will
use the road during the design life are considered. In this context heavy vehicles are
defined as those having an unladen weight of 300kg or more.
In order to estimate the total of commercial vehicles that will traverse the pavement in
the course of design life, its necessary to; the number of vehicles that that will use the
road the first year the road is open, forecast annual growth rate of traffic
And Select the design life (Thagesen, 1996).
Manual classified counts will be carried out for this project and then project traffic using
time analysis method.
32
Subgrade assessment
The design life for this road shall be 15 years from a combination of a low reliability
and high level of service.
Table2.11: Pavement design life selection
Importance/Level of service
Low High
10-15 years 15years
10-20 years 15-20 years
Design Data Reliability
Low
High
iii) Subgrade assessment
This is intended to determine the suitability of the subgrade soil over which the road is
to be built. The strength of the subgrade is assessed in terms of California bearing ratio
(CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture content
(TRL, 1993).Overseas Road Note 31 deals more closely with the influence of water on
the subgrade strength than other pavement methods. For estimation of the design
moisture content, the subgrade moisture conditions under impermeable surfacing are
classified into three categories.
For designing the thickness of a road pavement, the strength of the subgrade should be
taken as that of the soil at moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition
likely to occur in the subgrade after the road is opened to traffic. In the tropics, subgrade
moisture conditions under the impermeable road pavements can be classified into three
main categories:
Category (1). Subgrade is where the water table is sufficiently close to the ground
surface to control the subgrade moisture content. The type of subgrade soil governs the
depth below the road surface at which a water table becomes the dominant influence on
the subgrade moisture content. For example, in non-plastic soils the water table will
dominate the subgrade moisture content when it rises to within 1 m of the road surface,
in sandy clays (PI<20 per cent) .The water table will dominate when it rises to within
3m of the road surface, and in heavy clays (PI>40 percent) .The water table will
dominate when it rises to within 7m of the road surface. In addition to areas where the
water table is maintained by rainfall, this category includes coastal strips and flood
plains where the water table is maintained by the sea, by a lake or by a river.
Category (2). Subgrade with deep water tables and where rainfall is sufficient to
produce significant changes in moisture conditions under the road. These conditions
33
Subgrade assessment
occur when rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration for at least two months of the year. The
rainfall in such areas is usually greater than 250 mm per year and is often seasonal.
Category (3). Sub grades in areas with no permanent water table near the ground
surface and where the climate is dry throughout most of the year with an annual rainfall
of 250 mm or less. Direct assessment of the likely strength or CBR of the subgrade soil
is often difficult to make but its value can be inferred from an estimate of the density
and equilibrium (or ultimate) moisture content of the subgrade together with knowledge
of the relationship between strength, density and moisture content for the soil in
question. This relationship must be determined in the Laboratory. The density of the
subgrade soil can be controlled within limits by compaction at suitable moisture content
at the time of construction. The moisture content of the subgrade soil is governed by the
local climate and the depth of the water table below the road surface. In most
circumstances, the first task is therefore to estimate the equilibrium moisture content as
Outlined in below.
Estimating the subgrade moisture content
Category (1). The easiest method of estimating the design subgrade moisture content is
to measure the moisture content in subgrade below existing pavements in similar
situations at the time of the year when the water table is at its highest level. These
pavements should be greater than 3m wide and more than two years old and samples
should preferably be taken from under the carriageway about 0.5m from the edge.
Allowance can be made for different soil types by virtue of the fact that the ratio of
subgrade moisture content to plastic limit is the same for different subgrade soils when
the water table and climatic conditions are similar. If there is no suitable road in the
vicinity, the moisture content in the subgrade under an impermeable Pavement can be
estimated from knowledge of the depth of the water table and the relationship between
suction and moisture content for the subgrade soil The test apparatus required for
determining this relationship is straightforward and the method is described in
Appendix B.
Category (2). When the water table is not near the ground Surface, the subgrade
moisture condition under an impermeable pavement will depend on the balance between
the water entering the subgrade through the shoulders and at the edges of the pavement
during wet weather and the moisture leaving the ground by evapotranspiration during
dry periods. Where the average annual rainfall is greater than 250mm a year, the
34
Material selection
moisture condition for design purposes can be taken as the optimum moisture content
given by the British Standard (Light) Compaction Test, 2.5 kg rammer method. When
deciding on the depth of the water table in Category (1) or Category (2) subgrade, the
possibility of the existence of local perched water tables should be borne in mind and
the effects of seasonal flooding (where this occurs) should not be overlooked.
Category (3). In regions where the climate is dry throughout most of the year (annual
rainfall 250 mm or less), the moisture content of the subgrade under an impermeable
pavement will be low. For design purposes a value of 80 per cent of the Optimum
moisture content obtained in the British Standard (Light) Compaction Test, 2.5 kg
rammer method should be used. Compaction properties of the subgrade soil are
determined by carrying out standard
c) Material selection
Selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials and layer thicknesses
that will provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement (It is usually
necessary to assume that an appropriate level of maintenance is also carried out (TRL,
1993).
i) Approach to design
There are various approaches of pavement design and they are classified into empirical
and semi- empirical methods. An empirical method includes group index method, CBR
method,. Semi- empirical method includes AASHTO method, tri-axial test, Notting
ham method, California Resistance Value test, Macleod method, and Banister
method. In Uganda, the AASHTO and CBR methods are most commonly applied. TRL
1993 provides a structure catalogue that can be utilized in determining the pavement
thickness.
ii) Surface dressing
The design of surface dressing takes into account the type of existing road surface,
traffic, the available chipping and climate (TRL, 1993). They can be applied as a single
surface dressing or a double surface dressing. According to TRL, 1993, single surface
dressing are suitable and adequate when applied to a bituminous layer. Its quality must
be very high in order for it to be satisfactory or non bituminous layer and their quality
is enhanced if traffic is allowed to run on the first dressing for a period of 2-3
weeks. This allows the chipping of the first dressing to adopt a stable interlocking
mosaic that provides a firm foundation for the second dressing.
35
Material selection
Embedment of chippings under traffic depends upon the hardness of the layer to be
sealed and the size of the chippings (TRL, 1993). Assessment of layer hardness can be
based on descriptive definitions or measured using a simple penetration test probe.
Details of surface category, penetration values and descriptive definitions are as shown
below. The size of chippings chosen should suit the level of traffic and hardness of the
underlying surface as shown in table
Category of road surface hardness surface hardness
Road surface hardness is classified under the following Categories
Table 2.12: surface category
Surface
Category
Penetration at
30
0
c(mm)
Definition
Very hard 0-2
Concrete or very lean bituminous structures with dry stony surfaces. There would be negligible
penetration of chippings under the heaviest traffic.
Hard 2-5
Likely to be an asphalt surfacing which has aged for several years and is showing
somecracking. Chippings will penetrate only slightly under heavy traffic.
Normal 5-8
Typically, an existing surface dressing which has aged but retains a dark and slightly bitumen-
rich appearance. Chippings will penetrate moderately under medium and heavy traffic.
Soft 8-12
New asphalt surfacings or surface dressings which look bitumen-rich and have only slight
surface texture. Surfaces into which chippings will penetrate considerably under medium and
heavy traffic.
Very soft >12
Surfaces, usually a surface dressing which is very rich in binder and has virtually nosurface
texture. Even large chippings will be submerged under heavy traffic.
Source, TRL, 1993
Traffic categories
The number of traffic is considered in terms of the number of commercial vehicles per
day in the lane under consideration. The traffic categories are defined in table below. It
should be noted that, this differs from the traffic class used in the selection of the
pavement structure
Table 2.13: Traffic categories
Category
Approximate Nunber of Vehicles
with unladen weights greater than
1.5tonnes(per day)
1 over 2002
2 1000-2002
3 200-1000
4 40-200
5 Less than 20
Source: TRL (1993)
iii) Chippings
The nominal size of chippings is chosen to suit the level of traffic and hardness of the
underlying surfaces shown in table. In selecting the nominal size of chippings from
36
Binder
double surface dressing, the size of chipping of the first layer should be selected on the
basis of the hardness of the existing surface and the traffic category as indicated in table
(TRL, 1993).
Table 2.14: Nominal size of chippings
Surface Category Traffic ctegory
1 2 3 4 5
Very hard 10 10 6 6 6
Hard 14 14 10 6 6
Normal 20 14 14 10 6
Soft * 20 14 14 10
Source: TRL, 1993
The nominal size of chipping selected for the second layer should be about half the
nominal size of the first layer to promote good interlock between the layers. The least
dimension of at least 200 chippings should be measured and the average Least
Dimension (ALD) determined. This is then used in the figure (see appendix) together
with the line labelled AB and the approximate rate of chippings read from the upper
scale (TRL, 1993).
iv) Binder
The rate of application of binder is determined using appropriate factor from table 2.4
below for each of the four sets of conditions listed. The four factors are then added
together to give the total weighting factor. The Least Dimension of the chippings and
the total weighting factor obtained from the condition constants are then used to obtain
the rate of application to binder (TRL, 1993,).
Table 2.15: Condition for determining the rate of application of the binder
Traffic Vehicle/day Constant Type of Chipping Constant
Very light 0-50 +3 +2
light 50-250 +1 Cubical 0
Medium 250-500 0 Flaky -2
Medium -Heavy 500-1500 -1 Precoated -2
Heavy 1500-3000 -3
Very Heavy 3000+ -5
Existing Surface ClimateCondition
Untreated/Primed road base +6 Wet and cold +2
Very lean bituminous +4 Tropical(Wet and hot) +1
Lean bituminous 0 Temperate 0
Average bituminous -1 Semi arid(Dry and hot) -1
Very rich bituminous -3 Arid(Very dry and very hot) -2
Round/dusty
Source: TRL, 1993
37
Unbound pavement materials
The ESA of design traffic volume is computed basing on the AASHTO method in TRL
and shown in. Only commercial and heavy goods vehicles with axle weights greater
than,1,500kg are considered.
The pavement thickness is determined from the structure catalogue using the traffic
class together with the CBR value of the sub grade (sub grade strength). Where the
CBR of sub grade exceeds 30%, then there is no need for the sub -base layer.
Thickness of surfacing of a pavement largely depends on the traffic anticipated to use
that pavement. The loads imposed by private cares with unladen weight less than
1500kg and motorcycles do not contribute significantly to the structural design cars
caused to road pavements traffic. Therefore for the purpose of structural design cars
and motorcycles can be ignored and only a total number and axle loading of
commercial vehicles that will use the road during its design life need to be
considered. Commercial vehicles can be defined as goods or public service vehicles that
have un-laden weight of 1500kg or more. However during traffic census a count of
all types of vehicles is carried out and these counts are expressed in design value
called passenger car unit (P.C.U) this data is used in high way planning and hence
the design of road pavements, control measures, cost benefit analysis, accidents etc.
Estimating the number of vehicles Traffic census is normally carried out mainly:-
To know the number of commercial vehicles that will use the road when it is first
opened to traffic. To forecast the annual growth of traffic
The most probable information of the initial traffic flow can be obtained from the
results of the traffic counts taken along the existing road. This gives the number of
vehicles that flow on the road per day and hence average daily traffic (A.D.T).
d) Unbound pavement materials
Selection of unbound materials for use as road base, sub base, capping and selected sub
grade layer normally depends on the properties of unbound materials (TRL1993).
38
Natural Occurring granular materials (Road Base)
The main categories with a brief summary of their characteristics are shown in table
Table 2.16: Properties of unbound materials
Code Description Summary of Specification
GBI.A Fresh, crushed rocks Dense graded, un- weathered
crushed stones, .Non -plastic
parent fines
GBI.B Crushed rocks, Dense grading, P1<6 . Soil or parent P1<6
gravel or boulders
GB2.A Dry- bound macadam Aggregate properties
as for GBI.B,P1<6
GB2.B Water- bound macadam Aggregate properties as for GBI .B P1<6
GB3 Natural coarsely Dense grading , P1<6, CBR
granular materials including after soaking >80
processed and modified gravels
GS Natural gravel CBR after soaking >80
GC Gravel or gravel -soil Dense graded, CBR after soaking >15
Source: TRL, 1993
These specifications are sometimes modified according to site conditions, materials type
and principal use.
GB= Granular road base, GS= Granular sub base, GC= granular capping layer
i. Natural Occurring granular materials (Road Base)
According to (TRL, 1993), a wide range of materials including Lateritic, calcareous
and quartzite gravels, river gravels and transported gravel, or granular materials
resulting from the weathering of rock can be used successfully as road bases. Table
2.26 below contain three recommended particle size distribution for materials
corresponding to maximum nominal sizes of 37.5mm, 20mm, and 10mm.
Recommended particle size distribution for mechanically stable natural gravels and
weathered rocks for the use as road bases (GB3)
Table 2.17: grading
BS Test Sieve
37.5mm 20mm 10mm
50 100 - -
37.5 80-100 100 0
20 60-80 80-100 100
10 45-65 55-80 80-100
5 30-50 40-60 50-70
2.36 20-40 30-50 35-50
0.425 10-15 12-27 12-30
0.075 5-15 5-15 5-15
Nominal Maximum
Particle Size
Percentage by mass of
total aggregates passing
Test Sieve
39
Natural Occurring granular materials (Road Base)
ii) SubBase materials (GS)
The selection of sub-base materials depends on the design function of the layer and the
anticipated moisture regime both in service and at construction. Since sub- bases act as
a working platform for the construction of the upper pavement layers and as a
separating layer between sub grade and road base (TRL, 1993) a minimum CBR of
30% is required at the highest anticipated moisture content when compacted to the
specified field density, usually a minimum of 95% of MDD. To achieve the required
bearing capacity, and for uniform support to be provided to the upper pavement,
limits on soil plasticity and particle size distribution may be required. Materials that
meet the recommendations of table 2.18and 2.19 below will usually be found to have
adequate bearing capacity.
Table 2.18: Recommended plasticity characteristics for granular sub base (GS).,
Climate Liguid Limit Plasticity Index Linear Shrinkage
Moist tropical and wet tropical<35 <6 <3
Seasonally wet tropical <45 <12 <6
Arid and semi- arid <55 <20 <10
Source, TRL, 1993
Table 2.19: Typical particle size distribution for sub base (GS) which will meet strength requirements
BS sieve size (mm)
50
37.5
20
5
1.18
0.3
0.75
9-50
5-25
Percentage by mass of Total
aggregate passing test sieve
100
80-100
60-100
30-100
17-75
The following criteria are used in evaluating a sub base as a separating or filter layer.
The ratio D15/D18 (coarse layer / fine layer) <5
Where;
D15 = Sieve size through which 15% by weight of the materials passes
D85=Sieve sizes through which 85% passes
The ratio D50/D50 (coarse layer / fine layer) <25
For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics, a further requirement is,-
The ratio D15/ D15 (coarse layer) (fine layer) should lie between 5 and 40.
40
Aggregates
These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the road base/ sub base and
the sub base base-grade interface (TRL, 1993)
iii) Aggregates
For road construction, aggregates play a role in bearing the main stresses occurring
in the road pavement as a result of application of static , traffic or dynamic loads, the
necessity of the geological production and testing of aggregate properties and
characteristics must be carefully assessed if the aggregates are to meet the required
purpose. Aggregates are obtained from natural rocks that occur as rock outcrops, gravel
or sand. The physical properties governing the suitability of aggregates for use differs
not only widely in each group but also often show considerable variation in
samples taken at different times from the same parent .
Aggregate properties and their significance
Road aggregates should be strong enough to withstand stresses caused by traffic
loads
Offers resistance to abrasive action of traffic, normally in the wearing coarse
They take up subjected wheel impact loading
Aggregates should be capable of standing test of time by resisting weathering
agents e.g. Rain during the design life of the road.
Cubicalangular aggregates are normally preferred because of their high affinity
for bitumen and water.
Some of the tests carried on aggregates include the Following
a) Flakiness index (FI) test
Flakiness index is an empirical factor expressing the total material passing through the
slots of the thickness gauge as the percentage of the mass of the sample taken for
testing. The test is not applicable to aggregate sizes less than 6.3mm. Aggregates are
classified as flaky when they have a thickness of less than 60% of their mean sieve size.
This is a test carried out to determine the shape and angularity of the aggregate particles,
in order to analyze its suitability for use as a stone base or a surfacing material or
bituminous base course. The test is carried out as per BS812: section 105.1:1989
Its one of the tests used in the classification of stones and aggregates. In pavement
design there are specific requirements regarding the flakiness index of materials. For
41
Aggregate least dimension (ALD)
base course and wearing course aggregates, the presence of flaky particles are
considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with a possibility of
breaking down under traffic loading.
The lower the flakiness index, the more cubicles the chippings are and this guarantee a
better particle interlock and a stable mosaic. When the material is used as stone base or
a surfacing material, the end result is a stable and strong pavement structure.
The specifications for the different area of use are;
For stone base 30% maximum.
For surface dressing and thin premix surface a maximum of 30%
For bituminous macadam base course a maximum of 35%.
b) Aggregate least dimension (ALD)
This is the minimum dimension of the aggregate required for surface dressing,
determined from the results of; Flakiness index and the average value of the sieve size
through which 50% of the aggregate sample pass, when the two values are plotted on a
monogram TRL (1993). The maximum aggregate size required for surface dressing is a
function of the road surface hardness and the traffic category. The next lower size
required is the Average Least Dimension TRL (1993).
The Average Least Dimension (ALD) should not be less than half the maximum sieve
size, derived from the traffic category and the road surface hardness i.e. 20/14, 14/10,
and 10/6.
c) Aggregate crushing value (ACV) test
This test is carried out to examine the crushing strength of the aggregates to be used in
road base or surfacing. The crushing strength is reported in terms of Aggregate
Crushing Value or ACV. The test is carried out as per BS 812:Part110:1990.
A load of up to 400KN is gradually applied on the test sample of aggregates passing
14mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve placed in a cylinder.
The test result gives an indication of the strength characteristics of the aggregate in
resisting crushing due to compressive force of the rollers and wheel loads during the
design life of the road pavement. Pavement failure can result from crushing of the
aggregates. The higher the ACV percentage the more susceptible are the aggregates to
crushing and the lower the ACV percentage the better is the aggregate resistance to
42
Aggregate impact value (AIV) test
crushing and thus better performance during wheel loading. The strength is categorized
as;
Exceptionally strong for ACV < 10%
Very weak for ACV > 35 %
An aggregate with a maximum ACV 30% is recommended for use on road base and
surfacing (Kadiyali. 2006).
d) Aggregate impact value (AIV) test
This is the test designed to evaluate the resistances of an aggregate to sudden impact.
The measure of this resistance is reported quantitatively in terms of Aggregate Impact
Value or AIV. The test is carried out as per BS 812:Part112: 1990.
An aggregate sample passing a BS 14mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve is placed in
layers in a test cylinder to full capacity, each layer receiving 25 blows from a tamping
rod, and then subjected to an impact from a free falling harmer. The weight of the
crushed sample passing through BS 2.36mm sieve is expressed as a percentage of the
total mass of the sample as a measure of the Aggregate Impact Value.
The test gives an indication of the relative resistance of the aggregate to sudden shock
or impact loading during compaction and also due to wheel loading on a road pavement.
If the AIV is too high, it means that the aggregate is susceptible to crushing during the
design life of the pavement and this significantly affects the durability of the road.
Depending on pavement layer on which the aggregate will be used, there is a maximum
value of AIV above which a particular aggregate is regarded as unsuitable. The
following are recommended.
For surfacing course a maximum AIV of 30%
For a base course a maximum AIV of 40%
For a sub base a maximum AIV of 50% Kadiyali(2006).
e) Ten percent fines value (TFV) test
This test is carried out to determine the force required to crush an aggregate sample
passing BS 14mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve so that 10% of the crushed
material passes through the BS 2.36mm sieve after crushing. The test gives a relative
resistance of the aggregate to crushing due to a gradually applied load that will cause a
43
Los Angeles Abrasion Value Test. (LAAV)
penetration of 20mm in ten (10) minutes. The test is carried out as per BS 812: Part
111:1990 The test gives an indication of the strength of the aggregates that is reported
quantitatively as a force. The higher the force, the stronger is the aggregate and the
lower the force, the weaker is the aggregate. Weaker aggregate are undesirable in
pavement construction or design.
Stronger aggregates have better performance in resisting the traffic loading. For an
aggregate to be guaranteed that it will not crush under traffic loading, it must have a
minimum Ten Percent Fines (TPF) value of 110KN.
The aggregate meeting this criterion qualifies to be used in surfacing and road base.
f) Los Angeles Abrasion Value Test. (LAAV)
The test is designed to evaluate the resistance of the mineral aggregate of standard
grading to degradation resulting from abrasion, impact and grinding. The test is carried
out as per ASTM 539-89.The measure of this resistance is reported quantitatively in
terms of Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV).
For coarse aggregates used in pavement construction, or surfacing course, the
aggregates are subjected to constant wearing at the top and may get abraded due to the
movement of traffic. High abrasive value is an indication of very weak aggregates,
which leads to very low durability, whereas aggregate with low abrasion value will lead
to construction of a more durable road.
This is based on a standard maximum value of the abrasion test result that will lead to
better performance, offering a high durability during service. This value is usually set at
a maximum of 30% percent for road base and 25% for the surfacing course.
iv) Bitumen
Bitumen is a dark bituminous product which is a conglomeration of compels
hydrocarbons. The process of atmospheric distillation produces most bitumen. There are
two main properties used as basis for the grading of bitumen:
Viscosity (mostly used in U.S.A, European countries) .This refers to resistance to
flow within or without fluids;
Penetration (mostly used in Uganda.
Grading based on viscosity
44
Bitumen
The standard bitumen grade is ASTMD 3381. There are various grades: AC-5, AC-10
AC-30, and C-40. Where AC refers to asphalt cement. The numbers, 5, 10, 30 and 40
designates the viscosity of the bitumen at standard temperature of 60
o
C.
a) Types of tar products
i) Coating tars. These are graded with a C. There are a number of grades namely
C-30, C-34, C-24, C-50, C-54 and C-58.The following tests are carried out on bitumen
The Penetration Test, The Viscosity Test, The Softening Point Test The Flash Point
Test, The Fire Point Test, The Marshall Test. Penetration of a bituminous material is the
distance in tenths of a mm, that a standard needle weighing 100g would penetrate
vertically into a sample of the material under standard conditions of temperature, and
time. The needle is allowed to penetrate into the sample for five (5) seconds at a
temperature of 25
0
C.The penetration test is in no way indicative of the quality of the
bitumen but does allow the material to be classified. The softening point is the
temperature at which all refinery bitumen have the same viscosity (about 1200
Pa.s).This test is also referred to as the Ring and Ball Test. The softening point of
bitumen or tar is the temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of
softening. It is the temperature at which a standard ball passes through a sample of
bitumen in a mould and falls through a height of 2.5 cm, when heated under water or
glycerine at specified conditions of the test.
The binder should have sufficient fluidity before its application in roads uses. The
determination of the softening point helps to know the temperature up to which a
bituminous binder should be heated for various road use applications.
This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of asphaltic bitumen and
fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and blown type bitumen as per IS: 1209 1978.
The principle behind this test is given below:
Flash Point The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapors from the material to momentarily catch fire
in the form of a flash under specified conditions of the test.
45
Bitumen
Fire Point The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of a test
flame causes the material to ignite and burn at least for 5 seconds under specified
conditions of the test.
At high temperature, bituminous materials emit hydrocarbon vapors which are
susceptible to catch fire. Therefore the heating temperature of bituminous material
should be restricted to avoid hazardous conditions.
The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable
mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of
properties that should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a
material. Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and
combustible materials.
Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable
materials in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material. For example, an
abnormally low flash point on a test specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline
contamination.
This test method shall be used to measure and describe the properties of materials,
products, or assemblies in response to heat and a test flame under controlled laboratory
conditions and shall not be used to describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire risk of
materials, products, or assemblies under actual fire conditions.
Flash point and fire point tests are used to determine the temperature to which
bituminous material can safely be heated i.e. the safety of the working group on site and
care is necessary when handling with medium and rapid curing cutback bitumen whose
flash and fire points are low.
The fire point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to support
combustion
b) The Marshall Method
Asphalt concrete and sand asphalt is usually designed using the Marshall method by
choosing the optimum binder content for a particular mix. While rolled asphalt and
asphalt macadam are often made to recipe specification. The test procedure is used in
designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes and is widely applied in routine test
programs for the paving roads. The major features of the test are to determine the two
important properties of strength and flexibility.
46
Bitumen
Strength is measured in terms of the marshal stability of the mix defined as the
maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test temperature of
60
o
c.this temperature represents the weakest condition for a bituminous pavement in
use. The flexibility is measured in terms of the flow value which is measured by change
in diameter of the sample in the direction of load application between the start of the
loading and the time of maximum load. In this test an attempt is made to obtain
optimum binder content for the aggregate mix type and traffic intensity.
i) Viscosity
Is a property of a fluid that retards its flow .The viscosity of a fluid slows down its
ability to flow and is of particularly significance at high temperatures when the ability
of the bitumen to be sprayed on to or mixed with aggregate material is of great
significance .The main objective of carrying out this test is to determine the viscosity of
bituminous binder. Viscosity of a fluid is the property by virtue of which it offers
resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity, the slower will be the movement of the
liquid. The viscosity affects the ability of the binder to spread, move into full up the
voids between aggregates. It also plays an important role in coating of aggregates.
Highly viscous binder may not fill up the voids completely thereby resulting in poor
density of the mix. At lower viscosity, the binder does not hold the aggregates together
but just acts as a lubricant. Viscosity is also important in determining the workability of
the mix. The viscosity of bituminous binders falls rapidly as the temperatures rise. Since
binders exhibit viscosity over a wider range, it is necessary to use different methods for
the determination of viscosity.
47
Drainage design
2.5 Drainage design
2.5.1 Introduction
Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and removal of water
from over, under, and the vicinity of the road surface (Singh, 2004).One of the most
important aspects of road design is the provision made for protecting the road from
surface and ground water on the pavement as it slows traffic and contributes to
accidents from hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray. If water is
allowed to enter the structure of the road, the pavement and the subgrade will be
weakened and it will be more susceptible to damage by traffic when roads fail its
usually due to inadequate drainage.
The drainage system has four main functions:
To convey storm water from the surface of the carriageway to outfalls;
To control the level of water table in the sub grade beneath the carriageway;
To intercept ground water and surface water flowing towards the road;
To convey water across the alignment of the road in a controlled fashion.
The first three functions are performed by longitudinal drainage components, in
particular side drains, while the fourth function requires cross-drainage structures such
as culverts, fords, drifts and bridges (Thagesen, 1996).
2.5.2 Types of drainage
There are basically three types of drainage systems, these include; Surface drainage,
Subsurface and cross drainage.
a) Longitudinal drainage
The road surface must be constructed with sufficient camber or cross fall to shed
rain water quickly ; and the formation of the road must be raised above the level of
the local ground water table. It is important to maintain a minimum longitudinal
gradient on curbed pavements than on uncurbed pavements in order to avoid undue
spread of storm water on the pavement. Vegetation along the pavement edge may
impede the runoff of water from uncurbed pavements if the gradient is flat. Where the
longitudinal gradient of the roadway has to be near zero, the depth of side drains may
have to be varied to obtain sufficient gradient of the ditch. The longitudinal gradient
should therefore preferably not be less than 0.3% for curbed pavements and not less
than 0.2% in very flat terrain. (Thagesen, 1996)
48
Types of drainage
According to Thagesen, Longitudinal drainage can be classified into various forms of
open roadside drainage channels basing on the various functions they perform.
i) Ditches: These are channels provided to remove the runoff from the road
pavement, shoulders and cut and fill slopes. Its depth should be sufficient to remove the
water without risk of saturating the pavement sub grade. It may be lined to control
erosion. Unlined ditches should preferably have side slopes not steeper than 4
horizontal to 1 vertical).
ii) Gutters: They are the channels at the edges of the pavement or the shoulder
formed by a curb or by a shallow depression. They can paved with concrete, bricks
stone blocks or other structural materials.
iii) Turnouts; or Mitre drains. They are short, open, and skew ditches used to
remove water from the roadside ditches or gutters. They are used to reduce the sizes of
the side ditches and minimize the velocity of water and thereby the risk of erosion.
These must be provided at intervals depending on the runoff, permissible velocity of the
water and slope of the terrain.
iv) Chutes: they are also open, lined channels or closed pipes used to convey water
from gutters and side ditches down fill slopes and from intercepting ditches down cut
slopes. Their interval of placing depends on the capacity of gutter or ditches.
Intercepting ditches; they are sometimes referred to as Cut-off ditches.
They are located on the natural ground near the top edge of a cut slope or along the edge
of the right-ofway. They serve to intercept the run-off from hillside before it reaches
the road. Intercepting the surface flow reduces erosion of cut slopes and roadside
ditches, lessens silt deposition and infiltration in the roadbed, area and decreases the
likelihood of flooding the road in service storms.
ii) Design of Longitudinal drainage
The hydraulic capacity of drainage channels is often designed to contain a 5-or 10-year
frequency storm runoff. The estimated runoff for the twoyear storm can be used for
determining the needs, type and dimensions of special channels lining for erosion
control. The design discharge ( Q) is calculated according to the rational formula:
CI A
Q=
3.6
..2.20
49
Types of drainage
Where:
Q =Flood peak at catchments exit in m3/sec
C = Rational runoff coefficient (see below)
I = Average corresponding to the time of concentration (see below)
A = Catchments area in Km
2
Note:
The time of concentration is defined as the time required for the surface runoff from the
remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the point considered. It can be calculated by
the Kirpichs formula:
Time of Concentration
This is a function of the length of water course and height difference from the source to
outflow.
Its given by the formula below;
385 . 0
3
87 . 0
=
H
L
T
c
In hrs 2.21
Where;
T
c
= Time of concentration;
L = Length (in km) of the longest water course from exit;
H = Height difference (in m) from source to exit;
When T
c
is determined, the corresponding rainfall intensity can then be obtained from
the Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve
Tc= Time of concentration in hours
L= Distance from the remotest part to the point of interest in Km
S =fall (average slope) in level from the remotest part to point of interest in mm-1
After determining the design discharge (Q), then the capacity of an open channel is
calculated according to the manning equation, which gives a reliable estimate of
uniform flow conditions (Thagesen, 1996)as shown below.
2/ 3 1/ 2
1
Q=Av=A R l
n
Where:
50
Types of drainage
Q= Capacity in m
3
/sec
A= Channel crosssectional area in m
2
v = Mean velocity in m/sec
n= Manning roughness coefficient
l =slope in mm-1
R=hydraulic radius A/P in m
P= wetted perimeter in m.
The maximum velocity (V) can be chosen from table depending on the nature of bed
surface .
b) Cross drainage
Cross- drainage structures can be very costly and it is therefore important to analyse all
major cross- drainage along alignment before final selection of a new road alignment.
Where there is a choice in the selection of the position of a stream crossing, it is
desirable that, as far as possible, the stream is located on a straight reach of the stream,
away from bends
As far as possible from the influence of large tributaries;
On reach with well defined banks;
At a site which makes a right angle approach road possible;
At a site which makes a right angle crossing possible.
To determine the type of cross- drainage, relevant information on hydrology must be
collected, and predictions about the level of traffic should be made. The following type
of structures may be considered:-Fords, Drifts, Culverts, Bridges (Thagesen, 1996).
However, for this project purpose, culverts where considered as the cross drainage
structures. They are used to convey water from streams below the road and to carry
water from the one side ditch to the other. Culverts can be made of concrete or steel
pipes. The common forms of concrete culverts used in Uganda are the PCC with sizes
ranging from 450mm-to- 1200mm and reinforced concrete box (box culverts).
Common steel pipes include among others; corrugated galvanized steel pipe (often
known by the trade name Armco with sizes ranging from 450mm- 1500mm
(Thagesen, 1996).
51
Culvert structure
i. Culvert structure
Most culverts begin up stream with the inlet structure and terminate down stream with
the outlet structure. Headwalls direct the flow into the culvert, while end walls provide a
transition from the culvert to the outlet channel both protect the embankment from
erosion by flood waters. The whole system is termed as culvert structure which
comprises of:-
Inlet structure: allows in the storm water through the culvert. It may be constructed as
a single unit called headwall or as a combination of various units such as wing walls, or
drop-in chambers. A combination of materials can be used to construct an inlet
structure, which includes plain concrete, reinforced concrete masonry walls in brick,
blocks or stone blocks.
Barrel: This is the entire arrangement of culverts to a certain gradient to form a
tunnel- like structure for storm water passage. It joins both the inlet and outlet
structures together.
Outlet structure; It serves the purpose of discharging the storm water from the culvert
to the outlet channel. Its construction is similar to that of inlet structure.
Apron: a concrete slab constructed at both the inlet and outlet structures. It provides a
transition from channel to culvert (inlet) and from culvert to channel (Outlet).
Sometimes, it is constructed with or without cut-off wall (toe wall).
Culvert bed. This is a layer upon which the culvert units are laid to gradient placed
properly over the sub grade (Thagesen, 1996).
ii) Culvert Design
Culvert is designed to operate in a manner that is within acceptable limits of risk at that
flow rate. It is necessary to determination of culvert sizes (Thagesen, 1996).
Location of the culverts should be selected carefully. The alignment of the culvert
should conform to the alignment of the natural stream. The culvert should if possible
cross at right angles to the roadway for economy-` however skew culverts located at an
angle to the centreline of the road are needed in many instances.
The slope of the culvert should generally conform to the existing slope of the stream. to
avoid silting, the slope of the culvert should not be less than 1%
Before explaining the procedure for the determination of culvert sizes its necessary to
define the following concepts.
52
Headwater depth
Head water depth: The total flow depth in the stream measured from culvert inlet
invert
Tail water depth the flow depth in the down stream channel measured from the invert
at the culvert outlet
Outlet velocity Is the velocity measured at the down stream end of the culvert, and it
is usually higher than the maximum natural stream velocity
There are two major types of culvert flows; Flow with inlet control and Flow with outlet
control. For each type of control, a different combination of factors is controlling the
hydraulic capacity of a culvert. The determination of actual flow conditions can be
difficult. Therefore, the designer should check for both types of flow and design for the
most adverse condition. A Culvert operates with inlet control when the flow capacity is
controlled at the entrance by the following factors; Culvert type (shape of barrel), Type
of culvert inlet, Culvert crosssectional area.
Headwater depth
When a given culvert operates under inlet control the headwater depth determines the
culvert capacity with the barrel usually flowing only partially full. Culvert flow with
outlet control: here the flow capacity is determined by the same factors as under inlet
control, but in addition to that , the performance depends on:-Roughness of the inner
surface of the culvert (barrel roughness), longitudinal slope of the culvert (barrel slope),
Design procedure
In order to find the size of the culvert and the velocity at the outlet under a given set of
conditions, it is first necessary to determine the probable type of flow under which the
culvert operates.
There are basically six steps in designing a culvert
List the design data such as
Design discharge in m
3
/ sec
Approximate length of culvert in m.
Slope of culvert in m m
-1
Allowable water headwater depth in m
Slope of culvert in mm-1
Mean and maximum flood velocity in natural stream in m/sec
Type of culvert for the 1
st
trail; including barrel materials, barrel cross-sectional
shape and inlet type.
53
Headwater depth
Select the 1
st
trail size of culvert
Find the headwater depth for the trail size culvert
Try a culvert of another type or shape and determine the size and HW by the above
procedure
Compute the outlet velocity for the size and types of culvert
Record final selection of culvert with type, size required headwater, outlet velocity
and economic justification. (Thagesen, 1996).
However, there are other approaches, which simplify the design. It considers the
maximum discharge (Q max) and the maximum flow velocity (Vmax) so as to estimate
the minim culvert size in meters. This later approach was adopted for academic
purpose.
c) Sub surface Drainage
Stability and strength of the road surface depends upon the strength of the subgrade.
Subgrade is the foundation layer of the road whose strength largely depends upon its
moisture content. Variations in moisture content of subgrade are caused by
Seepage of water from higher adjoining land
Penetration of moisture through the pavement.
Percolation of water from shoulders, pavement edges, and soil formation slopes.
Rise and fall of underground water table
Capillary rise of moisture in case of retentive type of soils and transfer of
moisture vapour through soil.
This project did not take into account subsurface drainage, because of time
limitations.
54
Chapter Summary
Chapter Summary
The literature reviews main objective was to build up a theoretical understanding of the
subject prior to undertaking the project so as to form a foundation for the methodology,
design conclusions and recommendations to be used later in the report. Different text
books where consulted pertaining flexible pavement designs, flexible pavement design
was chosen since its economical and can serve the purpose. The present state of the road
will be reviewed, surveying using a total station will be carried out,subgrade shall be
tested using a dynamic cone penetrometor, rainfall data from the metrological
department shall be obtained so as to analyse the hydrology of the area and. The project
road is a class C gravel road, having a rolling terrain, maximum grades shall be limited
to 9%, minimum radius of the curves will be 100m, and minimum CBR of the subgrade
according to TRL is supposed to be 15% .Borrow material will be test to ascertain its
sustainability and Surface dressing will be used for economic purposes.
55
3.0 Methodology
3.1 General
Having reviewed the necessary literature, data was then collected from various
authorities such as the Metrological department under the Ministry of Water, Lands and
Environment, Methodology is divided into four main headings of Data Collection and
classification, modeling and analysis, design and simulation, publication and
dissemination.
3.1.1 Data collection and classification
i) Surveying
A detailed topographical survey was carried out using a total station to enable
preparation of detailed geometric alignment designs and determination of construction
quantities. Sections of road centreline, shoulders, existing sidedrains, any other
significant features such as houses and any significant changes in the terrain were
captured. These were taken at intervals of 25 metres. See appendix C for survey data.
Two Survey control points were established at intervals of 700m as recommended by
the Uganda geometric design manual 2005.these were BM1 (1109.731, 841.209) at
1193.436m and BM2 (1017.455, 423.384) at 1201.053m.see appendix I-1 for the bench
marks. Coordinates were then entered into an excel sheet in the form PENZD (Point,
Easting, Northing, Elevation and Description) and then converted to comma separated
values and imported into AutoCAD Land development to generate a digital terrain
model.
ii) Traffic
Traffic assessment was done according to the recommendations of TRL, ORN 31, as
follows; the counts were carried out for seven consecutive days. The counts on Friday
and Saturday were for a full 24 hours, with Friday as a representative week day and
Saturday as a representative weekend. On the other days, they were 16-hour counts. The
following steps were generally taken when carrying out a traffic survey; Traffic count
data sheets were processed indicating the classification of vehicles, i.e. cars, Pick-ups,
minibuses, buses, trucks and trailers. A traffic count station along the road was then
56
Data collection and classification
identified; Enumerators were then trained to carry out the traffic survey and positioned
in the identified station. data collected was then analysed.
Time series analysis was then used to obtain growth rates for different vehicles based on
the data obtained from URA. This statistical approach was based on the straight line
equation.
t
Y =a+bx
3.1
Yt =trend value for a given time period
a=value of Yt when x is at the origin
b=slope of the line, or the increase or decrease in Yt for each change of one unit time
x =any time period selected
Since the years 2000/1 to 2007/08 are even, time(x) was coded -1,-3,-5 and -7 for the
years 2000/1,2001/02,2002/03,2004/05 and 1,3,5 and 7 for the years
2004/05,2005/06,2006/07 and 2007/08. A scatter diagram was then plotted in excel to
obtain a line of best fit for each vehicle classification over the 8 years. Constants aand
bwere obtained as follows:
Y
a=
n
3.2
2
(xY)
b=
(x )
3.3
Growth rates were then obtained from the relationship:
b
r(%) = 100
a
3.4
Traffic projection was then carried out using the formula:
n
n o
P =P (1+r)
3.5
Where:
Pnand Poare design and base year flows respectively
r is the vehicle growth rate (%)
n is the design life
ii) Subgrade assessment
In order to determine the subgrade strength, a dynamic cone penetromer (DCP) was
used.DCP test was carried out in accordance with TRL Recommendations. The readings
were taken be taken at increments according to the strength of the layer being
penetrated. DCP results were then fed into the UK-DCP software a computer
57
Modeling and analysis
programme developed by TRL which interpreted and presented of DCP data. The CBR
at a depth of 475mm was obtained. See Appendix D
Other tests on the subgrade were also carried out to determine the suitability of the
subgrade.these include the following
The British Standard Heavy compaction test in accordance with BS 1377 Part 4
1990. This test produces a density value which represents a reasonable achievable
density which will give a well compacted soil and a moisture content value which
represents the best moisture content the soil should have in order to obtain the
maximum benefit from the comp active effort used.
Particle size distribution in accordance to 1377 part 2 1990 to classify the soil
Atterberg limit tests in accordance with BS Part 2 1990 to determine the plasticity
of the subgrade soil
Moisture content in accordance to BS 1377 Part 2 1990
a) Material selection
Borrow pits were surveyed and suitability of the borrow material ascertained
Borrow pits surveyed include; kangulumira quarry in Mukono.
Rainfall data from the metrological department was obtained to enable hydrological
analysis; a topographical map of the project area was also obtained to determine the
catchment area.
3.1.2 Modeling and analysis
This involved the preparation of detailed engineering design drawings including plan
and profile drawings, typical cross-sections using AutoCAD land development 2007
version. A digital terrain model was generated using land development 2007 version for
design, Horizontal alignment was generated by fitting tangents to curves, centreline was
defined, and offsets were created. For designing drainage, topographical maps were
obtained from the metrological department of Entebbe to enable hydrological analysis.
3.1.3 Simulation and design
Designing was done using the following standards, Transport Research Laboratory,
(TRL), Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO), South African.National.Roads.Agency, (SANRA) South. African and
58
Publication and dissemination
Communications Commission (SATCC) and the Uganda Design Manual. Mainly the
Uganda road design manual was employed; others were used for comparison purposes.
While Simulation was intended to be done by Civil Simulate, but due to the scarcity of
resources was left out.
3.1.4 Publication and dissemination
The project report will be published by the Author and then a copy will be forwarded to
Kyambogo University, others copies shall be given to Kampala city council and other
Public libraries. Soft copies will be converted to PDF, to prevent any distortion of the
document.
59
4.0 Results and discussion
The section gives the results that were obtained from the data that was collected. The
detailed analysis and design is found in Appendix A
4.1 Traffic
The ADT of the Project road was found to be 1,116 Vehicles/day.
43%
21%
26%
8%
0%
1%
1%
0%
Summary of Traffic data
Motorcycles
Saloon Cars
Small bus
Small truck
Large bus
Medium truck(2 Axles)
Heavy trucks (3 Axles)
Heavy trucks (4 Axles)
The Ministry of Works and Transports criterion for upgrading a road in an urban
setting is when the ADT is over 300Vehicles per day; hence the road is due for
upgrading. From the above summary, Motorcycles take up the greatest percentage of the
Traffic, this shows that a Cycle lane will be required.
60
Horizontal alignment Data
4.1.1 Horizontal alignment Data
Geometric characteristics of the existing roads horizontal and vertical alignments were
ascertained from the topographic field surveys undertaken. Circular curves for the
existing road are summarised in the table below .The tables below give horizontal
alignment data results
Table 4. 1 Circular curve data
S/N From To Existing radius Proposed Radius
Proposed Design
Speed
Super
elevation
Direction
of turn
coefficien
t of
1 0+027.94 0+035.131 80
100
50 3 LHS 0.16
2 0+099.832 0+108.656 60
100
50 3 RHS 0.16
3 0+243.678 0+346.957 70
100
50 3 LHS 0.16
4 0+465.355 0+473.21 110
100
50 3 RHS 0.16
5 0+913.381 0+926.273 90
150
50 3 RHS 0.16

Table 4. 2: Transition curve data
S/N From To Transition in Transition out Direction of turn
1 0+010.264 0+027.904 42 42 LHS
2 0+35.131 0+052.771 42 42 LHS
3 0+82.192 0+099.832 42 42 RHS
4 0+108.656 0+126.296 42 42 RHS
5 0+226.038 0+243.678 42 42 LHS
6 0+346.954 0+364.597 42 42 LHS
7 0+447.715 0+465.355 42 42 RHS
8 0+473.721 0+491.361 42 42 RHS
9 0+908.155 0+913.381 28 28 RHS
10 0+926.275 0+931.499 28 28 RHS
From the results above, the existing radius was inadequate except for section
0+465.355-0+473.21.The minimum radius for the project road should be 100m
according to the Uganda Roads Design Manual; see Appendix C, Table 2.5.The existing
radius was then upgraded to 100m minimum. Going beyond the minimum would
involve a lot of compesation, hence both safety and economy were considered in the
design. See Appendix I-1 and I-2 for alignment drawings.
Transition curves were introduced to counter the effect of centrifugal acceleration
because of the minimum radius that was proposed. The Uganda road design manual
states that when the radius of the curve is less than V
3
/432, a transition curve would be
required; hence they were cated for as shown in table 4.2 since all the curves didnt
fulfil the condition.
61
Vertial alignment Data
4.1.2 Vertial alignment Data
Table 4. 3: Grade data
S/N From To Existing Gradient(%) Proposed Gradients(%) Terrain type
1 0+000 0+400
4.25
3.89 Rolling
2 0+400 0+660
10.38
8.42 Rolling
3 0+960 1+135
8.748
5.43 Rolling
Section 0+400-0+600 had a grade of 10.38%, and according to the Uganda road design
Manual, the project road should not have a grade of more than 9%.other grades were
chosen so as to balance cut and fill. on section 0+720-1+100,fill was about 5m,which is
unrealistic, reducing the fill meant having a very short sag length which would not be
adequate for a design speed of 50Km/hr.At this section, the fill could be reduced and
speed at that section be reduced to about 30Km/hr.
Table 4. 4: Vertical curve data
S/N PVI Station PVI Elevation
Curve Length(m) Provided Type of Curve Kmin Standard
1 0+434.774 1184.157 45.287 Crest 10 9-10
2 0+791.189 1154.164 166.188 Sag 12 11-12
Minimum K value at crests = 9, based on or stopping sight distance Minimum K value
at sags = 11, based on head light sight distance, rider comfort
Crossections
Table 4. 5: Crossectional data
Roadway Width (m) Carriageway Width (m) Reserve Width (m)
Shoulder(m) Cycle lane(m)
7.6 5.6 15 1.5 2
The road is a double lane; two directional flow traffic having a lane width of 2.8 and a
total carriageway width of 5.6m as per table 2.2 Appendix B,using the Uganda road
design manual as the standard. Shoulders have been limited to 1.5 m wide.
Longitudinal gradients of 0.64% to 8% were allowed for vertical alignments in order to
enable drainage in the longitudinal direction. Cross section gradient of 2.5% and 4%
have been proposed to allow drainage of the carriage way and shoulders respectively.
See a Typical cross section in Appendix I-10.Crosssections that were generated are in
Appendix I-4 to I-9.
62
Drainage Design
4.2 Drainage Design
Design standards
Drainage design is consistent with specifications and guidelines of MoWT Manual. The
Rational Method was used and assumed uniform rainfall intensity over the entire
catchment area, which is a reasonable assumption for smaller catchments.
A storm water drainage network was designed with channel depths generally controlled
by the road grade. The drainage system comprises of trapezoidal drainage channels with
side slopes of 1 in 4. Drainage channels shall be lined with grouted stone pitching of
cement mortar ratio 1:4.
Two lines of 600mm Culvert shall be installed being influenced by outlet control, This
means flooding is mostly likely to take place at the outlet end of the culvert, and hence
the people near the outlet will need relocation.
A Trapezoidal channel was designed, with base with of 0.5m, 0.6m height and 0.1m
free board at a slope of 8.4%.
63
Pav ement Design
4.3 Pav ement Design
Defining uniform section
Tabulating the CBR Values at each road cross section and selecting its design CBR
Table 4. 6: CBR, results
Chainage Design CBR Subgrade Class
LHS CL RHS
0+000 41 18 18 S5
0+500 10 25 10 S4
1+100 26 15 15 S5
CBR%
From the table the lowest value obtained is 10% at section 0+500, according to TRL;
1993.The subgrade should have a CBR of at least 15%.this section will be cut away and
replaced with fill that has a CBR of more than 15%.
Table 4. 7: Design of Earth Work
Section Length Subgrade stregth
No Start End ( Km) class
1 0+00 0+500 0.5 S5 T3
Double Surface dressing
Road base:GB1A
sub base:Granular Subbase
2 0+500 0+900 0.4 S4 T3
Road base:GB1A
3 0+900 1+100 0.2 S5 T3
Road base:GB1A
Uniform Section
Traffic class Structure Materials
A Double surface dressing layer was proposed for durability purpose
Material on most roads and road sections was found suitable for road construction
works after stripping. The PI was found to be 20 and 1.24 Which is Ok Maximum PI
of 25% is recommended to be compacted in layers not exceeding 250 mm to 95% MDD
as per the AASHTO guide. Subgrade material was recommended to conform to section
3600 of MOWT standards for roads and bridges. As shown in the table.
Table 4. 8: Natural gravel requirements
Material Properties
G15 G7 G3
CBR(%) bs 1377;part 4 Minimum 15 ater
4days soaking
7 after 4days soaking soaking,measured at
v90% of MDD of
BS-Heavy
Compaction
CBR-Swell Maximum 1.5 Maximum 2 Maximum 2
Plasticity index Maximum 25 Maximum 30 (No requiremet)
Max.Particle size BS1377 Part 2
Maximum Layer Thickness
Material Class
250mm compacted thickness placed in one operation
1/2 of compaacted layer thickness but not> 50mm
64
Surface dressing
A Sub base of 150 mm thick granular material compacted to about 97% MDD based on
AASHTO is recommended. A minimum soaked CBR of 30% and a grading modulus of
not less than two is specified for base material. Sub base material was recommended to
conform to section 3700 of MOWT standards for roads and bridges.
Base
A base of 175 mm and 200mm compacted to 97% MDD based on AASHTO was
recommended. The supervisor on site shall ensure that the minimum CBR value
recommended by the design consultant is attained.
Surface dressing
The following material should be used for surface dressing as per section 4300 of
MOWT standards for roads and bridges. Primer of MC 30 cutback bitumen complying
with BS EN 1251:200
Aggregates consisting of crushed rock or river sand with 100% passing the 6.3mm sieve
and not more than 10% passing 2.36mm sieve.
Bitumen of 80/100 shall be used at a spray rate of 1.229kg/m
2
and 0.949kg/m
2
for the
first and second layer respectively.
Aggregate sizes of 14/20 mm sprayed at first seal and Aggregate size of 6/10mm for
second seal sprayed at a rate of 13.367kg/m
2
and 9.548kg/.m
2
respectively. A double
seal was recommended for durability to avoid early development of potholes
Material selection
The criterion is dependant on the results from the laboratory, the results were compared
with specifications, and materials are them accepted, modified or rejected in accordance
with the minimum requirements. Aggregate tests were carried out on Kangulumira
quarry and were as follows,
Table 4. 9 Grading of aggregates from kangulumira quarry
Sieve Sizes
14mm 20mm 14mm 20mm
28 - 100 - 100
20 100 99 100 85-100
14 96 15 85-100 0-35
10 26 0 0-35 0-7
6.3 1 - 0-7 -
2.36 0 0 0-2 0-2
0.075 0 0 0-1 0-1
Flakiness
Index(%)
23 24
Percentage passing the sieves Grading limits
25 maximum
65
Surface dressing
Table 4.10 Aggregate properties
Results BS
LIMITS:812:19
90
Kangulumira
Quarry
Agregate Crushing
Value (%)
24 21 Maximum
Aggregate Impact
Value (%)
15 25 Maximum
Los Angeles
Abrasion Value (%)
24 28 Maximum
Water Absorption
(%)
0.4 2 Maximum
Bitumen Affinity(%
of coated Surface)
>95 >95 Maximum
Test
The results were found to conform, hence accepted.
66
5.0 Reflections
Challenges
Physical planning was poor, there was little maneuver for vehicles, compensation would
be very expensive in having the best possible alignment.
The project road has no detours, alternative routes while constructing the pavement.
Positioning culverts was very difficult since it was an already built up area, water
couldnt be channelled into peoples houses.
The project road had no defined drains and outflows to plan for an appropriate drainage
system.
Some tests carried out on borrow material did not conform to the standards yet
materials are not readily available,
The time allocated to the project was not enough, many aspects such as cost benefit
analysis was not done.
Lessons learnt
The project becomes more elaborate as it proceeds before undertaking a project one
needs to have the general layout from the beginning.
Some times designs need to be compromised, hence human judgement is always
necessary.
Many unforeseen activities come as the project is preceding, hence a need to cater for
any contingencies in the budget.
67
6.0 Conclusions and Reccomendations
Conclusions
The ADT of the Project road was found to be 1,116 Vehicles/day., with 43% of the
traffic being motorcycles.
The project Road was found to be a class C Gravel and was being upgraded to class (iii)
bitumen.
The terrain was found to be rolling with a transverse slope of approximately 10%.
Re alignment at section 0+800 has been proposed due to the increase of the radius.
Carriage way is with of 5.6m, 1.5m shoulders, cycle lane of 2m has been proposed.
A Trapezoidal section of 0.5m bottom with, 1.21 m height, side slopes1:2 and 1:1.5 and
Cross culverts of 600mm.
The subgrade at section 0+500 is unsuitable and a replacement was proposed.
The pavement is composed of double surface dressing, road base175mm, 200mm, and
175, subbase, 100mm, 200mm, and 100mm respectively for the three sections. The
chipping spray rate is 13.367kg/m
2
and 9.548kg/m
2
for first and second layer
respectively and binder at a rate of 1.229kg/m
2
and 0.949kg/m
2
respectively for 1
st
and
second layer respectively.
Curves were based on stopping sight distance and Overtaking will be marked by straight
lines.
A hump will be placed at chainage 0+010 to avoid accidents and other Speed limit signs
especially at the sag.
68
Conclusions
Recommendations
Cycle lane should be provided to enable cyclist not to interfere with the motorized
traffic.
Humps should be provided at section 0+010 to counter the effect of the reverse
curve.
A well organized settlement plan should be done so that peaceful vacations take
place.
Quality control should be ensured especially for materials in according to the
specifications stipulated.
The field supervisor should ensure that the required compaction s achieved.
Drains should be cleaned regular to a void any silting that may lead to blockage and
hence flooding.
Since the grades are steep, scour checks are necessary and should be designed for.
69
Bibliography
Bibliography
1) Arora, K.R,( 2002)Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
2) Bindra, S.P. (1999). A course in Highway engineering 4
th
Edition, Dhanpat rai
publishers, New Delhi
3) CIA. (2008, December 23/02/2010). World Statistics,Country Comparisons.
Retrieved February 23, 2010, from Natioon master: WWW.nation master.com
4) Kadiyali, R,L. (1996). Principles and practice of Highway Engineering. New
Delhi: Khanna Publishers.
5) Kiely, G. (1997). Environmental Engineering. Berkshire,England: McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company.
6) MoW&T. (1994). Geometric design Manual. Kampala.
7) Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications.(2004) General Specifications
for Road and Bridgeworks
8) Ministry of works, housing and communication,( 2004) District Road works
Technical manual, volume 1
9) Ministry of works, housing and communication .Uganda road design manual
January 2004
10) Ministry of works, housing and communication .Uganda road drainage manual
January 2005
11) Ministry of Works and Transport (2004). Geometric Design Manual. Kampala:
Republic of Uganda
12) O'Flaherty, C. (2002). Transport Planning andTraffic Engineering,3rd Edition.
London: Butterworth-Heinemann.
13) Okello F.E (2009). Highway Engineering I and II.Lecture notes,
Department of Civil Engineering Kyambogo
14) Paul H. W and Radnor J.P. (1967).Highway engineering 4e 3
rd
Edition, John
Wiley and sons
15) SATTC, (2000)geometric Design Manual,
16) SANRA,(2000),geometric design manual
17) Singh, J. (2004). Highway Engineering, Fifth Edition. Delhi: Bhargave Laser
Printers
18) Transport Road Research Laboratory,(1993)Guide to design of Bitumen surfaced
Roads in Tropical and subtropical countries, Overseas Road note
31,Crowthorne,England
19) Transport Road Research Laboratory,(1993)geometric design manual Overseas
Road note 6,Crowthorne,England
20) Thagesen, B. (1996). Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries
(1st Edition ed.). Great Britain: Alden Press.
21) Brockenbrough &Boedecker,(2004),Highway Engineering Hand book, Mc
Grawhill
70
Appendices
71
Appendix A, Analysis and Design
A.1 Traffic
Construction period (n) is assumed to be 2yrs
Design life=15years
One station was considered
Determination of cumulative design traffic, T
1
n
i
i
T T
=
=
6
365 10
i
T F W G Y

=
F =Unidirectional traffic flow
Assuming a 1:2 directional split
2
3
F = (Of the traffic volume of each class)
For example minibus;
=
2
723
3
482 Vehicles/ day
o
F =
Fp=482(1-1.9)
2
=390 Vehicles/ day
Wear Factor, W
4.5
Axleload,in tons
8.16
W inesa

=

For small buses
4.5 4.5
1.00 1.00
8.16 8.16
W

= +

0.0001 0.0018
=0.0019 esa
W = +
72
A.1 Traffic
Growth factor G
G= (1+0.06)
0.5(15)
7.95
Results
See tables of results in the appendix D
From the table a cumulative design traffic of 1.471 msawas obtained which correspond
to a Traffic Class of T3 i.e. 0.7<1.4710<1.5
73
Appendix A.2: Geometric design
Appendix A.2: Geometric design
Summary of adopted design parameters and standards
Design Speed =50km/hr
Standard, Uganda road design manual
Minimum radius = 100m; according to
Derived from formula,
2
D
min
V
R =
127(e+f)
Where:
V
D
= Design Speed (km/h)
e = Cross fall of road or the maximum super-elevation (%/) =7%
f = Coefficient of side friction force developed between the vehicles and road Pavement
Minimum length of transition curves = 50m; based on
3
0.0702V
L=
RC
Where:
L = minimum length of spiral (m)
V= Design Speed (km/h)
R = Curve radius (m) and,
C= rate of increase of centripetal acceleration (m/s
3
), in this C = 1
Transition curves were provided where radius of horizontal curves was less 289.35m
obtained from
3
V
R<
432
=for the project road, the required minimum radius for the
project road was
3
50
R< =289.35m
432
74
A.3 Drainage Design
A.3 Drainage Design
Design standards
Drainage design is consistent with specifications and guidelines of MoWT Manual. The
Rational Method was used and assumed uniform rainfall intensity over the entire
catchment area, which is a reasonable assumption for smaller catchments.
Design of longitudinal drainage structures.
A storm water drainage network was designed with channel depths generally controlled
by the road grade. The drainage system comprises of trapezoidal drainage channels with
side slopes of 4:1. Drainage channels shall be lined with grouted stone pitching of
cement mortar ratio 1:4.
a) Estimation of design flood flows
3
/
3.6
CIA
Q m s =
C
=Runoff Coefficient
I =Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
A
= Catchment Area (in km
2
)
Estimation of runoff coefficients
1.00*( )
1.00*(0.08 0.08 0.21)
0.37
C CS CK CV = = =
+ +
=
(Uganda road design Manual,2005)
Estimation of intensity
Intensity of rainfall in an area id dependant on the duration of the storm. its assumed
that that at peak flow the duration is equal to the time of concentration.
0.385
3
0.87 L
H

=

0.385
0.87 0.83
48

=

=9.9 Minutes
Where
75
A.3 Drainage Design
L=length of longest water course from exit (in km)
H= height from source to exit (in m)
From the topographical map
L=800m measured from project road to exit
H=1200-1152
=9.9 minutes
=48m
From the intensity-duration frequency curves for Kampala provided, the intensity for a
5year return period is given by I
S
=110mm/hr See Appendix E-2
Estimation of the catchment area, A
Considering an offset of 200m from the road,
Area A
1
(For the surrounding Areas) =0.20.8=0.16km
2
Carriage way area
Area A
2
= 7.6/ 20.8
=3.0410
-6
Km
2
Peak runoff
Total area= (0.16+3.0410
-6
)
=0.16km
2
Peak discharge
3
0.37 0.16 110
/
3.6
Q m s

=
=1.81m
3
/s
Hydraulic design of longitudinal drains
Design parameters
Design discharge Q=1.81m
3
/s
Permissible velocity=3m/s
Base material stone masonry
76
A.3 Drainage Design
Determination of area, A
2
1.81
0.603m
3
Q
A
V
= = =
Determination of channel depth, d
Assuming a bottom width of 0.5m, and a fore slope of 1:.2, side slope of 1: 1.5 as
specified by Uganda Road Design Manual section 7 table 7.4
Controlled by the road grade. The drainage system comprises of trapezoidal drainage
Slope 1
st
section, 8.42%
From Mannings formula,
2/ 3 1/ 2
1
V R S
n
=
Cross sectional area
Wetted perimeter
R =
Taking a velocity of 2m/ s,n=0.024 for stone masonry
2/ 3
1/ 2
Vn
R
S

=

2/ 3
1/ 2
2 0.024
8.42
R

=

=11.12
-let d be the depth of the channel. Top width=3.4d+.5
Area=1/ 2d (3.4d+0.5+0.5) =0.603
d=0.466
Ministry of works and housing recommends 0.1m for free board
Depth of the trapezoidal Channel=0.566m
Nature of Bed=stone masonry
Side Slope= fore slope1; 2and1; 1.5 side slope
Channel Slope=8.4%
Minimum gradient for longitudinal drainage=0.5
Bed Width=0.5m
Channel Depth=0.566m
Freeboard, Fb=0.1m
77
A.3 Drainage Design
0.5m
1
2
1
1.5
0.1m
0.6m
Design of cross drainage structures
Design parameters
Runoff coefficient C=0.37 fro appendix
Considering a return period of 10yrs
From the intensity duration curve, I=123mm/hr
Catchment area
160000m
2
0.16km
2
Determination of peak discharge
Using rational formula
3
/
3.6
CIA
Q m s =
3
0.37 123 0.16
/
3.6
Q m s

=
2.022 Q=
Hydraulic design of a typical culvert using a Monograph
Basic design data
Cross sectional Culvert Area
A=Q/ V
A=2.022/ 3
=0.674m
2
Trial determination of number and size of pipe culverts
78
A.3 Drainage Design
Preliminary sizing
Culvert sizes (mm)
Culvert size Areas
Number of
culvert lines Remarks
600 0.2827 2
900 0.6362 2
1200 1.131 1
Design discharge
0.674/ 2
=0.337m
3
/ s
Length of culvert=15m
Slope of culvert=2%
Check for inlet and outlet control
Checking for inlet control
Headwater depth using inlet control
From the graph in appendix E-3
HW/ D=1.38
Allowable headwater to depth ratio, HW/ D=1.5, hence within limits
HW=0.8m
Outlet control
Tailwater depth, TW=1.2
Free board, Fb=0.45
Entrance type= grooved end with squared edge inlet
Pipe Culvert groove end with headwall
Concrete box culvert wing wall flare of 30-75 degrees
79
A.3 Drainage Design
Headwater depth .HWusing outlet control.
Head loss for box culvert flowing full
Head water under outlet control is given by;
HW=H+ho-LSo
H=0.16 (from figure)
Vertical distance from culvert invert to hydraulic grade line, ho
ho=1/ 2(critical depth +D), Tailwater depth whichever is greater.
=1/ 2(0.4+0.6), TW=1.2
=0.5, TW=1.2
=1.2
ho=1.2
HW=0.44+1.2-150.02
HW=1.34
HW water at the outlet is greater than that at the inlet, hence the culvert flows are being
controlled by outlet control.
Flow
Properties
Discharge
Q(m
3
/s)
Velocity(Vm/s) Crosssectional
Area(Am
2
)
Manning
Coefficient(n)
Depth of
drains(hm)
Bottom
Width(Wm)
Top
width(Lm)
1.18 3 1.21 0.024 0.6 0.5 2.6m
80
A.3 Drainage Design
Measurement of subgrade strength
Project area is classified as category 2 according to ORN 31 because it has with deep
water tables and where rainfall is sufficient to produce significant changes in moisture
conditions under the road. The rainfall in this area is usually greater than 250 mm per
year and is often seasonal
Using DCP machine the subgrade was assessed see Appendix for DCP charts
Testing subgrade soils
Subgrade strength was considered at a depth of 475
Defining uniform section
Tabulating the CBR Values at each road cross section and selecting its design CBR
From the table the lowest value obtained is 10%
Design of earthworks
Road base=175mm
Sub base=100mm
Design of surface dressing
Design data
ADT (All vehicles) =1116Vehicles/day
ADT (Commercial vehicles) =508Vehicles/day
Type of binder Penetration grade bitumen 80/100
Type of chippings Cubical
Existing surface: First layer Primed road base
81
A.3 Drainage Design
Second layer; Lean bituminous
Climatic conditions tropical
Recommended size of Chippings
From table the surface hardness is Normal
Traffic category is category one from table
Number of commercial vehicles per lane= 508/ 2=254vehicles
This traffic is in the range 200-1000category 3
Average least dimension
From table ., since the surface hardness category is Normal and traffic category is 3
Recommended size of chippings is
First layer=14mm
Second layer=0.5(14) =7mm
Since its not on the Market, 10 mm shall be adopted.
Flakiness Index
14 14 23
10 10 24
Chipping size Median sieve grading(mm)
Chipping spread rate
Determination of Average least dimension
Median sieve size=14mm and 10mm and flakiness index is=23 and 24
From figure ALD=9.8mmand 7mm
Surfacing Layer Chipping sizes ALD(mm)
First layer 14mm 9.8
Second layer 10mm 7
Chipping application rate (Kg/m
2
) =1.364*ALD
First Layer=1.3649.8=13.367Kg/m
2
Second Layer=1.3647=9.548Kg/m
2
Basic binder spread rate
R=0.625+ (F*0.023) + [0.0375+ (F*0.0011)] ALD
82
A.3 Drainage Design
Where F is the overall weighting factor
ALD = the average least dimension of chippings (mm)
R=Basic rate of spread of bitumen (Kg/m
2
)
From table, first layer
F=7, ALD=9.8
R=1.229(Kg/m
2
)
Second layer
F=2, ALD=7
R=0.949(Kg/m
2
)
Adjustments of spray rates in accordance with ORN 3(TRL, 2000)
R*0.99
First layer, =1.2167 Kg/m
2
)
Second layer=0.9395
83
Appendix B:Tables
Appendix B:Tables
Table: 1.1: Highway Length Statistics
Country Length(km)
Country Length(km)
Country Length(km)
United States 6,406,296 United States 4,148,395 States 2,257,902
India 3,319,644 India 1,517,077 India 1,802,567
Brazil 1,724,929 France 894,000 Brazil 1,630,058
Canada 1,408,800 Spain 657,157 China 1,088,494
China 1,402,698 Japan 534,471 Canada 911,494
Japan 1,161,894 Canada 497,306 Japan 627,423
France 894,000 Italy 479,688 Australia 497,513
Australia 811,603 U.K 371,913 South Africa 288,593
Spain 663,795 Russia 358,833 Turkey 254,734
Russia 532,393 China 314,204 Mexico: 221,445
Italy 479,688 Australia 314,090 Bangladesh 187,713
Turkey 385,960 Poland 249,060 Indonesia 184,030
U.K 371,913 Germany 230,735 Russia 173,560
Poland 364,656 Austria 200,000 Philippines 159,575
South Africa 362,099 Sweden 166,523 Argentina 152,123
Indonesia 342,700 Ukraine 163,898 Pakistan 145,014
Mexico 329,532 Indonesia 158,670 Nigeria 134,326
Pakistan 254,410 Turkey 131,226 Poland 115,596
Germany 230,735 Belgium 116,687 Hungary 106,523
Total highway length Paved highways Un Paved highways
84
Appendix B:Tables
Figure 1.1: Highway location process
Table 1.2: Ongoing and proposed projects by 2013
No. Road Sections Length No. Road Sections Length
1 Kabale-Kisoro-Bunagana/Kyanika(on-going) 98 km 1 Masaka-Bukakata 36 km
2 Gayaza-Zirobwe-Wobulenzi(on going) 67 km 2 Atiak-Moyo 93 km
3 Soroti-Dokolo-Lira(on-going) 123 km 3 Kyenjojo-Hoima-Masindi-Kigumba 238 km
4 Fort Portal-Bundibugyo-Lania 103 km 4 Mpigi-Maddu-Ssembabule 135 km
5 Matuga-Semuto-Kapeka 42 km 5 Tirinyi-Pallisa-Kumi/Pallisa-Mbale 69 km
6 Hoima-Kaiso-Tonya 78 km 6 Mbale-Bubulo-Lwakhakha 41 km
7 Busega-Mityana 57 km 7 Namagumba-Budadiri 30 km
8 Kampala Northern By Pass(dualling) 21 km 8 Mbarara-Kikagati 35 km
9 Muyembe-Moroto 191 km 9 Rukungiri-Ishasha 50 km
10 Kapchorwa-Suam 77 km 10 Rwenkunye-Apac-Lira-Kitgum 230 km
11 Gulu-Atiak-Bibia 104 km 11 Mukono-Kyetume-Katosi/Kisoga-Nyenga 72 km
12 Mirama-Hills-Ntungamo/Kagamba-Ishaka 94 km 12 Kamuli-Bukungu 64 km
Total Length 1,055 km 13 Villa Maria-Ssermbabule 48km
Total length 1,141 km
85
Appendix C: Geometric Design tables
Table 2. 1: Division into road category
Road Category Description Function Desired Rural Speed Limit
Connection between the national road system and those of
neighbouring countries
Linkage between the provincial capitals, main centers of
population and production centers
Connection between local centers of population
Linkage between districts, local centers of population and
development areas with the principal Arterial System
Collectors Linkage between locally important traffic generators and their
rural hinterland
(Tertiary Roads) Provision of service to smaller communities
Local Road System
(Feeder Roads)
Category C
80km/hr
Category D Provision of access to land adjacent to the collectors system
80km/hr
Category A Principle Arterial System
(Primary Roads)
100km/hr
Category B Minor Arterial System
(Secondary Roads)
80km/hr
Source: MoW&T, 2005
Table 2.2 Division into road class
Class Capacity
10
3
pcu/d Level Rolling Mountainous
I Bitumen 10 6 11 7 40 110 100 80 A
II Bitumen 8 4 9 6 30 90 80 60 A,B
III Bitumen 6 2 7.6 5.6 25 80 70 50 A,B,C
A Gravel 8 4 9 6 30 90 80 70 A,B
B Gravel 6 2 7.6 5.6 25 80 60 50 A,B,C
C Gravel 4 1 6.4 5 15 60 50 40 B,C
Roadway
Width (m)
Carriageway
Width (m)
Reserve
Width (m)
Maximum Design Speed
(km/hr)
Category
Source: MoW&T, 2005
Table2.3 Design Vehicle characteristics
H
e
i
g
h
t
w
i
d
t
h
L
e
n
g
t
h
F
r
o
n
t
R
e
a
r
4 x 4 passenger car
DV-1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3 4.2
Single unit truck
DV-2 4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1 12.8 8.5
Single unit bus
DV-3 4.1 2.6 12 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8 7.4
Semitrailer combination large
DV-4 4.1 2.6 17 0.9 0.6 6.1 & 9.1 13.7 5.8
Interstate Semitrailer
DV-5 4.1 2.6 21 1.2 0.9 6.1 & 12.8 13.7 2.9
Minimum
inside radius
(m)
Design Vehicle type Symbol Overall (m) Overhang (m)
W
h
e
e
l

b
a
s
e

(
m
)
Minimum design
turning radius
(m)
Source: MoW&T, 2005
Table 2. 4 Terrain classification
Type of Terrain Description
Level (or Flat) Terrain
Level or gently country which offers few obstacle to the construction of a road having continuously
unrestricted and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 5%)
Rolling Terrain
Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and where
occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in horizontal and vertical
alignment. (20% transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountainous Terrain
Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions
on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance
(70% transverse terrain slope > 20%)
Escarpment
In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those situations whereby the
standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met. Escarpment situation are where it
is required to switchback road alignment or side hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are huge
(transverse terrain slope > 70%)
Source: MoW&T, 2005
86
Table 2. 5: Design Parameters
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling s Urban
Design Speed km/h 80 70 50 50
Min. Stopping Sight Distance m 115 95 60 60
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 545 485 345 345
Min. Horizontal Curve Radius m 240 185 85 100
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 4 5.5 9 9
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 7.5 11 11
Minimum Gradient in cut % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Superelevation % 7 7 7 4
Crest Vertical Curve stopping K
min
32 22 9 9
Crest Vertical Curve passing K
min
310 246 126 126
Sag Vertical Curve stopping K
min
25 20 11 11
Normal Cross fall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross fall % 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 30
Source: MoW&T, 2005
Table 2.5.1: DesignParameters
Design
Speed
Maximum
e [%]
Limiting
value of f (e/100 + f)
Calculated
Radius
Rounded
Radius
30 4 0.17 0.21 33.7 35
40 4 0.17 0.21 60 60
50 4 0.16 0.2 98.4 100
60 4 0.15 0.19 149.2 150
70 4 0.14 0.18 214.3 215
80 4 0.14 0.18 280 280
90 4 0.13 0.17 375.2 375
100 4 0.12 0.16 492.1 490
110 4 0.11 0.15 635.2 635
120 4 0.09 0.13 872.2 870
Source: MoW&T, 2005
87
Appendix C-1, Survey Data
P N E Z D
1000 1000 1200 INSTR
1 1034.0818 969.68989 1201.0534 CL
2 1036.992 972.08965 1200.9687 SHLDR
3 1038.3323 972.94227 1201.2696 DR
4 1039.6222 974.9438 1201.5599 EP
5 1040.563 977.04066 1201.9143 SH
6 1030.2434 967.04386 1201.0337 SHLDR
7 1032.5092 963.80642 1201.1194 DR
8 1009.4007 989.37063 1200.8553 CL
9 1011.0875 993.40625 1200.4658 SHLDR
10 1006.9668 987.02167 1200.5874 SHLDR
11 1003.5653 998.71451 1200.8521 EP
12 974.66311 1002.9668 1199.7378 CL
13 975.66212 1005.9304 1199.8352 SHLDR
14 976.10168 1007.0975 1200.3215 DR
15 976.59261 1008.7232 1200.5874 SH
16 972.86447 1000.4925 1199.4691 DR
17 972.48361 999.55399 1200.2276 SH
18 942.91454 1019.3319 1198.4853 CL
19 944.15179 1020.6395 1199.0231 SHLDR
20 940.49614 1016.5031 1199.0013 SHLDR
21 939.95398 1015.5227 1199.2359 PKT2
22 967.49454 1013.0651 1200.772 AC,CL
23 969.94883 1012.468 1200.9905 AC,SHDR
24 963.83917 1013.7621 1200.8593 SHDER
25 970.43073 1025.7908 1200.6491 C;L AC
26 972.69084 1025.9257 1200.7415 SHLDR
27 968.28536 1026.6823 1200.6468 SHLDR
28 948.64966 1010.0397 1200.2355 BLI
29 905.0099 1046.1101 1197.5829 CL
30 906.38003 1048.3275 1197.5252 SH
31 906.8524 1050.6138 1197.7588 SHDER
32 902.34864 1043.6989 1197.644 DR
33 902.25524 1042.8815 1197.0978 BL1
34 933.41229 1033.659 1199.8349 BL2
35 917.00298 1045.2676 1198.5082 CL
36 885.9431 1061.8538 1196.3314 SHLDR
37 887.60202 1064.1329 1196.3332 SHLDR
38 889.23831 1066.2345 1196.8535 SH
39 884.08451 1059.9492 1196.3305 SHDER
40 883.16878 1059.0361 1196.0431 DR
41 882.43435 1058.3458 1196.8931 SH
42 822.00906 1120.7762 1192.4627 SH
43 900.83075 1041.6305 1198.7751 CL,AC
P N E Z D
44 898.05307 1043.6786 1198.2902 SHLDR
45 871.20665 1075.0443 1196.1512 CL,AC
46 873.38327 1077.194 1196.1116 BL1
47 876.74533 1077.9974 1196.9603 SHLDR
48 870.87646 1071.8225 1196.2956 DR
49 870.52177 1071.2467 1195.932 EP
50 846.80788 1088.5542 1194.9073 BL2
51 821.14382 1107.6647 1194.0409 EP
52 819.70806 1123.4663 1193.4457 BLI
53 806.96942 1122.6014 1192.1321 CL,AC
54 808.10529 1125.0642 1191.9086 SHLDR
55 808.47143 1126.9041 1192.2471 SHLDR
56 809.99911 1131.1654 1192.3933 SHLDR
57 803.42404 1121.2061 1192.0288 SHLDR
58 802.86123 1120.4879 1191.7436 DR
59 802.46671 1119.1487 1192.6337 SHLDR
60 708.73683 1089.881 1185.2181 SHLDR
61 650.10054 1074.6985 1182.2929 CL,AC
62 649.84223 1077.5094 1182.3142 SHLDR
63 649.59635 1078.69 1182.2834 DR
64 653.52554 1081.0063 1183.073 SH
65 654.97292 1071.809 1182.5663 SHLDER
66 655.04934 1070.7626 1182.209 DR
67 655.37635 1069.7544 1183.2053 SH
68 679.2749 1085.8976 1184.2392 BL1
69 650.89688 1081.0515 1183.1011 BL2
70 627.10481 1064.2543 1181.2118 AC,CL
71 630.11321 1064.9225 1181.3721 SHLDER
72 623.99187 1063.4201 1180.934 SHOLDER
73 625.26347 1059.036 1180.9387 SH
74 617.98404 1072.6721 1180.6088 ACESS,CL
75 582.37554 1056.7203 1177.1594 CL,AC
76 580.77739 1058.5472 1177.1025 SHLDER
77 687.90591 1083.9093 1184.2608 CL
78 686.48081 1085.3129 1184.3099 SHLDER
79 685.78362 1086.438 1184.1474 DR
80 685.19702 1087.4992 1185.2722 SH
81 688.23511 1081.21 1183.9822 SHLDER
82 688.59641 1080.1685 1183.8476 DR
83 688.83673 1079.5109 1184.5358 SH
84 629.79903 1054.8296 1179.3664 CL/CORNER
85 628.8962 1057.1482 1179.444 SHLDR
88
Appendix C-1, Survey Data
86 628.38323 1058.0736 1179.5282 DR
87 631.23584 1052.673 1179.0277 SHLDR
88 631.9292 1051.642 1179.2702 DR
89 660.97162 1075.4763 1183.684 BL1
90 649.08148 1069.3792 1182.3168 EP
91 631.39236 1062.2258 1180.7275 BL2
92 625.56893 1059.7729 1179.7132 SH
93 621.99688 1058.9199 1179.7766 BL1
94 576.71937 1029.9837 1175.514 EP
95 570.02185 1030.8325 1174.127 ACCESS
96 564.52891 1029.1094 1174.2637 EP
97 620.73524 1047.9284 1178.4074 DR
98 588.72474 1041.8412 1175.5695 CL
99 587.09663 1038.9819 1175.296 SHLDR
100 538.25884 1023.4335 1171.3299 STATION 5
101 526.78774 1030.6081 1172.6647 BL1
102 522.1137 1030.4653 1171.5228 ACCESS
103 520.40723 1034.0306 1171.8257 SH
104 517.54871 1028.2374 1171.6333 BL1
105 520.5866 1017.8943 1170.8123 EP
106 504.48151 1019.2943 1168.8417 CL
107 503.26452 1021.1308 1168.6584 SHLDER
108 503.1895 1021.9667 1168.4633 DR
109 503.16366 1024.4536 1170.3813 SH
110 506.22315 1017.5582 1169.0088 SHLDR
111 506.04833 1015.7683 1169.1915 ACCESS
112 484.13637 1021.1648 1167.1333 BL2
113 486.77862 1010.5824 1167.6869 BL1
114 476.56129 1007.5071 1166.0871 BL2
115 450.86409 1007.4185 1160.9188 CL
116 450.14054 1009.4559 1160.7677 SHLDR
117 449.83069 1010.6317 1160.5926 DR
118 448.66531 1012.2405 1161.8998 SH
119 450.36545 1005.0761 1160.5131 SHLDR
120 416.84319 999.92797 1156.7366 CL
121 416.35655 1002.3037 1156.593 SHLDR
122 415.91508 1003.6687 1156.4874 DRAINAGE
123 416.41479 998.54499 1156.7031 SHLDER
124 384.14474 993.73255 1155.3752 CL
125 383.78929 996.91082 1154.7212 SHLDER
126 384.82383 991.90913 1155.4475 DR
127 358.57006 987.84058 1154.795 CL
128 358.41062 989.88771 1154.7968 SHLDR
129 359.81641 986.1784 1154.8184 DR
130 314.85913 979.02918 1154.6533 CL
131 314.41403 981.98448 1154.7393 SHLDR
132 315.77324 976.02772 1154.5024 SHLDR
133 290.88648 973.66056 1154.9452 CL
134 290.29322 976.49025 1154.862 SHLDR
135 290.0302 978.12377 1154.994 SH
136 291.76016 971.45188 1154.8921 SHLDR
137 292.0057 969.68785 1154.8919 SH
138 250.74614 967.67253 1155.4085 CL
139 250.6148 970.57751 1155.3479 SHLDR
140 251.55165 964.16076 1155.4637 SHLDR
141 252.64555 972.15505 1155.4336 ACCESS
142 252.55661 975.05074 1155.2589 SHLDR
143 260.83217 974.15087 1155.8083 SHLDR
144 248.71386 971.81568 1155.6583
145 232.20981 969.24081 1150.8747
146 190.36056 958.26151 1037.6383 CL
147 190.14551 960.81719 1157.9511 SHLDR
148 190.57441 955.70354 1153.6539 SHLDR
149 169.06855 952.40919 1154.4312 EP
150 147.43081 958.10728 1160.4133 CKL
151 147.68513 960.19574 1160.5452 SHLDR
152 147.39669 956.80747 1162.3489 SHLDR
153 120.96264 958.87821 1161.5109 SHLDR
154 120.61888 957.38752 1161.4828 SHLDR
155 120.579 957.12797 1161.7247
156 120.83485 956.79301 1162.4035
157 91.717313 956.4141 1162.0508 CL
158 91.727439 958.98728 1165.2259 SHLDR
159 91.501475 960.36453 1165.2533 SH
160 91.964122 953.85335 1165.118 SHLDR
161 90.001579 953.13076 1165.4508 ACESS,CL
162 60.648546 952.93228 1167.596 CL
163 60.190048 954.72646 1167.6263 SHLDR
164 59.960075 955.99523 1167.6525 DR
165 60.502205 950.59666 1167.616 SHLDR
166 60.618393 949.89731 1167.4529 DR
167 29.899876 949.71522 1170 CL
168 29.511819 947.74661 1169.8289 SHLDR
169 29.299759 946.88279 1170.2232 SH
170 -24.80064 944.07218 1173.2051 CL
171 -25.39334 948.38004 1173.1405 SHLDR
89
Appendix D: Pavement Design
Appendix D-1, Traffic class
Vehicle Category W G Y Ti
Front Axle Rear 1 Rear 2 Rear 3 Rate Fo Fp (esa) yrs (msa)
(esa) (esa) (esa) (esa) r % veh/dayveh/day
Small bus 0.0001 0.0018 0.0000 0.0000 -1.9 482 464 0.0019 0.8660 15 0.0041
Small truck 0.0001 0.0018 0.0000 0.0000 6 143 161 0.0019 1.5481 15 0.0025
Large bus 0.0111 0.2507 0.2507 0.0000 3.6 1 1 0.5124 1.3038 15 0.0026
Medium truck (2 Axles) 0.9147 2.4969 0.0000 0.0000 6 17 19 3.4116 1.5481 15 0.5610
Heavy trucks (3 Axles) 0.9147 0.9147 0.9170 0.0000 6 20 22 2.7464 1.5481 15 0.5178
Heavy trucks (4 Axles) 0.9147 2.4969 0.9170 2.4969 6 6 7 6.8255 1.5481 15 0.3830
Cummulative Design traffic(msa) 1.4710
Traffic Class T3
Wear Factor (W) F
Appendix D-2: Axle loads
Gross Front Rear Rear Rear
Vehicle class weight Axle Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3
(tons) (tons) (tons) (tons) (tons)
Small bus 3.00 1.00 2.00 0.00 0.00
Small truck 3.00 1.00 2.00 0.00 0.00
Large bus 15.00 3.00 6.00 6.00 0.00
(2 Axles) 18.00 8.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
(3 Axles) 24.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 0.00
(4 Axles) 36.00 8.00 10.00 8.00 10.00
%
Motorcycles 43
Saloon Cars 21.5
Small bus 25.6
Small truck 7.6
Large bus 0.04
Medium truck(2 Axles) 0.9
Heavy trucks (3 Axles) 1.1
Heavy trucks (4 Axles) 0.3
30
9
1216
723
214
1
26
608
Appendix D-4, Traffic Counts
Category Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
Motor bikes 1153 1094 1211 1174 1153 1096 1018
Cars 448 493 503 433 403 405 421
Small bus 692 654 665 702 612 520 510
Small truck 213 241 198 203 196 178 188
Large bus 2 1 0 1 2 3 0
Medium truck (2axle)
24 18 32 24 20 15 21
Heavy trucks (3 axle)
31 26 18 21 35 30 18
Large trucks (4 axles)
10 7 8 4 9 5 2
16 hr Counts
Category
Motor bikes
Cars
Small bus
Small truck
Large bus
Medium truck (2 axle)
Heavy Trucks (3 axle)
Large trucks (4 axles)
Fri Sat
1233 1205
12 8
24 hr counts
2 3
23 19
41 34
568 512
785 670
204 198
Appendix D-3: ADT
Day of week Total
16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr 16hr 24hr
Conv. factors 1.1 1.10 1.41 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.04 1.11 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.27 1.17 1.13 1.33 1.60
Mon 1153 1233 448 631 692 888 213 222 2 2 24 28 31 36 10 13
Tue 1094 1170 493 695 654 839 241 251 1 1 18 21 26 30 7 9
Wed 1211 1295 503 709 665 853 198 206 0 0 32 37 18 21 8 11
Thur 1174 1255 433 610 702 900 203 211 1 1 24 28 21 25 4 5
Fri 1153 1233 403 568 196 251 196 204 2 2 20 23 35 41 9 12
Sat 1096 1205 405 512 520 670 178 198 3 3 15 19 30 34 5 8
Sun 1018 1119 421 532 510 657 188 209 0 0 21 27 18 20 2 3.2
Total 24hr counts 8511 4258 5058 1501 9 181 208 62
ADT= T/7 1216 608 723 214 1 26 30 9 2827
2 Axle trucks 3 Axle trucks
4 or more
Axle trucks Motobikes Saloon cars Small bus Small trucks Large buses
90
Appendix D-4: Natural moisture content
Location/Source:
Student: Byamukama Norman,
Soil Description: Reddish Brown
Test Method :
Sample Reference: Sampling Date:
Testing Date:
Container no. 1 2 3
Wet soil +Container gms 163.5 120 53.5
Dry soil +Container gms 156.5 114 48
Moisture 7.00 6.00 5.50
Average Moisture Content %
20/03/2010
23/03/2010
TEST DATA
6.50
NATURAL MOISTURE TEST RESULTS
Project: upgrading Nsambya Kirombe road
Nsambya
BS 1377 : Part 2 :Clause 3 1990 .
Location/Source:
Student: Byamukama Norman,
Soil Description: Reddish Brown
Test Method :
Sample Reference: Sampling Date:
Testing Date:
Container no. 1 2 3
Wet soil +Container gms 124 119.5 119.5
Dry soil +Container gms 116 113 111.5
Moisture 8.00 6.50 8.00
Average Moisture Content %
20/03/2010
23/03/2010
TEST DATA
7.50
NATURAL MOISTURE TEST RESULTS
Project: upgrading Nsambya Kirombe road
Nsambya
BS 1377 : Part 2 :Clause 3 1990 .
Appendix D-5: Plastic and liquid limit
Test no.
1
g
g
g
g
g
%
mm 0 0 0 0 0 0
mm 15.2 16 22.3 21.8 23.5 23.5
mm 15.2 16 22.3 21.8 23.5 23.5
Average cone penetration mm
l
g 73.50 79
g 57.71 36.5
g 18.00 19.0
g
g
%
1.00
7.00
1.50
14.29
18.50
15.79 42.00
1
80.50
79.50
72.50
Project:
15.5 22.05
Plastic Limit 3 Average 2
Sampling Date: 20/03/2010 Test Method
Testing Date: 23/03/2010
5.00
30.00
Mass of wet soil + container 125.00
Container no.
123.50
Mass of dry soil + container 124.00
Mass of container 118.00 117.00
122.00
Moisture content 16.67
Mass of dry soil 6.00
20.32
Mass of moisture 1.00
Initial dial gauge reading
Container no.
Liquid Limit 1 3
23.50
Cone Penetration
2
Final dial gauge reading
Nsambya
Mass of wet soil + container
Mass of dry soil + container
BS: 1377 part 2:1990.
Location:
70.00
45.10
PLASTIC LIMIT AND LIQUID LIMIT (CONE PENETROMETER)
26.60
39.71 17.50
39.8
Up grading Nsambya-Kirombe road to a bituminous paved
surface
Soil Description:
41.0
Mass of dry soil
41.6
Sample Source: 0+00
Mass of container
PI=20.
91
Test no.
g
g
g
g
g
%
mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
mm 15.1 16 15.2 21.0 23.9 23.6
mm 15.1 16 15.2 21 23.9 23.6
Average cone penetration mm
1 3 2
g 53.20 75.57
g 47.11 65.2
g 22.25 26.5
g
g
%
PI=1.24
Mass of dry soil
PLASTIC LIMIT AND LIQUID LIMIT (CONE PENETROMETER)
26.4
15.70
24.86
Mass of dry soil + container
34.10
29.70
38.74
24.5
Upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe road to a bituminous paved surface
Mass of container
Nsambya
26.8
Sample Source: 0+500
BS: 1377 part 2:1990.
Location:
Mass of dry soil 5.00 5.00
Initial dial gauge reading
Container no.
Liquid Limit 1 3
23.75
23.08
116.50
111.50
1.50
Mass of container 76.00
15.55 18.1
Plastic Limit 3 Average
117.00
82.50
Mass of dry soil + container 81.00
30.00
6.50
Cone Penetration
2
Project:
Sampling Date: 20/03/2010 Test Method
6.09 10.38
1
118.0
Contauner no.
Final dial gauge reading
2
125.00
123.50
14.00
1.50
27.69
y = 2.169x - 38.23
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0
C
o
n
e

P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
Moisture Content (%)
92
Layers removed None
surface type unpaved
Initial reading
at 3.0m
No of blows Reading Penetration Station No of Blows Reading Penetration
mm mm 0+500 mm mm
0 85 85 0 82 82
5 127 42 5 115 33
6 167 125 5 164 131
5 188 63 5 220 89
5 214 151 5 245 156
5 243 92 5 330 174
5 274 182 3 374 200
10 350 168 3 415 215
5 382 214 3 457 242
5 414 200 3 500 258
5 448 248 2 526 268
5 484 236 2 554 286
7 533 297 2 580 294
5 566 269 3 617 323
5 600 331 3 644 321
3 622 291 3 667 346
3 652 361 2 683 337
2 671 310 2 699 362
1 679 369 1 705 343
1 687 318 1 712 369
2 700 382 1 720 351
On Left Hand Side On Right hand side
Dynamic Cone penetrometer (D.C.P) test
Chainage 0+000
Cone angle 60
zero error
DCP FIELD TEST results date: 13/03/2010
Layers removed None
surface type unpaved
Initial reading
at 3.0m
No of blows Reading penetration Station No of BlowsReading penetration
mm mm 0+500 mm mm
0 88 0 0 89 0
5 124 36 5 120 31
5 167 43 5 157 37
5 214 47 5 212 55
5 247 33 5 264 52
5 281 34 3 303 39
4 297 16 2 338 35
1 414 117 2 366 28
1 432 18 2 385 19
1 451 19 3 410 25
1 474 23 3 435 25
1 495 21 3 460 25
1 520 25 3 486 26
1 545 25 3 513 27
1 588 43 3 542 29
1 652 64 3 573 31
1 667 15 3 600 27
1 680 13 4 640 40
1 694 14 4 680 40
1 711 17 4 693 13
1 727 16 5 710 17
1 743 16 5 723 13
Dynamic Cone penetrometer (D.C.P) test
Chainage 0+500
Cone angle 60
zero error
Dcp test results Date: 13/03/2010
On Left Hand Side On Right hand side
Layers removed None
Surface type Unpaved
Initial reading
at 3.0m
No of blows Reading penetration Station No of Blows Reading Penetration
mm mm 0+1200 mm mm
0 80 0 0 75 0
5 117 37 5 119 44
5 140 23 5 170 51
5 172 32 5 221 51
5 215 43 5 281 60
5 265 50 5 350 69
5 317 52 5 415 65
5 369 52 5 489 74
3 394 25 3 542 53
3 420 26 3 589 47
3 444 24 3 635 46
3 475 31 3 683 48
3 502 27 2 713 30
4 540 38 1 732 19
3 580 40 1 746 14
5 654 74 1 764 18
2 678 24 1 783 19
2 698 20 1 805 22
2 719 21
1 723 4
Cone angle 60
Zero error
Date 13/03/2010
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (D.C.P) test
On Left Hand Side
DCP Field results
On Right hand side
Chainage 0+1200
APPINDEX D-6:DCP field results APPINDEX D-7:DCP field results
APPINDEX D-8
93
Appendix D-9: DCP charts
CH 0+00 L
CH 0+00 R
CH 1+100
CH 1+100
CH 0+500 R CH 0+500 L
94
Appendix D-10: Particle size determination
Project:
Location:
Soil Description:
Soil Description: sandy SILT of intermediate plasticity (MIS)
Source Sampling Date: 20/03/2010
900
Lower limit Upper limit
75.00 75.00 0 0.0 100
50.00 50.00 0 0.0 100
37.50 37.50 0 0.0 100
20.00 20.00 0 0.0 100
10 10 0 0.0 93
6.3 6.3 0 0.0 90
5.00 5.00 0 0.0 90
2.00 2.00 0 0.0 80
1.18 1.18 4.5 0.5 80
0.60 0.60 12.4 1.4 78
0.425 0.425 36.6 4.1 74
0.300 0.300 347.8 38.6 35
0.212 0.212 40.2 4.5 31
0.150 0.150 60.8 6.8 24
0.075 0.075 62.7 7.0 17
Percentage Finer than 0.075 mm Sieve 17.2
Dry weight, M
3
:
B.S. sieve (mm)
1
PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION
Up Grading Nsambya-Kirombe road to Bitumen standards
Aperture size (mm)
Partial weight retained
(g)
Percentage
retained
(%)
Specified limits
(%ge passing)
Percentage
Passing
(%)
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
59
61
63
65
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

(
%
)
Sieve Size (mm)
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CHART
Grading curve
Lower limit
Upper limit
95
Appendix D-11: Detrmination of Average least dimension
Appendix D-11: Detrmination of Average least dimension
Source,TRL,1993
Second Layer
ALD=7mm
First Layer
ALD=9.8m
96
Appendix E: Drainage Design
Appendix E-1, Drainage C, Coefficients
<300 300- 600 >600
3.5% flat 0.01 0.02 0.03
3.5%-11% soft to
moderate
0.04 0.06 0.08
11%-35% steep 0.09 0.12 0.16
very permeable 0.02 0.03 0.04
permeable 0.04 0.06 0.08
Semi-permeable 0.08 0.12 0.16
impermeable 0.15 0.21 0.26
Dense forest or very
loose deposits
0.02 0.03 0.04
Cultivated Land or
thin forest
0.04 0.07 0.11
Grassland 0.13 0.17 0.21
Bare rock 0.24 0.26 0.28
C
v
Vegetation
Factor Component
MAP (mm)
C
s
Average slope of hillsides
incatchment
C
k
Permeability of soil
Appendix E-2, Intensity-Duration Curves
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

i
n

m
m
/
h
r
TimeinMinutes
Intensity -Duration Frequency curves
2yr RP
5yr RP
10yr RP
25yr RP
50yr RP
100yr RP
9.9 mins
110mm/hr
123mm/hr
97
Appendix E-3, HW, Headloss determination
Source, Uganda Road Drainage Manual, 2005
1.38
Head loss
HW/D
98
Appendix E-4, Critical dept h determination
0.42
99
Appendix E-5, Rainfall data for Kampala
Table 1 Daily rainfall for Kampala for 29 years; Station Sewage Plant
Yearly daily
max, mm/d Descending order
Frequency of
exceedance, f
Return
period, T, yrs
Year max, mm/d mm/d, Xi-X (Xi-x)^2 mm/hr
1 1970 54.4 1 125.4 65.162069 4246.095232 20.9 0.03 30.0
2 1971 55.2 2 86.5 26.262069 689.6962663 14.4 0.07 15.0
3 1972 64.3 3 86 25.762069 663.6841974 14.3 0.10 10.0
4 1973 86 4 78.3 18.062069 326.2383353 13.1 0.13 7.5
5 1974 58.3 5 69.3 9.062069 82.12109394 11.6 0.17 6.0
6 1975 47.5 6 68 7.762069 60.24971463 11.3 0.20 5.0
7 1976 52.1 7 64.4 4.162069 17.32281807 10.7 0.23 4.3
8 1977 54.5 8 64.3 4.062069 16.50040428 10.7 0.27 3.8
9 1978 52.2 9 63 2.762069 7.62902497 10.5 0.30 3.3
10 1979 52.5 10 61.6 1.362069 1.855231867 10.3 0.33 3.0
11 1980 51.9 11 61 0.762069 0.580749108 10.2 0.37 2.7
12 1981 42.9 12 59.7 -0.537931 0.289369798 10.0 0.40 2.5
13 1983 51.6 13 58.3 -1.937931 3.755576694 9.7 0.43 2.3
14 1984 37.5 14 55.5 -4.737931 22.44799049 9.3 0.47 2.1
15 1985 47 15 55.2 -5.037931 25.38074911 9.2 0.50 2.0
16 1986 47 16 54.5 -5.737931 32.92385256 9.1 0.53 1.9
17 1987 55.5 17 54.4 -5.837931 34.08143876 9.1 0.57 1.8
18 1988 64.4 18 52.5 -7.737931 59.87557669 8.8 0.60 1.7
19 1989 59.7 19 52.2 -8.037931 64.60833532 8.7 0.63 1.6
20 1990 48.5 20 52.1 -8.137931 66.22592152 8.7 0.67 1.5
21 1991 68 21 51.9 -8.337931 69.52109394 8.7 0.70 1.4
22 1992 50.8 22 51.6 -8.637931 74.61385256 8.6 0.73 1.4
23 1993 78.3 23 50.8 -9.437931 89.07454221 8.5 0.77 1.3
24 1994 69.3 24 48.5 -11.73793 137.779025 8.1 0.80 1.3
25 1995 61.6 25 47.5 -12.73793 162.254887 7.9 0.83 1.2
26 1996 86.5 26 47 -13.23793 175.2428181 7.8 0.87 1.2
27 1997 61 27 47 -13.23793 175.2428181 7.8 0.90 1.1
28 1998 125.4 28 42.9 -17.33793 300.6038526 7.2 0.93 1.1
29 1999 63 29 37.5 -22.73793 517.0135077 6.3 0.97 1.0
Sum 1746.9 1746.9 8122.908276
X ( average) 60.238
S(standard deviation) 17.032
100
Unit Quantity Rate (Ushs) Amount (Ushs)
BILL NO1: PRELIMINARIES
BILL NO.2: SITE CLEARANCE
2.1 Clear all shoulders, carriage way and side
drains of grass and all unwanted materials as
instructed by the Engineer.
m
2
12,485 1000 12,485,000
-
2.2 Load and cart to spoil all debris and excess
material which cannot be spread within the
road reserve, spread all excess material as
directed by the Engineer.
m
3
2,497 10,000 24,970,000
-
2.3 Fell down trees of a minimum diameter of
300 mm within the road reserve, load and cart
away as directed by the Engineer
No. 50,000 -
-
2.4 Remove tree stumps, fill the hole
appropriately as directed by the Engineer
No. 3 100,000 300,000
SUB TOTAL 2 37,755,000
BILL NO.3: DRAINAGE
3.1 Clear existing fully blocked culverts,remove
all debris, soils and stones. Cart away as
directed by the Engineer (half rate for half
blocked culverts)
3.1.1 Dia 450mm m 20,000 -
3.1.2 Dia 600mm m 25,000
3.1.3 Dia over 900mm m 28,000
3.2 Clean lined and unlined side drains, remove
silt and unsuitable material and cart away as
directed by the Engineer.
m 420 -
-
3.3 Clear and reshape mitre drains, m 982 -
-
3.4 Excavate for side drains, catchwater drains,
culvert outfalls and dispose of excavated
material as directed by the Engineer.
m 3,000 -
-
-
3.6 Excavate in soft material for pipe culverts,
headwalls, wingwalls, aprons, toe walls and
drop inlet chambers to any depth as directed
by the Engineer.
m
3
10,200 -
-
3.7 E.O. Item 3.6 for excavation in hard material
m
3
24,715 -
-
3.8 Provide concrete pipes . Use for bedding and
backfilling approved material.
-
-
3.8.1 Dia 450mm m 200,000 -
-
3.8.2 Dia 600mm m 100 250,000 25,000,000
-
3.8.3 Dia 900mm m 410,000 -
Up Grading Nsambya-Kirombe road
BILLS OF QUANTITIES FOR Nsambya-Kirombe Road
Appendix F:Financial Documentation
101
3.8.4 Dia 1200mm m 640,000 -
-
3.11 Construct culvert end structures (Headwalls
wingwalls,toe walls, splash aprons in
concreteof Minimumheight of 0.3mabove
road level)
-
3.11.1 Using stone masonary and cement sand
mortal 1:3,
m
2
42 130,000 5,460,000
-
3.12 Line drains using -
3.12.1 Stones masonary
m
2
2,247 40,000 89,892,000
-
3.13 Demolition and removal of existing culverts,
spoil materials as directed by the Engineer. m
3
30,000 -
-
3.14 Provide and lay pedestrian and cover slabs
made out of reinforced concrete of
dimensions
-
3.14.2 1.0x 0.5 x 0.15 No 45,000 -
-
3.15 Provide scour checks made out of -
-
3.15.3 Stones with planted grass No. 31,000 -
-
3.16 Construct sub surface French drains m 263,000 -
SUB TOTAL 3 120,352,000
BILL NO.4: WEARING COURSE AND
SHOULDERS.
4.2 Existing Paved carriageway and paved
Shoulders
4.2.1 Scarify and compact of existing pavement
and/or shoulders to at least 95% MDD MOD
AASHTO density.
m
2
12,485 1000 12,485,000
-
4.2.2 Scarify and cart to spoil unwanted material.
m
3
1,047 10,000 10,470,000
-
4.2.3 Add approved granular materials, spread,
water and compact in layers to 150 mm
thickness to at least 95% MDD MOD
AASHTO on the carriageway as directed by
the Engineer. Free haulage up to 10 Km.
m
3
4,086 25,000 102,150,000
-
4.2.4 Provide, lay shape and compact crushed stone
base in layers not exceeding 150 mm
thickness to at least 97% MDD Mod.
AASHTO density
m
3
140,000 -
-
4.2.5 Trim and clean potholes and edges and fill
with approved granular material.
m
3
20,000 -
-
4.2.6 Provide and transport stabilising agent to
natural base material
-
4.2.6.1 Lime Ton 98.3 600,000 59,001,840
4.2.6.2 Cement Ton 800,000
-
4.2.7 Provide, transport and mix quarry dust at a
rate varying from 10 to 30 percent by volume
with natural base material while carrying out
mechanical stabilisation
m
3
52,500 -
102
-
4.2.8 E.O. Items 4.2.6 for processing and mixing
stabilising agent material at a rate varying
from 3 to 5 percent by weight as directed by
the Engineer.
m
3
2,043 10,000 20,430,000
-
4.2.8 Prepare base course surface, provide, heat and
spray MC 30 cutback bitumen prime coat at
the rate of 0.7-1.0L/m
2
or as directed by the
Engineer.
m
2
9,489 4,500 42,698,700
-
4.2.10 Seal potholes and edges with a Premix layer
of a 50 mm thickness.
m
2
310,000 -
4.2.11 Provide, heat and spray first seal coat of
80/100 penetration bitumen at the rate of 1.2-
1.5L/m
2
.
m
2
9,489 6,000 56,931,600
-
4.2.12 Provide, spread and roll 14/20mm nominal
sized chippings at the rate of 95m
2
/m
3
m
2
9,489 6,000 56,931,600
-
4.2.13 Provide, heat and spray second seal coat of
80/100 penetration bitumen at the rate of 1.0-
1.2L/m
2
m
2
9,489 6,000 56,931,600
-
4.2.14 Provide, spread and roll 10/14mm nominal
sized chippings at the rate of 130m
2
/m
3 m
2
9,489 6,000 56,931,600
-
4.2.15 Provide, heat, and spray 80/100 tack coat at a
rate of 0.3-0.6L/m2 on existing tarmac
surface.
m
2
6,000 -
-
-
4.2.16 -
-
4.3 Unpaved carriageway and shoulders -
-
4.3.1 Shape road surface by heavy grading to
camber or cross fall including side drains, all
inlets and outlets of the drainage with a grader
and compact to 95% MDD Mod. AASHTO.
m
2
450 -
-
4.3.2 Shape road surface by medium grading to
camber and cross fall including side drains,
all inlets and outlets of the drainage with a
grader and compact to 95% MDD Mod.
AASHTO.
m
2
450 -
-
4.3.3 Provide and transport up to 10km, spread
water and compact in layers not exceeding
150 mm thickness to at least 95% MDD
MOD.AASHTO. Approved Natural base
material
m
3
22,000 -
-
4.3.4 Add lime stalised base at the rate of 3-5% by
weight as directed by the Engineer
m
3
4500 -
Provide, heat, mix, lay and compact asphalt
concrete wearing course of 50mm thickness
m
2
68,000
103
4.4 EARTH WORKS -
-
4.4.1 Provide and transport up to 10km, spread
water and compact in layers not exceeding
150 mm thickness to at least 95%
MOD.AASHTO. fill material to a thickness
instructed by the Engineer
m
3
- 22,000 -
4.4.2 Compact existing gravel material, water and
compact in layers not exceeding 150mm
thickness to atleast 95% MDD Mod
ASSHTO,
m
3
970 -
4.4.3 Fill in soft material(sub grade) ,water and
compact in layers not exceeding 300mm
thickness to atleast 95% MDD Mod ASSHTO
m
3
1,000 22,000 22,000,000
4.4.4 Fill in hard material,water and compact in
layers not exceedind 150mm thickness to
atleast 95% MDD Mod ASSHTO
m
3
20,000 -
SUB TOTAL 4
496,961,940
BILL NO. 5: Ancillary Works
5.1 Remove, transport and store existing road
sign. Make necessary repairs, repaint and re-
erect.
No. 20,000
5.2 Povide and erect standard regulator typesigns
of size 600mm.
No. 180,000
5.3 Provide anderect standard warning type signs
of size 900mm.
No. 2 900,000 1,800,000
5.4 Provide and erect standard informatory signs
of size 500x600m
No. 900,000
5.5 Provide and erect non-standard information
signs of area under 1m2
No. 950,000
5.6 As item 5.5 but area between 1 and 2m2 No. 1 1,000,000 1,000,000
5.7 Prepare road surface, spray white road
marking lines 100mm wide.
m 10,000
5.8 As item 5.8 but yellow m 10,000
5.9 Provide, prepair and paint kerb stones m 15,000
5.1 Provide and install RC Km marker posts No. 30,000
5.11 Provide and lay precast concrete half batter
kerbstones to sides of road
m 15,000 -
5.12 Excavations for foundation gabions
m
3
30,000
5.13 Deliver, place and fill gabion boxes with
approved stones.
m
3
75,000
SUB TOTAL 5 2,800,000
104
5.13 Deliver, place and fill gabion boxes with
approved stones.
m
3
75,000
SUB TOTAL 5 2,800,000
BILL NO. 6: DAY WORKS
6.1 Equipment
6.1.1 D6 Bulldozer complete a blade and ripper hr 85,000
6.1.2 D8 Bulldozer complete a blade and ripper hr 105,000
6.1.3 Traxcavator 165HP with loader attachments
bucket size 1-2m3
hr 75,000
6.1.4 Wheel loader 105HP and 1.8m3 bucket
capacity
hr 75,000
6.1.5 Motor grader 135HP complete with the blade,
ripper and scarifier
hr 70,000
6.1.6 7 ton tipper hr 40,000
6.1.7 10 Ton tipper hr 50,000
6.1.8 15 Ton tipper hr 60,000
6.1.9 Pedestrian Roller hr 10,000
6.1.10 7 Ton Vibrating roller hr 30,000
6.1.11 Pneumatic tyred roller hr 41,000
6.1.12 Water pump hr 4,000
6.1.13 Water bowser ,6000 litre hr 37,500
6.1.14 Bitumen Sprayer hr 41,000
6.1.15 Bitumen boiler hr 41,000
6.1.16 Asphalt plant hr 57,000
6.1.17 Chips spreader hr 30,000
6.1.18 Mechanical Broom hr 25,000
6.1.19 Pick up hr 10,000
6.1.20 Concrete mixer hr 30,000
6.1.21 Concrete vibrator (poker type) hr 10,000
6.1.22 Compressor (minimum 120 litre pwe min)
Complete with all tools, tools, hoses, steels
etc.
hr 61,000
105
6.2 MATERIALS
6.2.1 Ordinary Portland cement Ton 680,000
6.2.2 Road lime Ton 600,000
6.2.3 Quarry dust
m
3
62,400
6.2.4 Course aggregate of size betwwen 6mm-
25mm
m
3
65,000
6.2.6 Wrought shattering timber
m
3
18,000
6.2.7 Instant road repair materials (Cold premix) Kg 2,400
6.2.8 Gentex High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
pipe culverts of diameter;
6.2.8.1 600 mm (31 mm thickness) m 360,000
6.2.8.2 900 mm (50 mm thickness) m 510,000
6.2.8.3 1,000 mm (56 mm thickness) m 600,000
6.2.8.4 1,200 mm (62 mm thickness) m 680,000
6.2.8.5 1,500 mm (80 mm thickness) m 720,000
6.2.9 Hard core
m
3
37,500
6.2.10 Reinforcement steel
6.2.10.1 Mild Kg 5,000
6.2.10.2 High tensile Kg 5,000
6.3 LABOUR
6.3.1 Unskilled labour hr 8,000
6.3.2 Semi-skilled labour hr 12,000
6.3.3 Skilled labour hr 20,000
SUB TOTAL 6
SUMMARY
SUB TOTAL BILL NO 2 37,755,000
SUB TOTAL BILL NO 6
TOTAL 657,868,940
Mobilisation 5% 32,893,447
Supervision 4% 26,314,758
Quality control 2% 13,157,379
Total 72,365,583
GRAND TOTAL 730,234,523
Adopted from MBJ Technologies, 2010
106
Appendix G: Appraisals
Environmental impact assessment Report.
Environmental impact assessment(EIA) is a systematic and inter-displinary evaluation
of the potential positive and negative environmental effects of a proposed
project/program.EIA identifies ,predicts and evaluates the foreseeable environmental
iimpacts,both beneficial and adverse(JICA,2009) of a project with a view to eliminating
where possible, or minimizing the negative impacts while optimising the positive
impacts.
Introduction
The objective of the EIA study is to assess the positive and negative environmental
effects (Biophysical/socio-economic and cultural) of the intended road construction
project when upgraded to bitumen standard, and to propose measures for mitigating
negative impacts and enhancing positive ones.
The following are specific requirements for the study:
Review and update the feasibility study prepared by the original design consultancy;
and
Review and update the detailed design and tender documents, which includes an
Environmental Impact Assessment as well as a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) in
accordance with the Ugandan environmental laws. The study addresses the existing
alignment and a number of proposed options in terms of certain strategic alternative
alignments for particular sectors.
Purpose of the report
Following the enactment of the National Environmental Statute (1995), the National
Environment Management Authority was created and charged with the responsibility to
oversee, coordinate and supervise the activities of the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) process in Uganda. Environmental Impact assessment is concerned
with identifying, predicting and evaluating the foreseeable environmental impacts, both
beneficial and adverse, of public and private development policies, programs and
projects, with a view to minimize the negative impacts while enhancing the positive
107
impacts. Environmental Impact Assessment is a tool for better planning. It permits the
integration of environmental concerns into the policy, program and project planning
process at the earliest possible stages.
Depending on the significance of the environmental impacts of the proposed project, the
law exempts small projects which do not have a potential significance or whose impacts
can easily be identified and for which mitigation measures can readily be prescribed and
be included in the design and implementation of the project without need for an EIA
study requiring field investigations. However projects whose development poses
potential significant impacts are subject to an EIA process. This report has been
prepared as part of the requirement in Environmental Impact Assessment carried out
along Nsambya-Kirombe road in May 2010 to incorporate an Environmental Impact
Assessment indicating the likely impacts of upgrading Nsambya-Kirombe road to a
bituminous paved and giving their mitigation measures.
Methodology
The study involved the use of available literature, public participation, and direct
observation. The available literature on the flow process of an EIA, regulatory
framework and EIA requirements for road construction works were consulted to come
up with a comprehensive report on the proposed development
Consultation with the public
As a legal requirement according to National Environment Statute, 1995 and as a need
to involve the views of the stakeholders within the development process of the project,
the public was interviewed on the likely impacts of upgrading the road. It involved
consulting the residents along the proposed road, environmental officers in the two
areas of Nsambya and Kirombe, Kampala city planning authority, Ministry of lands,
ministry works and transport officials.
Direct observation
A site visit was made where some of the environmental issues were directly observed
including the site surroundings.
Regulatory / Legal Frame Work
The Ugandan constitution provides for protection and conservation of environment.
Principal XXXII under state policy provides for promotion of sustainable development
and public awareness in management of land, air and water resources. The state is
108
The investment code No. 18 of 1987
required to take all possible measures to prevent or minimize damage and destruction of
land, air and water resources due to pollution or other causes. Article 39 of the
constitution, provides for individual right to a clean and health environment. This
provision is complemented by article 50, which gives any person the right to seek
judicial action to redress the breach of a fundamental right, irrespective of whether the
breach affects him or another person.
The land act: The land act regulates the ownership of land and controls land use. Section
44 obliges any person who owns or occupies land to manage and utilize it in accordance
with the existing laws including the national Environment statute, forest act and any
other law. Section 46 of the act requires that any use of land should conform to Town
and Country planning Act and other laws. An EIA is therefore a useful tool to
quarantine that the proposed land use does not contravene any law.
The investment code No. 18 of 1987
This code empowers the Uganda Investment Authority to, among other things, attract
and coordinate all local and foreign investments in the country to enhance economic
development. Section 19 of the code requires every investment license to take necessary
steps to ensure that the operation of its business enterprise does not cause any injury to
the ecology or the environment hence a need for an EIA.
The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 1998
The EIA Regulations elaborate in detail the provisions of the National Environmental
Act and present the details of the EIA process and roles of various stakeholders. The
Regulations make it an
Offence for any person to commence, proceed or execute any project with significant
impact on the environment without approval from NEMA. The regulations also
advocate for principle of full disclosure in the conduct of EIAs and make it an offence
to make false statements in an EIA. The regulations in particular lay down the requisite
steps to be adopted by a developer in carrying out an environmental assessment.
The National Environmental Act cap.153, 1995
The National Environment Act is a coordinating Act and includes EIA in its general
principals as a requirement for the proposed projects and activities, which may
significantly affect the Environment or use of natural resources. It establishes the
National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) as a coordinating, monitoring
109
Impacts of the project on the environment
and supervisory body. Its provisions are to be carried out through cooperation between
NEMA and other government agencies through a system of consultation.
The Employment Act, 2006
The act applies health and safety requirements to every workplace or working
environment (section 2, Act 9/2006), it applies to both private and public employers. It
imposes duties on employers, manufactures, suppliers and transporters to exercise due
care and ensure safety at workplaces, and for articles, chemicals which are
manufactured, supplied or transported. General health and welfare provisions are made
including sound construction, space, ventilation, cleanliness, lighting, water, sanitary
conveniences and first aid facilitates ( part viii) but there are also specific provisions
regarding fire preparedness (part x), the safety of machinery, plant and equipment (part
xi).
Impacts of the project on the environment
The road proposed to be upgraded joins two commercial centres, has residents along it
and natural physical features like trees along it. There are a number of existing physical
structures in the project area and development of the proposed project shall have
impacts on these existing structures. The notable impacts include;
Noise resulting from vehicles, graders, vibrators and the road workers
themselves.
Vibrations resulting from the heavy vehicles and the excavators while upgrading
the road
Air pollution as a result of the fumes from the exhausts and dust raised into space
by wind.
Waste material resulting from the cut soil, and vegetation
Air pollution as the trees and shrubs shall be cut during the clearance of the road
reserve land
Water pollution while constructing across the water stream.
Blockage of the drainage channels along the road by the cut soil. This shall lead
to increased soil erosion.
Accidents on site as result of poor health and safety equipment and recklessness
on the roads.
110
Impact mitigation measures
Displacement of people owning land along the proposed development
Disturbance of the ecosystem. The cut trees act as habitats for birds and other
living organisms like insects and therefore removal of such vegetation shall imply
migration of the species from the land.
However the upgrading of Nsambya-Kirombe road shall bring positive impacts on the
people living along the road and those staying in the two trading centres. Namely;
Employment opportunities to the people especially during the construction phase
Improved service delivery such information, trade goods, funds, hotels, schools
and hospitals to the people
Reduced dust after the road has been tarmac
Improved insecurity as the road shall be clear of the bushes and ditches which act
as hiding places for thugs and thieves.
Use of special road surfacing like porous asphalt to reduce tyre noise,
construction of noise barriers, restriction on heavy vehicles, smoothing of traffic flow
and minimizing stops, and shielding of noise-sensitive buildings
Speed and weight restrictions on heavy vehicles, isolation of buildings by
resilient amounts, and Installation of better fitting windows for reducing airborne
vibration
Use of more efficient lean burn engines and design of carburettors, better engine
maintenance, and planting of trees and shrubs along the road.
Disposal of the cut soil and vegetation to a landfill. Provision of convenient
litter receptacles to reduce waste levels on the roads.
Adequate road maintenance and design, heavy vehicle restriction and proper law
enforcement reduce road accidents.
Relocation and compensation of the displaced people
Planting of trees along the road may maintain the ecosystem of the land by
providing habitat for the birds and insects.
The road proposed to be upgraded joins two commercial centres, has residents along it
and natural physical features like trees along it. Upgrading the Nsambya-Kirombe road
111
would bring a number of significant impacts. However the application of the suggested
mitigation measures shall eliminate or minimize the identified impacts. Approval of this
proposed project shall generate more benefits to the surroundings including
employment opportunities as already cited. Implementation of such mitigation measures
shall require establishment of a monitoring team by the developer.
112
Appendix H: Photographs
Figure 1.2: Google Earth image of project road
Figure 1. 3: Testing subgrade soils
113
Appendix I: Project Drawings
Final Year Individual project, UpgradingNsambya-Kirombe road to a bituminous paved surface. Kyambogo University, Kampala Uganda2009/10 1
1
Proposed work schedule
1
ITEM Final year project spending plan
Feasibility studies Projected Actual Difference Resources
site visits 100000 50000 -50000 Project Manager
sensitization 1000000 100000 -900000 Community Leaders,Project Manager
Total Feasibility studies 1100000 150000 -950000
Geomertry Projected Actual Difference
Traffic counts 0
Clip boards 20000 20000 0 Enumerators
Fuel 400000 50000 350000 Project Manager
pens 5000 5000 0 Resource persons
Policemem 100000 60000 40000 Supervisor
Enumerators 1400000 300000 1100000
Transport 200000 100000 100000
Surveying 1000000 200000 800000
Total Geomertry 1925000 435000 1490000
Pavement design Projected Actual Difference
CBR(DCP) 200000 150000 50000 Project Manager
Atterberg limits 300000 100000 200000 Technician
compaction 200000 100000 100000 Supervisor
sieve analysis 100000 50000 50000
Total Pavement design 800000 250000 550000
Drainage design Projected Actual Difference
Rainfall data 1500000 200000 1300000 Project Manager
Topo map 500000 500000 Resource persons
Draftsman 500000 20000 480000 Supervisor
Total Drainage design 2500000 220000 2280000
Environmental, asssessments Projected Actual Difference
Consultations 100000 100000 Project Manager
0 Resource persons
Environmental, asssessments 100000 0 100000
Miscelleneous Projected Actual Difference
Air time 100000 50000 50000 Project Manager
Refreshments 50000 50000 0
Computer 1000000 300000 700000
Printer 200000 100000 100000
Draftsman 300000 50000 250000
5625000 1355000 4270000
Proposed Spending plan

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