Functions

1) Transformations

Let us start with a function, in this case it
is f(x) = x
2
, but it could be anything:

f(x) = x
2

Here are some simple things we can do to
move or scale it on the graph:
We can move it up or down by
adding a constant to the y-value:

g(x) = x
2
+ C




Note: to move the line down, we use
a negative value for C.
C > 0 moves it up
C < 0 moves it down
We can move it left or right by
adding a constant to the x-value:

g(x) = (x+C)
2

Adding C moves the function to
the left (the negative direction).
Why? Well imagine you will inherit a
fortune when your age=25. If you
change that to(age+4) = 25 then you
would get it when you are 21. Adding 4
made it happen earlier.
C > 0 moves it left
C < 0 moves it right
An easy way to remember what happens
to the graph when we add a constant:
add to y: go high
add to x: go left
BUT we must add C wherever x
appears in the function (we
are substituting x+C for x).

Example: the function v(x) = x
3
-
x
2
+ 4x
Move C spaces to the left: w(x) =
(x+C)
3
- (x+C)
2
+ 4(x+C)
We can stretch or compress it in
the y-direction by multiplying the
whole function by a constant.

g(x) = 0.35(x
2
)
C > 1 stretches it
0 < C < 1 compresses it
We can stretch or compress it in
the x-direction by multiplying x
(wherever it appears) by a
constant.

g(x) = (2x)
2

C > 1 compresses it
0 < C < 1 stretches it
Note that (unlike for the y-
direction), bigger values cause
more compression.
We can flip it upside down by
multiplying the whole function by -
1:

g(x) = -(x
2
)
This is also called reflection about the
x-axis (the axis where y=0)
We can combine a negative value with a
scaling.
Example: multiplying by -2 will flip it
upside down AND stretch it in the y-
direction.
We can flip it left-right by
multiplying the x-value by -1:

g(x) = (-x)
2

It really does flip it left and right! But
you can't see it,
because x
2
is symmetrical about the y-
axis . So here is another example
using (x):

g(x) = (-x)
This is also called reflection about the
y-axis (the axis where x=0)
Summary
y = f(x) + C
C > 0 moves it up
C < 0 moves it down
y = f(x + C)
C > 0 moves it left
C < 0 moves it right
y = C f(x)
C > 1 stretches it in the y-direction
0 < C < 1 compresses it
y = f(Cx)
C > 1 compresses it in the x-direction
0 < C < 1 stretches it
y = -f(x)
Reflects it about x-axis
y = f(-x)
Reflects it about y-axis
Example: the function g(x) = 1/x
Move 2 spaces up: h(x) = 1/x + 2
Move 3 spaces down: h(x) = 1/x - 3
Move 4 spaces to the right: h(x) =
1/(x-4)
Move 5 spaces to the left: h(x) =
1/(x+5)
Stretch it by 2 in the y-direction:
h(x) = 2/x
Compress it by 3 in the x-direction:
h(x) = 1/(3x)
Flip it upside down:
h(x) = -1/x

Example: the function v(x) = x
3
- 4x
Move 2 spaces up: w(x) = x
3
- 4x + 2
Move 3 spaces down: w(x) = x
3
- 4x - 3
Move 4 spaces to the right: w(x) = (x-4)
3
- 4(x-4)
Move 5 spaces to the left: w(x) = (x+5)
3
- 4(x+5)
Stretch it by 2 in the y-direction: w(x) = 2(x
3
- 4x) = 2x
3
- 8x
Compress it by 3 in the x-direction: w(x) = (3x)
3
- 4(3x) = 27x
3
- 12x
Flip it upside down: w(x) = -x
3
+ 4x
do all transformation in one go using this:

a is vertical stretch/compression
|a| > 1 stretches
|a| < 1 compresses
a < 0 flips the graph upside down
b is horizontal stretch/compression
|b| > 1 compresses
|b| < 1 stretches
b < 0 flips the graph left-right
c is horizontal shift
c < 0 shifts to the right
c > 0 shifts to the left
d is vertical shift
d > 0 shifts upward
d < 0 shifts downward

Example: 2(x+1)+1
a=2, c=1, d=1
So it takes the square root function, and
then
Stretches it by 2 in the y-
direction
Shifts it left 1, and
Shifts it up 1

2) Mapping(or function)
This a 'notation' for expressing a relation between
two variables(say x and y).
Individual values of these variables are
called elements
eg x
1
x
2
x
3
... y
1
y
2
y
3
...
The first set of elements ( x) is called the domain .
The second set of elements ( y) is called the range .
A simple relation like y = x
2
can be more accurately
expressed using the following format:

The last part relates to the fact that x and y are
elements of the set of real numbers R(any positive or
negative number, whole or otherwise, including zero)



One-One mapping
Here one element of the domain is associated with
one and only one element of the range.
A property of one-one functions is that a on a graph
a horizontal line will only cut the graph once.
Example

R
+
the set of positive real numbers








Many-One mapping
Here more than one element of the domain can be
associated with one particular element of the range.
Example

Z is the set of integers(positive & negative whole
numbers not including zero)


Complete function notation is a variation on what
has been used so far. It will be used from now on.



Inverse Function f
-1

The inverse function is obtained by
interchanging x and y in the function equation and
then rearranging to make y the subject.
If f
-1
exists then,
ff
-1
(x) = f
-1
f(x) = x
It is also a condition that the two functions be 'one to
one'. That is that the domain of f is identical to the
range of its inverse function f
-1
.
When graphed, the function and its inverse are
reflections either side of the line y = x.
Example
Find the inverse of the function(below) and graph the
function and its inverse on the same axes.



Composite Functions
A composite function is formed when two
functions f, g are combined.
However it must be emphasized that the order in
which the composite function is determined is
important.

The method for finding composite functions is:
find g(x)
find f[g(x)]
Example : For the two functions,

find the composite functions (i fg (ii g f



Exponential & Logarithmic Functions
Exponential functions have the general form:

where 'a' is a positive constant
However there is a specific value of 'a' at (0.1) when
the gradient is 1 . This value, 2.718... or 'e' is called
theexponential function.

The function(above) has one-one mapping. It
therefore possesses an inverse. This inverse is
the logarithmic function.





1. Which of the following represent a mapping?

(a) {(4, 2); (5, 3); (7, 5); (9, 7)}
(b) {(2, 8); (3, 12); (4, 16)}
(c) {(3, 7); (3, 11); (4, 9); (5, 11)}
(d) {(1, 2); (2, 3); (3, 4); (4, 5)}
(e) {(2, 1); (3, 1); (5, 1); (7, 1)}
(f) {(1, 3); (1, 5); (2, 5)}

2. Which of the following arrow diagrams represent a mapping?
Give reasons.



3. A function f is defined by f(x) = 2x - 3.
Write the values of

(a) f(0)
(b) f(-2)
(c) f(3)
(d) f(-1)

4. Find the domain and range of each of
the following functions.

(a) f(x) = 2 - x, x N
(b) f(x) = x
2
+ 1, x W
(c) f(x) = x, x R

5. Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7) and B = {3, 5, 7, 9
11}
Consider the rule f(x) = x + 2, where x A.
Represent the mapping in the roster form.
Also, find the domain and range of the
mapping.

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}
Draw the arrow diagram to represent the rule
f(x) = 3x from A to B.

7. Let A = {3, 8, 11} and B = {1, 2, 3}
(a) Show that the relation R = {(3, 1), (8, 2)}
is not a mapping from A to B.

(b) Show that the relation R = {(3, 1); (3, 3);
(8, 2); (11, 1); (11, 3)} from A to B is not a
mapping from A to B.

8. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 9, 13}
Consider the rule f(x) = 4x - 3, where x A

(a) Show that f is a mapping from A to B.
(b) Find the domain and range of the mapping.
(c) Represent the mapping in the roster form.
(d) Draw the arrow diagram to represent the
mapping.



Answers:


1. (a), (b), (d), (e)

2. (a) Since, every element of the domain has a
unique image in the co-domain.

3. (a) -3
(b) -7
(c) 3
(d) -5

4. (a) domain N Range= {1, 0, -1, -2...}
(b) Domain W Range = {1, 2, 5, 10, 17...}
(c) domain R Range R

5. F = {(1, 3) (3, 5) (5, 7) (7, 9)} Domain =
{1, 3, 5, 7} Range = {3, 5, 7, 9}

6.




7. (a) domain {3, 8} A hence not a mapping
(b) Elements 3, 11 do not have unique image in
B hence not a mapping

8. Ordered pairs {(2, 5), (3, 9), (4, 13)}
Elements of A have unique image in B hence a
mapping


Domain {2, 3, 4} Range {5, 9, 13}





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4) Even and Odd functionsEven Functions
A function is "even" when:
f(x) = f(-x) for all x
In other words there is symmetry about
the y-axis (like a reflection):

This is the curve f(x) = x
2
+1
They got called "even" functions because
the functions x
2
, x
4
, x
6
, x
8
, etc behave
like that, but there are other functions
that behave like that too, such as cos(x):

Cosine function: f(x) = cos(x)
It is an even function
But an even exponent does not always make an even function, for
example (x+1)
2
is not an even function.
Cosine curve:
f(t) = 2 cos t
Notice that we have a mirror image
through the f(t) axis.
Even Square wave

Triangular wave

In each case, there is a mirror image
through the f(t) axis.
- havesymmetry about the
vertical axi
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Odd Functions
A function is "odd" when:
-f(x) = f(-x) for all x
Note the minus in front of f: -f(x).
And we get origin symmetry :

This is the curve f(x) = x
3
-x
They got called "odd" because the
functions x, x
3
, x
5
, x
7
, etc behave like
that, but there are other functions that
behave like that, too, such as sin(x):

Sine function: f(x) = sin(x)
It is an odd function
But an odd exponent does not always
make an odd function, for
example x
3
+1 is not an odd function.
Origin Symmetry
A graph has origin symmetry if we can fold it along
the vertical axis, then along the horizontal axis, and it
lays the graph onto itself.
.Sine Curve: y(x) = sin x


Notice that if we fold the curve along
the y-axis, then along the t-axis, the
graph maps onto itself. It has origin
symmetry.


Types of waves:

Each of these three curves is an odd
function, and the graph
demonstrates symmetry about the
origin
Neither Odd nor Even
Don't be misled by the names "odd" and "even"
... they are just names ... and a function
does not have to be even or odd.
In fact most functions are neither odd nor even.
For example, just adding 1 to the curve above
gets this:

This is the curve f(x) = x
3
-x+1
It is not an odd function, and it is not an
even function either.
It is neither odd nor even!
Even or Odd?
Example: is f(x) = x/(x
2
-1) Even or
Odd or neither?
Let's see what happens when we
substitute -x:
Put in "-x": f(-x) = (-x)/((-x)
2
-1)
Simplify: = -x/(x
2
-1)
= -f(x)

So f(-x) = -f(x) and hence it is an Odd
Function
Special Properties
Adding:
The sum of two even functions is even
The sum of two odd functions is odd
The sum of an even and odd function is
neither even nor odd (unless one
function is zero).
Multiplying:
The product of two even functions is an
even function.
The product of two odd functions is an
even function.
The product of an even function and an
odd function is an odd function.



5) Composite Functions




If you have 3 sets, A, B and C, and f(x) maps A
to B, and g(x) maps B to C, then the composite
function that maps set A to B is gf(x) (that is,
you 'plug' f(x) into g(x)). The diagram above
can also be redrawn to map A directly to C as
follows:




If you plug a function into itself, e.g. f[f(x)], it
can be written as f(x). If you plug f(x) into
itself twice, e.g. f[f(f(x))] = f[f(x)] = f(x).



If you're given 2 functions, g(x) and
f(x), the order of mapping is important,
e.g. gf(x) fg(x), in most cases.
However, there are exceptions.

Example 1 Functions where order
is important
The functions f and g are defined
by f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x
2respectively. Find the functions (a) fg,
(b) gf

Solution
(a)
fg(x)
= f[g(x)]
= f[x 2]
= 2(x 2) + 1
= 2x 3

(b) gf(x)
= g[f(x)]
= g[2x + 1]
= (2x + 1) 2
= 4x + 4x +1 2
= 4x + 4x 1







Example 2 Functions where order
is not important

(a) fg(x) (b) gf(x)

Solution
(a)


(b)


Example 3 Repeated function
composition
Given the following function,

Find the expression for each of the
following functions.


Solution
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Example 4 Finding a function
when given another function and a
composed function
(a) The function f is defined by
f(x) = 2x + 4. Another function g is
such that fg(x) = 3x 8. Find the
function g.
(b) The function f is defined by
f(x) = 1 x. Another function g is such
that gf(x) = 3x 6x + 5. Find the
function g.

Solution



If you re-write u as x, you'll see that
g(x) = 3x + 2.


Example 5 Further examples on
composite functions
Given the functions f(x) = hk + k,
g(x) = (x + 1) + 2 and
fg(x) = 2(x + 1) + 1, find
(a) the value of g(2),
(b) the value of h and of k.

Solution
(a)

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(b)
It is given that f(x) = hx + k and g(x) =
(x + 1) + 2
Thus,



But it is given that fg(x) = 2(x + 1) +
1. Hence, by comparison,
h = 2
and



Example 6 Another further
example
Given the functions f(x) = 3x + 7 and
fg(x) = 22 3x, find gf(x).

Solution
Find g(x) first,



Hence,


Question 1:

For f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = -x
2
+ 1, find
the composite function defined by
(f
o
g)(x)
Solution to Question 1:
The definition of composite
functions gives

(f
o
g)(x) = f(g(x))

= 2 (g(x)) + 3

= 2( -x
2
+ 1 ) + 3

= - 2 x
2
+ 5

Question 2:

Given f(2) = 3, g(3) = 2, f(3) = 4 and g(2)
= 5, evaluate

(f
o
g)(3)
Solution to Question 2:
Use the definition of the composite
function to write

(f
o
g)(3) = f(g(3))
Substitute g(3) by its given value 2
and evaluate f(2)

(f
o
g)(3) = f(2) = 3
Question 4:

Functions f and g are as sets of ordered
pairs

f = {(-2,1),(0,3),(4,5)}
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and

g = {(1,1),(3,3),(7,9)}

Find the composite function defined by
g
o
f and describe its domain and range.
Solution to Question 4:
Use the definition of the composite
function to find

(g
o
f)(-2) = g( f(-2) ) = g(1) = 1

(g
o
f)(0) = g( f(0) ) = g(3) = 3

(g
o
f)(4) = g( f(4) ) = g(5) =
undefined
Hence g
o
f is given by

g
o
f = { (-2 , 1 ) ,(0 , 3) }
The domain d and range r of g
o
f
are given by

d = {-2 , 0} and r = {1 , 3}


Question 6:

Write function F given below as the
composition of two functions f and g

F(x) = | 4 x
2
+ 2x - 5 |
Solution to Question 6:
One possibility is to write f and g as
follows

f(x) = | x | and g(x)= 4 x
2
+ 2x - 5
so that

F(x) = f(g(x)) = (f
o
g)(x)

Question 7:

Write function F given below as the
composition of two functions f and g,
where g(x) = 1 / x and F(x) = (1 / x) / (1 +
x).
Solution to Question 7:
If g(x) = 1 / x and F(x) = (1 / x) / (1 +
x) and

f(x) = x / (1 + 1/x)
Then F(x) may be written as the
composite function

F(x) = f(g(x)) = (f
o
g)(x)


Question 9:

True or False

f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) for any two functions f and
g. Justify your answer.
Solution to Question 9:
False. Try f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x
2


f(g(x)) = x
2
+ 1

g(f(x)) = (x + 1)
2

In general f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) are not
equal.

Question 10:

Evaluate f(g(h(1))), if possible, given that

h(x) = - | x | , g(x) = x - 1 and f(x) = 1 / (x +
2)
Solution to Question 10:
We first find h(1)

h(1) = - 1
We now find g(-1)

g(-1) = -2
Finally f(-2) is undefined since
division by zero is not allowed.
Hence f(g(h(1))) is undefined and x
= 1 is not in the domain of f(g(h(x)))

Exercises:
1. Evaluate f(g(3)) given that
f(x) = | x - 6 | + x
2
- 1 and g(x) = 2x
2. Find the range of the composite
function f(g(x)) given that
f(x) = x + 4 and g(x) = x
2
+ 2
3. Find the composite function (f o
g)(x) given that
f = {(3,6) , (5,7) , (9,0)} and g =
{(2,3) , (4,5) , (6,7)}
4. Find the composite function (f o
g)(x) given that
f = {(1,6) , (4,7) , (5,0)} and g =
{(6,1) , (7,4) , (0,5)}
Answers to Above Exercises:
1. 35
2. One possibility: f(x) = 2 sec (x) and
g(x) = 2x + 1.
3. [0 , 4) U (4 , +infinity)
4. [6 , +infinity)
5. f o g) = {(2 , 6) , (4 , 7)}
6. f o g = {(6 , 6) , (7 , 7) , (0 , 0)}
7)Inverse Function
Solve Using Algebra
work out the inverse using Algebra. Put
"y" for "f(x)" and solve for x:
The function: f(x) = 2x+3
Put "y" for
"f(x)":
y = 2x+3
Subtract 3 from
both sides:
y-3 = 2x
Divide both
sides by 2:

(y-
3)/2
= x
Swap sides: x =
(y-
3)/2

Solution (put "f
-
1
(y)" for "x") :
f
-1
(y) =
(y-
3)/2
Here we have the function f(x) = 2x+3,
written as a flow diagram:

The Inverse Function just goes the
other way:

So the inverse of: 2x+3 is: (y-3)/2

Just think ... if there are two or more x-
values for one y-value, how do we know
which one to choose when going back?.
No Inverse

Inverse
is Possible



When a y-value has
more than one x-
value, how do we
know which x-value to
go back to?

When there is a
unique y-value
for every x-value
we can always
"go back" from y
to x.
It is called "Injective" or "One-to-
one":
But look at what happens I try to solve for
"x =":
My original function:

Solving for "x =":


The inverse is not a function.
Any time you come up with a "" sign, you
can be pretty sure that the inverse isn't a
function.
Find the inverse function
of y= x
2
+ 1, x < 0.


domain is x < 0 and the range (from the graph)
is 1 < y, then the inverse will have a domain
of 1 < x and a range of y < 0. Here's how the algebra
looks:
The original function:

Solve for "x =":



By figuring out the
domain and range of
the inverse, I know
that I should choose
the negative sign for
the square root:

Now I'll switch
the x and y;
the new "y =" is the
inverse:

(The "x > 1" restriction comes from the fact
that x is inside a square root.)
So the inverse is y= sqrt(x 1), x > 1,
and this inverse is also a function.
Here's the graph:





Example 1 Given find .

Solution

with y.






.


is true.



Example 2 Given find ,
.

Solution
instead of









, given above is in fact one-to-one.

Without this restriction the inverse would not be one-to-one as is easily seen by a couple of quick
evaluations.



Therefore, the restriction is required in order to make sure the inverse is one-to-one.
There is an interesting relationship between the graph of a function and its inverse.

Here is the graph of the function and inverse from the first two examples.

In both cases , the graph of the inverse is a reflection of the actual function about the
line .
This will always be the case with the graphs of a function and its inverse.