Running head: MONTESSORI PROGRAMMING 1

Montessori Programming In Early Childhood

Alexandra Williams
Colorado State University
















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Montessori Programming In Early Childhood
Early Childhood Programs are crucial for a childs developmental trajectory across the
lifespan. The analysis of different Early Childhood Programs helps parents choose which
programs are most affective in meeting the needs of their children. Specifically, children in high-
risk, low-income communities are more susceptible to factors presented in programs that do not
meet their specific developmental needs. Montessori Programming, in particular is one of the
most well known Early Childhood Programs parents have to choose from when placing their
toddler in a classroom. By researching the foundations of the program, curriculum, research
findings, and developmental theories serving as the basis of the programs; parents and teachers
can better place their child in a program that will benefit and scaffold their individual
development.
Montessori Overview
Montessori programming was developed by Maria Montessori, in 1907 with a purpose to
serve children who were economically disadvantaged as well as children with a mental
retardation. Montessori programs began to thrive in the 1990s, with middle school and
secondary programs also just beginning. The major boost to the Montessori movement happened
when the program started gaining support from federal funding. Now Montessori programs can
be found in a variety of settings. These different settings include; inner city and affluent areas,
large urban magnet programs, preschools for children at risk, and early childhood education
centers. In 2005 it was estimated that 4,000 private Montessori programs were in session, while
200 Montessori-styled public schools were active.
Montessori programs focus on a childs independent learning, while teachers are present
as guides to scaffold that learning. Vygotskys sociocultural theory states that development is
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often a result of the dynamic social interactions. Guided participation in those social interactions
also show that children learn from others who guide their experiences and also help them to
explore new ones. With that base of knowledge, researchers and caregivers can begin to explore
the importance and use of those interactions in Montessori programs. Montessori programs
emphasize learning on the basis of a childs interest. The teacher has an unobtrusive role in the
classroom. Group work usually involves children teaching and guiding themselves and their
peers. The children in Montessori programs also recognize errors from their own feedback.
Children are usually free to choose where they work, rather than a standardized desk or chair or
even a designated activity center for the day. The child explores freedom of self guidance and
exploration through their own interests and self expression Referring to the Montessori
Connections webpage, we can see that one of the main goals of Montessori programming is to
develop positive attitudes toward schooling. Other goals including helping children build self-
confidence, fostering curiosity, developing the childs habits of initiative and persistence, and
fostering inner security and sense of order. These goals all seem to focus around much more than
purely academic based standards. Learning more about Montessori programs, it can be seen that
the amount of care in these programs is focused on the childs wellbeing rather than on a basis of
standardized tests and developmental checkpoints. It can also be inferred that if these programs
have such a high amount of emphasis on self efficacy, and building the foundation of oneself
with the help and guidance of others, that these developmental skills will become positive
outcomes for the childs academic, social, and personal life as well.
More specifically, the foundations of this program meet specific needs of children in
high-risk, low-income in terms of dyadic social interactions, emotional availability, and course
curriculum relevant to each childs interests. The developmental theories that serve as a basis for
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these programs also provide a better insight as to how the program benefits children in each
specific context.
Developmental Theories Of Montessori Programming
The theories that serve as a basis for the curriculum of Montessori programming include:
attachment, relationship-based theory, transactional theory, and sociocultural theory.
First, attachment theory is based on the knowledge that children need relationships that
provide them with safety and security in order for them to then be comfortable enough to explore
and learn from the world around them. The different forms of attachment include; secure
attachment, ambivalent attachment, avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment. Secure
attachment is defined as a child who becomes distressed when a caregivers leaves and joyful
when a caregiver returns. Ambivalent attachment is identified as a child who is extremely
distressed when the caregiver leaves the room. This type of attachment is result of poor maternal
availability. Avoidant attachment is seen when a child avoids caregivers. Specifically, these
children show no preference of a caregiver to a stranger. Children with disorganized attachment
often are behaving with a mixture of disorganized attachment styles. Pertaining more towards the
classroom setting, it has been found that children with secure attachments tend to be more
independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and experience less
depression and anxiety.
Relationship based theory focuses around the knowledge that a loving relationship is
extremely important when one is faced with difficult situations. From this theory, it is also
known that caring relationships are fundamental to infant and toddler development. According to
the relationship based theory, caregiver-child relationships differ depending on these factors;
content of interactions, quality of interactions, diversity of interactions, qualities that emerge
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from relative frequency and patterning of different types of interactions, complementarity versus
reciprocity of interactions, intimacy, interpersonal perception, and commitment. Pertaining more
to the classroom, relationship based theory emphasizes that the teachers individual relationship
with each child in the classroom. Not only does this theory focus on the teacher-child
relationships, but also the importance of each teacher-parent relationship.
Transactional theory emphasizes characteristics of both the child and the environment
around them, as well as their influence of those two factors on one another over time. In Wittmer
& Petersens Infant and Toddler Development and Responsive Program Planning: A
Relationship Based Approach a child is seen as bringing biological factors to the transactional
theory such as; gender, temperament, physical health, and genetic predispositions.
Environmental influences include the behavior of the most essential people in the childs life.
This theory is also known for as providing points as the basis for an intervention. One of the
most important characteristics to remember about the transactional theory is that children and
parents are constantly affecting each others experiences. Most importantly, transactional theory
can be used as a resource of intervention for teachers. Teachers are able to seek additional
information and knowledge for themselves when needing to change a relationship between a
child and a caregiver. When a teacher is having trouble communicating, understanding, or
relating to a child, she may seek help from the parents or a specialist for ways in which she could
change the transactions in the relationship.
Sociocultural theory claims that learning is embedded within social events, and occurs as
a child interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment. With this, Lev Vygotsky
explains that learning happens when children get just enough information and guidance by
caregivers to find solutions and make decisions. This level of guidance is called zone of
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proximal development, or the difference between what a child can and cannot do with help and
guidance. Using the sociocultural theory, teachers will observe children to determine their
specific zone of proximal development. With this knowledge, the teacher will then scaffold the
childs learning experiences accordingly to help them learn and make responsible decisions.
With these four theories, connections can start to be made between attachment theory,
relationship based theory, transactional theory, sociocultural theory, and Montessori teaching
programs. The connection between Montessori programs and attachment can be seen through the
eyes of a secure attachment. It is easy to see the importance of a secure attachment, knowing that
if the child is securely attached to their caregiver, they are able to perform better in school, be
more independent, and have successful social relationships. With these characteristics, children
are able to guide their own learning just as a Montessori program is focused on, in terms of self-
guidance and exploration. Regarding relationship-based theory, connections to Montessori
teaching can be made through the emphasis of loving relationships and care between children
and teachers. This connects to the Montessori programs focus of a childs wellbeing and
development rather than standardized testing. If a child is able to recognize that teachers,
caregivers, and parents are constantly loving and caring for them, they feel significantly more
comfortable exploring, discovering, and fostering their own learning experiences. This also
pertains to Montessoris view of a child recognizing their own errors from their own feedback. In
reference to transactional theory, connections can be incorporated from Montessoris goals
regarding resources for intervention. The caregiver can learn much about the childs own
development by identifying problems between the caregiver-child interactions. By letting the
child take the lead, as a Montessori program does, and guide the caregiver as to what they want
to focus on; the caregiver can identify certain aspects of the childs developmental delays, strong
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points, and so forth. At this point, the caregiver can take a step back and realize what he or she
can do in the transaction of the relationship to help the childs developmental experience. Lastly,
sociocultural theory and its emphasis that learning is embedded in social events, can be
connected to Montessori programming through each childs zone of proximal development. In
Montessori programming it is known that children are free to choose their activities based on
their own will and interests. They can do this without a caregivers assistance, but when they
come to an issue that they cannot solve themselves; weather that be a puzzle, art activity, or toy
trains, the adult then steps in and scaffolds the childs learning just enough to keep them learning
and attentive to the activity. These social interactions have a large impact of the development of a
childs self efficacy, and fostering curiosity.
These theories serve as a foundation for the curriculum and practice of Montessori
programming by their constant emphasis of secure attachments, loving and caring relationships,
influence of constant interactions between children and the adults in their lives, and scaffolding
of development.
Expanding beyond these theories, evidence from empirical articles and studies can help
aid in the credibility for Montessori programming. This way, the empirical evidence can aid in
the parents decision of what programs they place their child in to benefits their specific
developmental needs.
Imperial Analysis
Pertaining to one area in particular, James Seale-Collazos (2010) article outlines
Montessori programming as being one of the most innovative changes in Puerto Rican
Education. His documented research was collected from the teachers who embarked on this
change to better their students education. In an effort to make schools have an emphasis on
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teacher and community participation and decision making to top-down governance, Montessori
programming was introduced. This decision was made based on Montessori programming
having a philosophy that resonated with the schools values (Collazo 2010). Changes began
within the classrooms, such as teachers removing desks and replacing them with tables, rugs, and
low shelves filled with hands on learning materials. Teachers began spending more time sitting
on the floor and letting students chose what they were going to work on throughout the day. The
foundation of this change began with teachers who vowed to study Montessori program
immensely for two years. These teachers had to pour everything they had into the transformation
to this program. The reform came from a bottom-up perspective, as a group of concerned
teachers and administrators voluntarily began a journey to better their school system. This was
not action from high-level administrators presenting teachers with a reform that they were forced
to then change to. The teachers who have reconfigured their classrooms along the Montessori
lines have been documented and shared their experiences. One of the teachers featured was
quoted saying I havent had a single discipline problem since I started Montessori. The children
dont want to leave the room, even for recess. You can see what theyve learned when they go to
show it to other children. (Collazo 2010) According to Collazo (2010), every teacher who
changed their methods to Montessori, noted a major contrast between teaching with Montessori
and teaching with their former approach. These children serve as a basis for evidence of children
in high-risk, low-income areas can benefit from specific Montessori programming.
A study done by Rathunde (2003), tested the hypothesis that students in
Montessori school programs would report more positive motivation and experience than the
traditionally schooled students. The study consisted of five Montessori schools and twenty
traditional public schools. The sample included all social class levels. Students participated using
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the Experience Sampling Method or ESM. This method consisted of students wearing watches
programmed to signal students approximately eight times per day for seven consecutive days.
When the watches signaled, students were to take out a response form and fill it out based on
how they were feeling at the moment, where they were, and what they were thinking about
Rathunde (2003). The five main measurements used in the study were affect, potency, salience,
intrinsic motivation, and flow. Flow theory in this context is the assumption that when challenges
and skills are both above average for a student, the conditions are optimal (Rathunde 2003). The
results showed that Montessori students reported significantly higher quality experiences in
academic work than traditional students (Rathunde 2003). These results were based on a strong
difference of Montessori students feeling more active, strong, happy, relaxed, sociable, and proud
while engaging in academic work (Rathunde 2003). Montessori students also reported enjoying
themselves more, as well as being more interested in what they were doing. Montessori students
affect, potency, and motivation regarding academic work were about the same as their average
level of the week (Rathunde 2003). This meaning that Montessori students were feeling the same
in school as they were in the rest of their day. This suggests that school is not an aversive place
for Montessori students. Montessori students also reported a significantly higher percentage of
undivided interest, times when high motivation and high salience occurring at the same time
(Rathunde 2003).
To contrast Rathundes findings, a study done by Lopata, Wallace, and Finn (2005),
tested the hypothesis that Montessori school had higher language arts and mathematics
achievement than students in traditional schools. The sample consisted of 543 4
th
and 8
th
grade
students. Four different public schools were selected. Schools were matched based on gender,
ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Academic achievement was assessed using fourth and eighth
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grade math and English scores from standardized test measures. The results found to be
significantly related to ethnicity and socio-economic status (Lopata, Wallace & Finn, 2005). The
overall results of the study found no significant differences between students in Montessori
school and any of the other three types of schools on the basis of language arts and mathematics
achievement. Lopata, Wallace, and Finn (2005) came to the conclusion that conflicting evidence,
and limited amount of previous empirical research are the basis for a need of further studies
involving the effectiveness of Montessori schools.
As a student in the Montessori program, many benefits can be identified from the results
of empirical research. Such as the findings from Rathunde (2003), pertaining to the high quality
of education and experience children receive in the classroom. Rathundes (2003) findings also
found that Montessori students excelled in terms of personal and emotional development within
and outside of the classroom. An assumption can be made in regards to the amount of care a
population is putting into the Montessori education, affecting its success. In Collazos (2010)
documentation of the Puerto Rico Montessori transformation, it can be seen that the amount of
dedication and drive of the teachers, who were tired of a careless education system, lead to the
absolute success of the programs for both the children and the administrators. Collazos (2010)
article also makes a point regarding values. The values of the Montessori program including;
intrinsic motivation, affect, autonomy, and student lead programming all aligned with the Puerto
Rican beliefs and values. This is an enormous factor to consider when implementing Montessori
programs in low-income, high crime areas that may not share the same values. Finally, it can be
inferred from Lopata, Wallace, and Finn (2005) that lack of empirical research has been a
limitation in the programs success. Without the evidence to back the success of the program,
parents and teachers may be reluctant to involve themselves and their children in such programs.
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Though many benefits can be seen from Montessori programs in terms of a childs emotional
development, further research is needed to promote cognitive based benefits of the curriculum.
Influencing factors such as; location, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, amount of care and drive
of administration, funding, and students own intrinsic drive can serve as a large determinate of
the success of the program.
Conclusion
With this knowledge, parents of toddlers can better place their children in programs that
pertain to their childs specific needs of development and care. Montessori programming in
particular can benefit a child in areas of personal and emotional development, as well as benefit
them with dyadic social interactions between teacher and child. Specifically, toddlers in high-
risk, low-income areas can benefit from Montessori Programming in terms of high emotional
availability from caregivers in all aspects of the classroom. With child lead activities and
curriculum the children are presented with high levels of empathy and responsiveness by
caregivers. With the analysis of the programs curriculum, developmental foundations, and
empirical research it is clear that Montessori Programs can benefit children in meeting their
specific needs in terms of development.







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References
Kayili, G., & Ari, R. (2011). Examination of the Effects of the Montessori Method on Preschool
Childrens Readiness to Primary Education. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice,
11(4), 2104-2109
Lopata, C., Wallace, N., & Finn, K., (2005) Comparison of Academic Achievement Between
Montessori and Traditional Education Programs. Journal of Research in Childhood
Education: Association for Childhood Education International
Rathunde, K. (2003) A Comparison of Montessori and Traditional Middle Schools: Motivation,
Quality of Experience, and Social Context. The NAMATA Journal
Seale-Collazo, J. (2010). Brining Montessori to San Juan. Educational Leadership, 67(7), 70-73.
Walsh, B., & Petty, K. (2007). Frequency of Six Early Childhood Education Approaches: A 10-
Year Content Analysis of Early Childhood Education. b. 34(5). 301-305.
Doi:10.1007/s10643-006-0080-4