777

Exterior Wall
CladdingIV
(Wall Systems in Glass)
32
CHAPTER
CHAPTER OUTLINE
32.1 GLASS-ALUMINUM CURTAIN WALLS
32.2 ANCHORAGE OF A STICK-BUILT GLASS
CURTAIN WALL TO A STRUCTURE
32.3 STICK-BUILT GLASS CURTAIN WALL DETAILS
32.4 UNITIZED GLASS CURTAIN WALL
32.5 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF A GLASS-
ALUMINUM WALL
32.6 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR
A GLASS CURTAIN WALL
32.7 OTHER GLASS-ALUMINUM WALL SYSTEMS
32.8 NONTRADITIONAL GLASS WALLS
Transparency, luminosity, and elegance are the reasons for the popularity of glass walls in
modern architecture. Most glass walls are constructed with aluminum sections to support
the glass. In other words, the glass panes (also called lites ) are held within vertical and hori-
zontal aluminum framing members. Therefore, they share some of the characteristics of
their smaller counterpartsthe aluminum windows, discussed in Chapter 31 . However,
there are many differences between the two: scale, aesthetic character, performance properties,
design, detailing, and installation.
Three commonly used glass-aluminum wall system systems are
Glass-aluminum curtain walls
Punched and strip glazing systems
Storefront systems
The vast majority of contemporary buildings include one or more of these systems in the
same building. The reasons include the unparalleled opportunity provided by them to
obtain the maximum amount of daylight and view, the cost savings compared with other
exterior wall cladding systems, and the recent technological advances in the thermal and
structural performance of glass wall systems.
Of the three systems listed above, the most frequently used and the most complex is the
glass-aluminum curtain wall system, which is presented here in detail. The other two sys-
tems (strip system and storefront system) are discussed to the extent that they differ from
the curtain wall system. Finally, the chapter deals with nontraditional glass wall systems
systems that do not include aluminum sections to support the glass.
Part 2
Materials and Systems
of Construction
778
32.1 GLASS-ALUMINUM CURTAIN WALLS
Because of their common use, glass-aluminum curtain walls (or simply glass curtain walls )
are constantly evolving in their design and performance. Therefore, a succinct classification
that includes all contemporary glass curtain walls is impossible. The American Architec-
tural Manufacturers Association (AAMA), an association of the manufacturers of windows
and curtain walls, however, classifies glass curtain wall systems into five types based on their
anatomy:
Stick-built (or, simply, stick) systems
Unitized systems
Unit and mullion systems
Panel systems
Column cover and spandrel systems
These systems are illustrated in Figure 32.1 . The stick system is the oldest and the most
widely used system. The remaining four systems are different from the stick system because
they consist of prefabricated wall units similar to the (opaque) curtain wall panels.
STANDARD AND CUSTOM CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMS
Most major glass curtain wall manufacturers have their own facility for extruding the alu-
minum sections. Walls constructed from a manufacturers commonly used and pretested
aluminum sections are referred to as standard walls .
Custom curtain walls utilize cross-sectional shapes extruded specifically for a project in
response to an architects design. Because the cost of dies and other equipment required to
extrude custom cross sections can be recovered from just one fair-size project, custom cur-
tain walls are fairly common. Custom walls should, however, be tested for performance
before they are used in a project. Performance data for standard walls are available from the
manufacturers.
Walls made from standard components are obviously more economical. However,
this does not imply that the standard components yield only one type of wall design. In
fact, the components are generally quite adaptable, and manufacturers can provide a
few custom components for a standard system, so that the facade expressions obtained
from the use of standard components can be numerous. If the number of custom com-
ponents in a wall becomes excessive, the cost of a standard wall may approach that of a
custom wall.
(a) STICK SYSTEM
In the stick system, the curtain wall is installed
piece by piece at the site. Generally, the mullions
are installed first, followed by the rails. Subsequently
the glass panes are installed within the mullion-rail
framework.
The anchorage of the wall to the structural
frame is through the mullions. The mullions may
span from floor to floor or over two floors. Thermal
expansion and contraction of mullions are
accommodated by expansion joints in mullions.
The system components are shop-fabricated
and shipped to the construction site in a knocked-
down (KD) version. Therefore, the system has
relatively low shipping costs and also permits a
greater degree of on-site adjusment as compared
to the other systems.
Its disadvantages include longer on-site
assembly time and more on-site labor than the
other systems.
Mullion expansion splice
Anchor
Spandrel beam
Vertical member (mullion)
Horizontal member (rail)
Mullion expansion splice
(see also Figure 32.3)
FIGURE 32.1 Types of glass curtain wallsthe stick system. (Illustration adapted from AAMA, Curtain Wall Design Guide , 1996, with
permission)
779
(b) UNITIZED SYSTEM
A unitized system consists of framed wall units that are shop-
fabricated, preassembled, and generally preglazed. The units are
designed so that the vertical and horizontal members in adjacent
units interlock to form common mullions and rails. The units may be
one or two stories high. They are anchored to the buildings structural
frame in essentially the same way as the mullions in the stick system.
The advantage of this system is its greater degree of quality
control resulting from shop fabrication. Its disadvantages are the
greater shipping cost because of the added bulk from assembled
units, the need of a greater degree of protection of units during
transporation, and a lower degree of field adjustment.
(d) PANEL SYSTEM
The panel system consists of preassembled (and sometimes
preglazed) homogeneous sheet metal panels with glass infills that
generally span from floor to floor. The curtain walls appearance is more
integrated and comprehensive rather that a grid pattern of horizontal
and vertical elements.
The panels can be formed by stamping or casting. The casting system
is economical only where a large number of identical panels are needed.
(c) UNIT AND MULLION SYSTEM
The unit and mullion system combines the
advantages of both the stick system as well
as the unitized system. It is constructed by
first installing the mullions; subsequently,
factory-assembled units are placed between
the mullions.
Because the system is a compromise
between the stick and unitized systems, it
has the advantages and disadvantages of both,
i.e., its transportation cost is lower than that
of the unitized system but greater than that
of the stick system. A greater degree of site
adjustability is available in the unit and mullion
system, but it is less that that of the stick
system.
Anchor
Spandrel
beam
Preassembled
unit
Anchor
Spandrel
beam
Preassembled
unit
Anchor
Mullion
Preassembled
unit
Spandrel
beam
FIGURE 32.1 (continued) Types of glass curtain wallsunitized system, unit and mullion system, and panel system. (Illustrations adapted
from AAMA, Curtain Wall Design Guide , 1996, with permission)
32.2 ANCHORAGE OF A STICK-BUILT GLASS CURTAIN
WALL TO A STRUCTURE
Like other curtain walls, a glass curtain wall must be spaced away from the buildings struc-
tural frame to account for the small dimensional variations (within the allowed tolerances)
in the structural frame. A 2-in. space is generally the minimum requirement. A wider space
may be required for tall buildings.
780
DEAD-LOAD ANCHORS AND EXPANSION ANCHORS
As shown in Figure 32.1 (a), a stick-built glass curtain wall consists of vertical members
( mullions ) and horizontal members ( rails ). The profiles of both mullions and rails are almost
identical and are tubular in cross section.
The wall is anchored to the buildings structural frame through the mullions. All mul-
lions in a wall are installed first; then the rails are inserted between them. Three rails are
commonly used per floor to create two separate areas of glass at each floorvision glass and
spandrel glass.
In a building (or part of a building) where there is no vision glass, such as in a multistory
parking garage, intermediate rails are needed only to reduce the size of glass panes. Two
rails per floor are commonly used in that situation, Figure 32.2 . The center-to-center spacing
between mullions is generally 4 to 6 ft, depending on the lateral load intensity and the
desired appearance of the facade.
(e) COLUMN COVER AND SPANDREL SYSTEM
This system, though not a true glass curtain
wall system, consists of separate column covers
connected to spandrel covers that generally span
from column to column. Infill glazing units may
either be preassembled or assembled at the site
like those of a stick-built system.
The system provides an independent expression
of the structural system rather than concealing it
behind a (more homogeneous) wall.
Column cover
Spandrel
panel
Glazing
infill
Spandrel
beam
FIGURE 32.1 (continued) Types of glass curtain wallscolumn cover and spandrel system. (Illustration adapted from AAMA, Curtain Wall
Design Guide , 1996, with permission)
Office
floors
Parking
floors
After the framing of the curtain wall
(mullions and rails) for the parking floors
is complete, its glazing has started, while
the framing for the office floors is yet to
begin. Because there are no vision areas
on the parking floors, the glazing on each
floor has been divided into two parts by one
intermediate rail. The purpose of the rail
is merely to reduce the size of the glass.
FIGURE 32.2 (a) The progress in the installation of a stick-built glass curtain wall on an office building in which the lower floors are parking
floors and the upper floors are office floors. See also Figure 32.2 (b).
781
To allow for the expansion and contraction of mullions caused by temperature
changes, each mullion must be provided with expansion joints. Thus, the mullions con-
sist of short lengths (one or two floors tall) that terminate in expansion joints at both
ends, Figure 32.3 .
An expansion joint also absorbs the creep in concrete columns and the live-load deflec-
tion of the spandrel beam to which the mullions are anchored. Therefore, the expansion
joint width must be determined on a project-by-project basis. Note that an expansion joint
allows movement in the vertical direction only.
Because all loads on a wall are transferred to the structural frame through the mullions,
each mullion is provided with a dead-load support anchor (or, simply, a DL anchor )
designed to carry the weight of the respective portion of the curtain wall.
A DL anchor fully restrains the movement of a mullion; that is, the mullion is immo-
bile in all three principal directions at a dead-load support. Therefore, a DL anchor
transfers both the dead loads and the lateral loads on a mullion to the buildings struc-
tural frame.
Two types of mullion spans are generally used in a stick-built glass curtain wall, Figure 32.4 :
Single-span mullion systems
Twin-span mullion systems
In a single-span mullion system, each mullion extends only over one floor. DL anchors
are, therefore, required at every floor, except at the ground floor, where the buildings foun-
dation provides dead-load support to the first mullion length, Figure 32.4 (a).
In a twin-span mullion system, the mullions extend over two floors. Because a mul-
lion can have only one dead-load support, DL anchors are provided at alternate floors,
Figure 32.4 (b). Another difference between a single-span and a twin-span system is that
in a twin-span system, expansion anchors (or, simply, EX anchors ) are also required at
alternate floors. In a single-span system, an EX anchor is required only at the second
floor of the building.
DL anchors and EX anchors are steel (or aluminum) members to which the mullions are
bolted. As shown in Figure 32.4 (b), they are almost identical. The only difference between
them is that in a DL anchor, the upper pair of holes is round, and in an EX anchor, the
upper pair of holes has vertically slotted holes that allow vertical movement.
In this photograph, the glazing of the
curtain wall on the parking floors of the
building shown in Figure 32.2(a) is almost
complete. Now the framing for the curtain
wall on the office floors has begun. As
shown here, the mullions are installed first,
followed by the rails.
This (part of the) photograph shows the
progress in the installation of rails on the
office floors. Because an office floor has
separate spandrel and vision glass areas,
there will be three rails per floor.
Office
floors
Parking
floors
FIGURE 32.2 (b) The progress in the installation of a stick-built glass curtain wall on an office building in which the lower floors are parking
floors and the upper floors are office floors; see also Figure 32.2 (a).
782
I-shaped expansion splice is inserted
into the tubular part of the lower mullion
and fastened to it. The tubular part of
the upper mullion length slides freely over
the splice with a snug fit. A gap is left
between the two mullions for movement,
as shown in the lower photograph.
See also Figures 32.4, 32.5(b) and (c).
Lower mullion length
Plastic shim separates the steel washer
from the aluminum mullion to prevent a
galvanic reaction between the steel and
aluminum.
Mullion anchor; see
Figure 32.5(a)
Top of spandrel
beam
Upper mullion length
Expansion joint between upper and lower mullion
lengths. The width of this joint must be
determined based on the creep in columns (if any),
deflection of the spandrel beam, and the thermal
movement of the mullion length.
Face of spandrel beam
Lower mullion length
FIGURE 32.3 A typical expansion joint between two mullion lengths.
783
DL ANCHOR
DL ANCHOR
DL ANCHOR
EX ANCHOR
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Expansion joint
Expansion joint
Expansion joint
Expansion joint
Expansion joint
Dead-load support
DL ANCHOR
Upper mullion
Expansion
splice
Lower mullion
Spandrel
beam
DL ANCHOR DETAIL
See also Figures
32.5(b), (c) and (d)
DL ANCHOR
EX ANCHOR
DL ANCHOR
EX ANCHOR
EX ANCHOR
EX ANCHOR DETAIL
See also Figures
32.5(b), (c) and (d)
Dead-load
support
Expansion joint
Expansion joint
Expansion joint
M
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p
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Expansion
splice
Spandrel
beam
Upper mullion
Lower
mullion
(a) Single-span mullion support system (b) Twin-span mullion support system
Each mullion length spans from floor to floor and is
provided with one dead-load anchor support at the top
from which the mullion is hung. The first mullion length,
however, begins with a dead-load support at the foundation
and is anchored to an EX anchor at the top. The tubular
part of the second mullion length slides freely over the
expansion splice in the lower mullion (see Figure 32.3).
Each mullion length spans two floors and is provided
with a DL anchor support at alternate floors. Each
mullion slides freely at both ends over the expansion
splices. At these ends, the mullion is anchored to EX
anchors.
FIGURE 32.4 Support systems for single-span and twin-span curtain wall mullions. Observe that each mullion has only one dead-load
support.
Part 2
Materials and Systems
of Construction
784
ANCHORING A MULLION TO A DL OR EX ANCHOR
Figure 32.5 shows the anchorage details of a mullion to a DL anchor and an EX anchor.
Anchoring a mullion to a DL anchor (or an EX anchor) is a two-step process. The first
step includes providing a temporary connection between the mullion and the anchor,
Figure 32.5 (b). After all mullion lengths are correctly aligned, a permanent connection
between the mullion and the anchor is made.
A permanent connection requires field drilling into the mullion through predrilled holes
in the anchors, Figure 32.5 (c), (d), and (e). Predrilled holes in anchors provide for field
adjustment to cater to the (allowed) dimensional variations in the structural frame of the
building.
As with other curtain walls (precast concrete, GFRC, natural stone, etc.), the anchorage
system of a glass curtain wall to the buildings structure is typically provided by the curtain
walls manufacturer. The installation of the wall is generally done by the manufacturers
own installation crew or by an approved third-party installer. For some simple curtain walls
that utilize a manufacturers standard sections, an installer may provide all detailing assist-
ance to the architect.
(a) Connection of a DL or EX
anchor to spandrel beam
Nut and bolt sleeve embedded in
spandrel beam allows horizontal
adjustment for anchor location
Anchor comprises two
steel angles welded to
a steel plate
Slotted hole in anchor
provides vertical adjustment
of anchor location
Spandrel beam
(b) Temporary connection of
mullion to anchor
Aluminum expansion splice
fastened to mullion
Horizontal slotted hole in the anchor
and vertical slotted hole in the mullion
provide adjustability in the
connection of mullion to anchor.
This is a temporary connection.
After this connection is made, the
(permanent) dead-load support
connection of the mullion to the
anchor is made through one of the
two round holes above; see also
Figure 32.5(c).
(Vertical) slotted hole in mullion
(Hortizontal) slotted hole in anchor
Two holes in anchor for DEAD-LOAD
support of mullion; see also Figure 32.5(c)
Vertical face of spandrel beam
Plate provides permanent
connection of anchor to
spandrel beam. After the
anchor is in the desired
location, the plate (with a
hole that just fits the bolt
diameter) is welded to the
anchor.
Bolt and washer for
temporary connection.
After the mullion has
been permanently
anchored, this bolt is
removed, as shown in
Figure 32.5(c).
FIGURE 32.5 Typical anchorage details of a mullion to a spandrel beam.
785
Two same-size round holes in anchor
for DEAD-LOAD support of mullion.
Erector field drills into the mullion
through the more suitable of the two
holes for permanent connection of
the mullion to the anchor.
Slotted hole
in mullion
Slotted hole in
anchor
This bolt is
removed after
making perma-
nent connection
Temporary connection
bolt removed after
making permanent
connection
(c) Dead-load anchor support of mullion to a reinforced-concrete spandrel beam
Two slotted holes in the anchor for EXPANSION ANCHORAGE
support of the mullion. Erector field drills into the mullion
through the more suitable of the two slotted holes for
permanent expansion anchorage of the mullion.
DL anchor
Pour stop engineered
to support the loads
(d) Dead-load support of mullion to a steel
spandrel beam
(e) Expansion-anchor support of mullion to a
reinforced-concrete spandrel beam
FIGURE 32.5 (continued) Typical anchorage details of a mullion to a spandrel beam.
786
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best
answers the question.
1. A stick-built glass curtain wall consists of
a. mullions and glass.
b. rails and glass.
c. mullions, rails, and glass.
d. mullions, rails, and preassembled units.
e. preassembled units and glass.
2. A unitized glass curtain wall consists of
a. mullions and glass.
b. rails and glass.
c. mullions, rails, and glass.
d. mullions, rails, and preassembled units.
e. preassembled units and glass.
3. Glass curtain walls in which aluminum framing sections are specially
profiled for a particular project are
a. rare because of the prohibitive cost of manufacturing custom
profiles.
b. uncommon because of the extremely high cost of manufacturing
custom profiles.
c. not uncommon because the cost of custom profiles can be
recovered from a few repeat mid-sized to large projects.
d. fairly common because the cost of custom profiles can be
recovered from one large project.
4. In a stick-built glass curtain wall, the mullions are typically spaced at
a. 2 ft to 4 ft on center. b. 4 ft to 6 ft on center.
c. 6 ft to 10 ft on center. d. 10 ft to 15 ft on center.
e. as needed for the project.
5. In a stick-built glass curtain wall, the rails are typically spaced at
a. 2 ft to 4 ft o.c. b. 4 ft to 6 ft o.c.
c. 6 ft to 10 ft o.c. d. 10 ft to 15 ft o.c.
e. as needed for the project.
6. A stick-built glass curtain wall is anchored to the buildings structure
through
a. mullions. b. rails.
c. both mullions and rails. d. none of the above.
7. In a single-span mullion system for a glass curtain wall,
a. one dead-load anchor is provided at every floor level.
b. two dead-load anchors are provided at every floor level.
c. one dead-load anchor is provided at every alternate floor level.
d. two dead-load anchors are provided at every alternate floor level.
e. only one dead-load anchor is provided for the entire height of
the wall.
8. In a twin-span mullion system for a glass curtain wall,
a. one dead-load anchor is provided at every floor level.
b. two dead-load anchors are provided at every floor level.
c. one dead-load anchor is provided at every alternate floor level.
d. two dead-load anchors are provided at every alternate floor level.
e. only one dead-load anchor is provided for the entire height of
the wall.
9. In a single-span mullion system for a glass curtain wall,
a. one expansion anchor is provided at every floor level.
b. two expansion anchors are provided at every floor level.
c. one expansion anchor is provided at every alternate floor level.
d. two expansion anchors are provided at every alternate floor level.
e. only one expansion anchor is provided for the entire height of
the wall.
10. In a twin-span mullion system for a glass curtain wall,
a. one expansion anchor is provided at every floor level.
b. two expansion anchors are provided at every floor level.
c. one expansion anchor is provided at every alternate floor level.
d. two expansion anchors are provided at every alternate floor level.
e. only one expansion anchor is provided for the entire height of
the wall.
11. The width of an expansion joint between adjacent mullion lengths in
a typical stick-built glass curtain wall
a. is generally 1 in. standard.
b. is generally
1
2
in. standard.
c. is generally
1
4
in. standard.
d. is generally
1
16
in. standard.
e. must be determined on a project-by-project basis.
PRACTICE QUIZ
32.3 STICK-BUILT GLASS CURTAIN WALL DETAILS
After the mullions have been anchored to the structural frame, the remaining items in the
walls erection require
Connection of the rails to the mullions
Installation of the glass.
RAIL-TO-MULLION CONNECTION
Manufacturers use various methods to connect the rails to the mullions. A commonly used
method involves short aluminum extrusions, called shear blocks, which are fastened to the mul-
lions with screws. Subsequently, the rails are snapped over the shear blocks, one shear block at
each end of a rail, Figure 32.6 . Thus, no fasteners are used between the rail and the shear blocks.
Because the length of each rail is small (4 ft to 6 ft is typical), a fairly small space is
required for the expansion or contraction of a rail. In general, the length of a rail is
1
16
in.
less than the clear distance between mullions.
OUTSIDE-GLAZED AND INSIDE-GLAZED CURTAIN WALLS
One of the factors that determines the cross-sectional shapes of mullions and rails is whether
the glass in the wall is to be installed from the outside or the inside of the building, referred
to, respectively, as
Outside-glazed curtain walls
Inside-glazed curtain walls
787
In an outside-glazed wall, the glass panes are installed from the outside of the building by
workers standing on a scaffold or staging. This method of installing glass is less efficient and
more expensive due to the cost of scaffolding or staging. It is generally used for low- to mid-
rise buildings. The glass in an outside-glazed wall can be secured in two ways:
Pressure platecaptured glass ( Figures 32.7 to 32.9 )
Structural silicone sealantadhered glass ( Figure 32.10 )
In an inside-glazed wall, the glass is installed by workers standing on the appropriate
floor of the building. The system is more efficient because it does not require scaffolding or
staging. It is the system of choice for high-rise buildings. However, the cross-sectional
shapes of mullions and rails for the inside-glazed system are more complex than the corre-
sponding shapes for the outside-glazed system.
OUTSIDE-GLAZED WALLS (PRESSURE PLATECAPTURED GLASS)
In an outside-glazed curtain wall, the glass is held by horizontal and vertical pressure plates,
which are fastened to the mullions and rails with screws. A plastic insert is used between the
pressure plate and the mullion (or the rail), which functions as a thermal separator. The
pressure plates are finally covered with snap-on covers, Figure 32.7 .
Because the covers are the only externally visible part of the curtain wall frame, they have
a major influence on the curtain walls appearance. The covers can be profiled into various
shapes, Figure 32.8 .
The exterior and interior gaskets should prevent water from leaking through the wall.
However, a curtain wall system typically includes accommodations for the drainage of
water, should it penetrate beyond the gaskets. This is accomplished through drainage weep
holes in the pressure plates and the covers. Thus, in a typical curtain wall, each glass-pane
frame is drained independently. Figure 32.9 shows typical sections through a pressure
platecaptured outside-glazed curtain wall.
Mullion
Sealant
Shear block, one on
each end of a rail
Screw spline in shear block to
fasten shear block to mullion
Rail
Length of rail is 1/16 in. shorter
than clear distance between
mullions to allow thermal
expansion and contraction of rail
Rail snapped over shear blocks
Mullion
Screw
spline in
shear
block
Shear
block
Bottom cover is snapped onto the
rail after the rail has been
snapped to shear blocks
FIGURE 32.6 Typical connection between rails and mullions of a stick-built glass curtain wall.
788
Mullion
Insulating glass unit in vision area of
curtain wall (1 in. thick typical)
Rail
Gasket
Pressure plate fastened to rail; see also
Figure 32.9
Snap-on coveraesthetically the most
important component of a curtain wall.
Manufacturers provide covers in anodized finish
or painted finish in various colors. Custom
cross-sectional cover profiles can also be
obtained; see Figure 32.8.
Monolithic glass (typically 1/4 in. thick heat-strength-
ended glass) in spandrel area of curtain wall. The interior
surface of glass contains fired-on ceramic frit opacifier
or a polyester film opacifier toward the interior so that
this glass approximates the IGU in appearance. An IGU
(the same as in the vision area) may also be used in the
spandrel area in place of a monolithic glass; see also
Chapter 30, Figure 30.12.
Gasket
Pressure
plate
Snap-on
cover
FIGURE 32.7 (a) Anatomy of an outside-glazed glass curtain wall (pressure platecaptured glass).
Chapter 32
Exterior Wall CladdingIV
(Wall Systems in Glass)
789
Custom mullion
Rail
Standard
cover
Snap-on custom cover
FIGURE 32.8 A custom cover and custom mullion for an outside-glazed glass curtain wall.
(Photo courtesy of Vistawall Architectural Products)
Full-length
pressure plate
Small length of
pressure plate
FIGURE 32.7 (b) In fastening the pressure plates to curtain wall framing members, the glass is
temporarily held by small pressure plate members. After several glass panes are in position, the
temporary pressure plates are removed and replaced by full-length pressure plates.
790
Vision
glass
Vision
glass
Vision
glass
Vision
glass
Spandrel
glass
Spandrel
glass
P
Q
R
Detail P
Mullion
Inside tape
Insulating glass
unit
Gasket (also
functions as
thermal separator)
Thermal separator
Pressure plate
fastened to mullion
Snap-on cover
FIGURE 32.9 (a) Typical details of an outside-glazed glass curtain wall (pressure platecaptured glass). Aluminum sections used in the
details are by Vistawall Architectural Products. Other manufacturers provide similar sections.
791
Insulating glass unit (1 in. thick
typical)
Gasket (also functions as
thermal separator)
WEEP HOLES in pressure
plate here
Thermal separator
Snap-on cover
Pressure plate fastened to
rail
WEEP HOLES in cover here
Adapter for spandrel glass
Spandrel glass; see also
Figure 32.7
DETAIL Q
DETAIL R
Spandrel glass; see also Figure
32.7
Adapter for spandrel glass
(unnecessary if 1-in.-thick stone
spandrel or insulating glass is used)
Setting blocks (2 per glass pane)
WEEP HOLES in pressure
plate here
Snap-on cover
Pressure plate fastened to
rail
WEEP HOLES in cover
Insulating glass unit (1 in.
thick typical)
Inside glazing tape
Inside glazing tape
Rail
Rail
FIGURE 32.9 (b) Typical details of an outside-glazed glass curtain wall (pressure platecaptured glass). Aluminum sections used in the
details are by Vistawall Architectural Products. Other manufacturers provide similar sections.
Part 2
Materials and Systems
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792
OUTSIDE-GLAZED WALLS (STRUCTURAL SILICONE
SEALANTADHERED GLASS)
Another version of an outside-glazed curtain wall is one in which the glass is held by struc-
tural silicone sealant. In this type of system, the vertical edges of a glass pane are adhered
to the mullions with beads of structural silicone sealant. The mullions in this wall are
similar to those of an outside-glazed wall without the mullion nose. The horizontal edges
of the glass are supported on rails and anchored to them through standard pressure plates,
Figure 32.10 . The absence of vertical pressure plates in the system accentuates the hori-
zontality of the covers.
INSIDE-GLAZED WALLS
In an inside-glazed wall, pressure plates are not used. Therefore, the aluminum curtain wall
sections are different from those used for the outside-glazed wall. These sections include
glazing pocketsin both mullions and the bottom railof an opening. The top rail of the
opening is open and has no glazing pocket. The openness allows the glass to be inserted in
the opening. After the glass is inserted, a glazing stop is snapped on the top rail of the open-
ing from the inside. This secures the glass in the opening, Figure 32.11 (b).
Figure 32.11 (c) shows a plan view of the process of inserting the glass. Other details of
an inside-glazed wall are shown in Figure 32.11 (a) and (d). An important point to note is
that in the inside-glazed wall, the mullion and rail covers must be installed before inserting
the glass, Figure 32.12 .
DETAILING A MULTISTORY GLASS CURTAIN WALL
Figure 32.13 shows the details of a typical multistory (outside-glazed) glass curtain wall at
the floor, sill, and ceiling levels. At the sill level, an aluminum stool provides the interior
finish. It is snapped to a continuous clip on one side, and its vertical leg is fastened to a
treated wood nailer on the other side.
Usually a heat-strengthened glass pane (with a fired-on ceramic frit opacification or a
polyester film opacification on the interior surface of the glass to prevent seeing through it)
S
Q
R
Vision
glass
Spandrel
glass
Mullion
Structural
silicone sealant
Polyurethane
spacer
Insulating glass
unit
Backer rod and sealant
weather seal
Details Q and R similar to Details
Q and R in Figure 32.9(b)
DETAIL S
FIGURE 32.10 Typical details of an outside-glazed curtain wall (structural silicone sealantadhered glass). Aluminum section used in the
detail is by Vistawall Architectural Products. Other manufacturers provide a similar section.
793
Deep glazing pockets in mullions allow the glass
to be inserted from within the building. The
open rail at the top of the opening facilitates
the insertion. The opening is closed with a
glazing stop after the glass is in position; see
(b) DETAIL at ceiling level.
(c) DETAIL of glass insertion in opening (d) DETAIL at sill level
Mullion
Thermal
separator
Cover
Setting block
Weep holes
here
Weep holes in
cover here
Insulating glass unit
Gasket
Rail
Adapter for
spandrel glass
Mullion
Spandrel glass; see also
Figure 32.7
Thermal
separator
Setting
block
Weep holes
here
Snap-on
cover
Weep holes
here
Gasket
Rail
Snap-on glazing stop
(b) DETAIL at ceiling level
(a) DETAIL at mullion
FIGURE 32.11 Typical details of an inside-glazed curtain wall. Aluminum sections used in the details are by Vistawall Architectural Prod-
ucts. Other manufacturers provide similar sections.
is used in the spandrel area (see Figure 32.7 (a)). A fire-containment assembly is generally
required to prevent the passage of fire and smoke between the adjacent floors of the build-
ing. This assembly consists of semirigid mineral wool insulation pressure-fitted (and sup-
ported on metal clips) in the space between the curtain wall and the spandrel beam. To
obtain a good seal, the insulation is topped with a liquid-applied, fire-resistive sealant.
In addition to the fire-containment assembly, the entire spandrel area of the curtain wall
is provided with mineral wool insulation placed behind the spandrel glass. To prevent con-
densation between the glass and the insulation, a vapor retarder is provided in this area.
This generally consists of an aluminum foil lamination on the insulations interior face.
Where a high degree of condensation potential exists, a metal panel (referred to as a metal
back pan ) should be specified in place of an aluminum foil lamination.
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794
Spandrel
glass; see
also Figure
32.7
IGU in vision
area
Rail
Ceiling
Snap-on closure
Semirigid mineral wood insulation and vapor retarder
in spandrel area; see also Chapter 30, Figure 30.12
Perimeter fire containment cover over aluminum
framing in spandrel area
DETAIL at ceiling level
IGU in vision
area
Spandrel
glass; see
also Figure
3.27
Aluminum stool
Screw fasten
aluminum stool here
Treated wood nailer
Gypsum board
Light-gauge steel
stud wall with
insulation
Perimeter fire containment cover over aluminum framing
Space between
glass curtain wall
and structural
frame
Floor slab
Semirigid mineral wool insulation
and vapor retarder in spandrel
area; see also Chapter 30,
Figure 30.12
Fire-stop assembly in space between curtain
wall and spandrel beam comprising compression
fit mineral wool and liquid fire-rated sealant.
This assembly is known as a perimeter
fire-containment assembly.
DETAIL at sill level
DETAIL at floor level
Aluminum clip to provide
snap-on connection to stool
FIGURE 32.13 Typical floor-level, sill-level, and ceiling-level details of an outside-glazed glass curtain wall. Note the fire-stopping in the
space between the spandrel beam and curtain wall.
FIGURE 32.12 In an inside-glazed
curtain wall, the covers are installed
before the glass. In this photo, an
installer is installing the snap-on
cover on the mullion from an upper
floor, and is helped by an installer at
the lower floor. In an outside-glazed
curtain wall, the covers are generally
installed after installation of the glass
and pressure plates.
795
32.4 UNITIZED GLASS CURTAIN WALL
As shown in Figure 32.1 (b), in a unitized glass curtain wall, the wall units are preassembled
(and generally preglazed) in a fabrication shop and brought to the site for installation, so
that the wall is assembled at the site, unit by unit, instead of assembling sticks of mullions
and rails. Figure 32.14 (a) to (d) show the important steps in the installation of a typical
unitized wall to a building structure.
The units are designed to mate with the adjacent units at the mullions, and at the top and
bottom rails. The bottom rail of the upper unit connects to the top rail of the lower unit. As
shown in Figure 32.14 (b), the splices projecting from the top rail of the lower unit fit snugly
into the void in the bottom rail of the upper unit. This detail provides the lateral-load resist-
ance and is similar to the detail used in a stick-built wall (see Figure 32.3 ). The dead-load
resistance of the unit is provided through its anchorage to the floor, Figure 32.14 (d). Two
adjacent units generally share the same dead-load anchorage.
32.5 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF
A GLASS-ALUMINUM WALL
The most important structural requirement of a glass-aluminum wall is its ability to resist
lateral loads (particularly wind loads), including missile-impact resistance in hurricane-
prone regions. Just as the design of a glass-aluminum walls anchorage to the structure is
accomplished by the wall manufacturer (or installer, see Section 32.2), its lateral-load-
resistance design is also provided by the manufacturer (or installer) based on the lateral-load
intensities provided by the project architect or structural engineer.
Manufacturers generally have several standard sections designed to suit various lateral-
load intensities. For high lateral-load intensities, a strategy often used is to enclose struc-
tural steel (or aluminum) sections within the mullions, Figure 32.15 . The enclosed steel
sections and the mullions are fastened together to produce a composite action between
them. Structural C- or I-sections are commonly used as enclosed sections. Channels pro-
vide the advantage of nesting, so that two or three channels may be used within the same
mullion. The enclosed steel sections are suitably coated to prevent galvanic action between
the aluminum and steel.
An alternative to enclosed steel sections is to anchor the mullions to an independent steel
structural frame, Figure 32.16 . This strategy is generally used in a tall glass-aluminum wall
where the mullions do not have intermediate supports to reduce their span, such as those
provided by the floor structure in a multistory curtain wall.
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best
answers the question.
12. The width of an expansion joint in the rails of a typical stick-built
glass curtain wall
a. is 1 in. standard. b. is
1
2
in. standard.
c. is
1
4
in. standard. d. is
1
32
in. standard.
e. must be determined on project-by-project basis.
13. In a stick-built glass curtain wall, the mullions are erected first and
the rails are inserted between them.
a. True b. False
14. A shear block is used
a. at a mullion expansion joint to allow the mullion to move.
b. at the dead-load anchor of a mullion.
c. at the expansion anchor of a mullion.
d. to connect a rail to adjacent mullions.
e. none of the above.
15. A glass curtain wall in which the glass is pressure plate captured is
glazed from the
a. buildings interior. b. buildings exterior.
c. either (a) or (b).
16. As shown in this text, a glass curtain wall in which the glass is
structural silicone adhered is glazed from the
a. buildings interior. b. buildings exterior.
c. (a) or (b).
17. In a glass curtain wall with pressure platecaptured glass, there are
a. no covers.
b. covers in both horizontal and vertical directions.
c. covers only in the horizontal direction.
d. covers only in the vertical direction.
18. As shown in the text, a glass curtain wall with structural silicone
adhered glass
a. has no exterior covers.
b. has exterior covers in both horizontal and vertical directions.
c. has exterior covers only in the horizontal direction.
d. has exterior covers only in the vertical direction.
19. A typical glass curtain wall is provided with weep holes to drain
infiltrating water even though it is sealed from both the inside and
the outside with gaskets or tapes.
a. True b. False
PRACTICE QUIZ
796
(a) Using a crane,
unitized curtain wall
elements are
carried up from the
delivery truck to
the building facade
(b) The new unit is installed by placing
both of its mullions over the (projecting)
splices in the lower unit. The splices
function as expansion splices (see Figure
32.3) and also provide lateral-load
support to the unit. The lower unit is
anchored to the floor structure through
a dead-load support to the unit.
Projecting splices (one on
each side of the lower unit)
function as expansion splices
and also as lifting elements.
Observe holes in splices to
which lifting cables are
attached.
Unit already installed
Dead-load anchor for the
unit here; see (d) below
(c) The new unit being forced over the (projecting) splice (d) Anchorage of unit to the floor structure, providing
dead-load support
FIGURE 32.14 Installation of a unitized curtain wall element.
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Steel (or stainless steel) channel. Two or three
channels can be nested for added strength.
Aluminum mullion
In this glass-aluminum wall, the supporting structure for
aluminum curtain wall sections consists of steel pipe verticals.
In a very tall curtain wall, vertical steel trusses and horizontal
steel members or a steel space frame may be used.
Aluminum curtain
wall section
Steel pipe to provide lateral load
support to curtain wall
FIGURE 32.16 A tall glass wall with standard curtain wall sections anchored to an interior structural steel vertical member to provide lateral-
load support to aluminum mullions. In this building, a steel pipe support is used. In taller walls, vertical steel trusses are common.
FIGURE 32.15 One of the ways to
increase the lateral-load resistance of
aluminum mullions is to enclose
structural steel sections within them.
32.6 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
FOR A GLASS CURTAIN WALL
The nonstructural performance of a glass curtain wall is just as important as its structural
performance. Among the important nonstructural design criteria for a glass curtain wall are
Air-infiltration control
Rainwater- and meltwater-penetration control
U-value
Solar heat gain
Part 2
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Condensation resistance
Vapor diffusion
Sound transmission
Hurricane resistance
Seismic resistance
Thermal and structural movement
Glass-cleaning-equipment load
For standard curtain walls, manufacturers provide the values for these criteria based on
the tests conducted by recognized third-party laboratories. For custom walls, technical
design support is generally available from the manufacturers. For a complicated wall design,
the architect may need additional help from a curtain wall design consultant and a special-
ized testing laboratory to determine the walls performance.
AIR-INFILTRATION CONTROL
In the United States, the maximum air infiltration allowed through a glass curtain wall is
typically 0.06 cfm/ft
2
under an inside-outside air pressure difference of 1.57 psf. In Canada,
the requirement is three times more stringentthat is, 0.02 cfm/ft
2
under an air pressure
difference of 1.57 psf.
Where lower air infiltration is required, curtain wall systems, which provide a rate of up
to 0.01 cfm/ft
2
under an inside-outside air pressure difference of 6.24 psf, are available.
(Note that a 1.57-psf air pressure difference is equivalent to that exerted by a wind speed of
25 mph. Similarly a 6.24-psf air pressure difference is equivalent to that created by a
50-mph wind speed; see Chapter 3 .
Air-infiltration control not only conserves energy but also reduces ice buildup on the
exterior of curtain wall components. Ice buildup is caused by the condensation of water
vapor that escapes from the buildings interior along with air. When the ice melts, the melt-
water may leak into the buildings interior. Therefore, a more stringent air-infiltration-
control criterion is generally needed in colder climates.
RAINWATER- AND MELTWATER-PENETRATION CONTROL
Water-penetration control (of both rainwater and meltwater) is perhaps the most important
nonstructural performance requirement of a glass curtain wall. Glass curtain wall systems are
generally designed to ensure no water penetration when tested under a static air pressure differ-
ence (between the inside and the outside) that is at least 20% of the inward structural design
wind load on the curtain wall. Thus, if the inward structural design wind load on the wall is 50
psf, the system is tested for water penetration under a static air pressure difference of at least 10
psf. A more stringent water-penetration criterion is required for buildings located in areas sub-
jected to frequent and intense wind-driven rain. In addition to conforming to the static pres-
sure criterion, a glass curtain wall is required to conform to dynamic pressure test criterion.
Water-penetration control is accomplished in different ways by system manufacturers; it
typically includes adequate drainage in the aluminum joinery and glazing pockets. For
example, in the stick-built glass curtain wall described earlier, weep holes are provided in
the pressure plates and snap-on covers that drain the water to the outside. The architects
details must also ensure the management of water entering the curtain wall from a nonglass
facade that is above the curtain wall, where such a facade exists.
U-VALUE, SOLAR HEAT GAIN, AND CONDENSATION RESISTANCE
These three interrelated criteria are a function of the type of glass, the type of aluminum
framing (thermally improved or not), and the center-to-center spacing of framing mem-
bers, as explained in Chapter 30 . The architect must specify their values in consultation
with the HVAC consultant (who also needs these values to design the buildings HVAC
system and to meet the energy code requirements).
VAPOR DIFFUSION ANALYSIS
As previously stated, interior water vapor may result in ice buildup on curtain wall framing
and condensation of water vapor in the buildings interior. These issues are particularly criti-
cal in cold climates, where a vapor analysis of the curtain wall system is generally required.
SOUND TRANSMISSION
Glass curtain walls in buildings located in areas where high levels of exterior noise are
present (e.g., near airports or busy highways) may need a higher sound-transmission-loss
specification than other areas.
cfm is an acronym for cubic
feet per minute.
NOTE
AAMA and Water
Penetration
The American Architectural
Manufacturers Association
(AAMA) defines water penetra-
tion as the appearance of
uncontrolled water other than
condensation on the interior
face of any part of the cur-
tain wall.
NOTE
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799
HURRICANE IMPACT RESISTANCE AND SEISMIC RESISTANCE
Because of Floridas experience with extensive wind damage to glass curtain walls from hur-
ricanes, several coastal cities in the United States are requiring that glass curtain walls be
missile-impact resistant, particularly in the lower floors of the building. Similarly, because
of Californias experience with earthquake damage to glass curtain walls, resistance to shaking,
glass drifting, and horizontal movement of components is required for buildings in seismi-
cally active areas.
THERMAL AND STRUCTURAL MOVEMENT
Aluminum-framing members and glass expand and contract due to temperature changes
and the sudden cooling effects of precipitation. Glass curtain walls require sufficient expan-
sion and contraction control built into them to allow thermal movement and the move-
ment of spandrel beams due to live-load deflection. The expansion splice required in a
stick-built curtain wall ( Figure 32.3 ) accounts for this requirement.
GLASS-CLEANING-EQUIPMENT LOAD
High-rise curtain walls include provisions for periodic cleaning. This means that they must
include anchorage points for the staging of cleaning equipment that is lowered from the
roof to the front of the curtain wall. These anchors add point loads on the wall, and this
information needs to be communicated by the architect to the system manufacturer.
32.7 OTHER GLASS-ALUMINUM WALL SYSTEMS
In addition to curtain walls, two additional glass-aluminum wall systems commonly used are
Punched and strip glazing
Storefront system
PUNCHED AND STRIP GLAZING
Punched glazing is similar to a punched window (see the window terminology in Chapter
31 ), except that the glass in punched glazing is generally fixed and site installed due to its
large size. By contrast, a punched window is generally shop glazed and may contain opera-
ble sashes. The frame for punched glazing may either be shop assembled or stick-built on
site. The frame is anchored to the opening (jambs, head, and sill) instead of being anchored
to the buildings structural frame (as in a curtain wall).
Strip (also called ribbon ) glazing is similar to punched glazing, with several glazing
units placed in a linear alignment. Strip glazing is also anchored to the head and sill of an
opening.
STOREFRONT SYSTEM
A storefront is a large glass-aluminum wall that is generally one story tall and extends from
the ground to the second floor of the building. Three major differences distinguish a cur-
tain wall from a storefront. They are:
(a) The storefront wall lies under the second-floor structure of the building and (unlike
a curtain wall), it is not spaced away from the structural frame of the building.
Often, a storefront is protected by an overhang to control water leakage through
the system.
(b) The glazing systems performance for structural and nonstructural criteria (air infil-
tration, water penetration, CRF, etc.) is lower than that of a curtain wall.
(c) Rainwater that enters a curtain wall is drained by the (horizontal) rail support of each
individual lite. In a storefront system, the water entering through a lite must travel
vertically down the mullion and be drained at the weep holes at the ground level.
32.8 NONTRADITIONAL GLASS WALLS
The glass-aluminum wall types discussed so far are traditional types that have evolved over a long
period. Three recently introduced systems that do not rely on aluminum sections for support are
Glass wall supported by cable trusses
Glass wall supported by a pretensioned cable net
Double-skin glass walls
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Materials and Systems
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800
GLASS WALL SUPPORTED BY CABLE TRUSSES
A sophisticated and unique version of a glass wall that is relatively uncommon (due to its
cost) is the mullionless glass wall developed by the Pilkington Company. In this system,
each glass pane is suspended at four corners by stainless steel spider-shaped connectors . The
connectors are held by a horizontal truss consisting of stainless steel tension cables and
compression struts. Several such trusses are anchored to vertical steel frames, Figure 32.17.
The glass used in the system is generally a high-R-value, insulating glass unit with lami-
nated and heat-soaked tempered glass (see Section 30.2). Only elastomeric, silicone sealant
separates a glass pane from the adjacent panes.
GLASS WALL SUPPORTED BY A PRETENSIONED CABLE NET
Another recently introduced glass wall system is one that uses a grid of pretensioned (stretched)
cables to support the glass. Conceptually, the support system resembles a two-directional grid
of strings in a tennis racket. Because the strings in a tennis racket are highly stretched, they
create a stiff plane. When held vertically, the stringed plane of the racket resembles a stiff wall
that can resist lateral loads and can be used to suspend planar elements from it.
Similar to the stringed plane of a tennis racket, a cable-net-supported glass wall consists
of pretensioned (approximately 1-in.-diameter) stainless steel cables arrayed in both the
horizontal and vertical directions. The vertical cables are stretched between the top and
bottom of an openinggenerally between the spandrel beams at the upper and lower
floors. The horizontal cables are stretched between the sides of the openinggenerally
This glass wall is supported by a two-directional (consisting of
horizontal and vertical elements) backup structure. The horizontal
elements of the backup structure consist of trusses with tension
cables and compression struts. The vertical elements consist of
trusses made of steel pipes. The glass is held by spider connectors,
which are connected to the compression struts. At a level close to
the floor where tension cables and compression struts cannot be
used, glass fins have been used to provide lateral support to the glass.
A typical spider connector. Each connector holds one corner
of all four insulating glass units that meet at the connector.
Elastomeric silicone sealant seals the edges between the
glass units.
Cable-and-strut truss
Strut
Vertical
steel
truss
FIGURE 32.17 Pilkingtons Planar Glass Wall System used in the Rose Center for Earth and Space, New York City (see also Chapter 30 ,
Figure 30.4 ). Architects: Polshek Partnership.
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801
between the columns or walls supporting the building. Two examples of cable-net-
supported glass walls are shown in Figure 32.18 (a) and (b).
The horizontal and vertical cables are held together at intersections through special
stainless steel connectors, which also serve as points for securing the glass to the grid. A
typical connector is shown in Figure 32.18 (c). The glass panels generally consist of insulat-
ing glass units with laminated and heat-soaked tempered glass.
Because the cables are highly stressed, they impose a large load on the boundary elements
of the openingthe two spandrel beams and the columns (or walls)which must be
designed to resist this additional load.
(a) Cable-net glass wall in the
entrance lobby of the One North
Wacker Building, Chicago,
Architects: Goettsch Partners.
(b) Cable-net glass in the
atrium of the Time Warner Center,
New York City. Architects:
Skidmore, Owing and Merril.
(c) Typical connector at a nodethe point of
intersection between cables. The connector
connects the cables together and also provides
suppor to the glass. Four glass corners meet
at each connector.
FIGURE 32.18 Two examples of cable-net-supported glass walls. Note that all photographs have been taken from inside the buildings.
Part 2
Materials and Systems
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802
DOUBLE-SKIN GLASS WALLS
Another innovative glass wall system is the double-skin wall system, also referred to as a
bioclimatic glass wall. In this system, two glass walls, separated by 1 ft to 5 ft of air space, are
used. The air space serves as a buffer between the two skins, tempering the outdoor air, and
also serves as a plenum for the buildings HVAC system. The outer skin may include com-
puter-controlled operable glazing and solar shading devices.
Although the primary benefit of a double-skin system is energy conservation, it also pro-
vides effective water-penetration control, better air-infiltration control, higher sound insu-
lation, and so on. The proponents of the system, which has been used extensively in Europe,
claim it to be more sustainable under the present energy prices in Europe, which are con-
siderably higher than those in the United States.
As smart glazing systems with environment-adaptive technologies (e.g., electrochromic
glass) and energy-generating capabilities (e.g., photovoltaic glass) evolve further, double-
skin glass wall systems may become more popular. In that scenario, the outer glass skin may
not only help conserve energy but also generate some energy to power the building.
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best
answers the question.
20. The air infiltration rate through a glass curtain wall is specified in
terms of
a. pounds per square feet.
b. cubic feet per minute.
c. cubic feet under a given inside-outside air pressure difference.
d. cubic feet per minute under a given inside-outside air pressure
difference.
e. none of the above.
21. In a glass wall supported by cable trusses, the glass
a. bears on (horizontal) rails.
b. is connected to (vertical) mullions.
c. both (a) and (b) above.
d. none of the above.
22. In a cable-net-supported glass wall, the glass
a. bears on (horizontal) rails.
b. is connected to (vertical) mullions.
c. both (a) and (b) above.
d. is supported by a spider-shaped connector.
e. none of the above.
23. The environmental performance requirements for a storefront are
generally much higher than those for a glass curtain wall.
a. True b. False
PRACTICE QUIZ
1. Using sketches and notes, explain the differences between a single-span mullion support system and a twin-span
mullion support system for a glass curtain wall.
2. Use three-dimensional sketches to illustrate each of the following:
a. A typical dead-load anchor used in a glass curtain wall
b. A typical expansion anchor used in a glass curtain wall
3. Sketch in three dimensions a typical spider-shaped connector.
4. List the major differences between a glass curtain wall and a storefront.
5. Explain the purpose of the following items and state where they are used: (a) shear block, (b) pressure plate, and
(c) adapter for spandrel glass.
6. Using sketches and notes, explain how we increase the lateral load-bearing capacity of a standard glass-aluminum
wall.
REVIEW QUESTIONS