Mechanisms of Evolution

1. microevolution- the change in allele

frequencies in a single population over a
short period of time ( single generation)
2. macroevolution- the gradual change of species
over long periods of time
a. new species appear
b. other species become extinct
3. How do microevolutionary changes lead to
microevolutionary changes seen in the fossil
record?


a. Microevolutionary changes may be quite
small, however
b. Small changes over a long enough period of
time ( million or billions of years) can lead to
the changes we see in the fossil record
4. Macroevolution is read in the fossil record
a. a fossil is any preserved remnant or
impression left by an organism that has lived
in the past
b. sedimentary rocks are the best source of
fossils
i. Sediment is formed by weathering and
erosion of rocks
ii. Sediment is then carried by rivers to the sea
iii. Sediment particles settle to the bottom
iv. Over time, deposits build up and older
sediments are compressed into rock
(1) sandstone
(2) limestone
v. Any organism swept into the sea or a swamp can
settle along the sediments
vi. a small percentage of these organisms becomes
fossils
c. Fossils (preserved remnants)
i. hard parts of organisms can remain
(1) parts rich in minerals
(2) bones, shells, etc.
ii. Organic material left behind
(1) thin film can be pressed between
layers of shale or sandstone
(2) leaves, pollen
iii. Anaerobic conditions can preserve
organisms
(1) oxygen needed for decay process to work
(2) amber
(3) peat bogs
iv. Continuous low temperatures
(1) organism can remain frozen
over long periods of time
(2) glaciers, permafrost

d. Fossils (impressions)
i. petrification
(1) ground water minerals sweep
into organism and replace the organic
material
(2) petrified wood
ii. Casts
(1) organism decays and leaves an empty
mold
(2) mold fills with dissolved minerals,
which crystalize and form a replica or
cast
iii. Trace fossils
(1) impression left by living animals
(2) footprints, burrows

e. Limitations of fossil record
i. fossils have been described as, the
culmination of a sequence of improbable
coincidences
ii. Not all organism have hard parts or leave
foot prints
iii. An organism must be in the right place at
death (river or sea bottom, bog, glacier, etc.)
iv. Once formed, the sedimentary rocks cannot
be destroyed (igneous and metamorphic
change.)
v. finally, the fossils need to be exposed to view
so people can find them.
5. Fossils dating-relative dating
a. the earliest scientist assigned relative dates
to fossils
b. a relative date is one that places the fossils
in time in comparison to other fossils
i. dates can be earlier or later
ii. An actual number of years cannot be
given
c. in Darwins time, geologists made maps of
the vertical layers of sedimentary rock
(strata)
i. They found that these layers were the same
over large area of the earth
ii. Particular layers were associated with
particular (and often unique) fossils
iii. Fossils unique to a particular layers are
index fossils
D. newly-found fossils could be assigned a relative
date based on the particular layer they were found
in and/or on the associated index fossils
E. Scientists in the 18
th
, 19
th
and early 20
th
centuries
built up extensive chronologies of rock layers
associated fossils (see p. 458)


6. Fossil dating- absolute dating
a. absolute dating assigns a time in years to a
fossil
b. atomic physics in the 20
th
century gave
scientists a method to do this
c. the atomic number of an element is the
number of protons in an atomic nucleus-
this number establishes the identity of the
element
d. the atomic mass of an element is the
number of protons + the number of neutrons
mass of electrons is negligible
e. isotopes of an element have them same number of
protons, but different number of neutrons
i. C
12
6 protons, 6 neutrons
ii. C
13
- 6 protons, 7 neutrons
iii. C
14
- 6 protons, 8 neutrons
g. Radioactive decay
i. isotopes with equal numbers of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus are stable
ii. Isotopes with unequal numbers (extra
neutrons) tend to be unstable and to
lose particles (neutrons, protons, and
electrons over the course of time.
iii. This loss of particles is called radioactive
decay
iv. Particles will stop leaving when the nucleus
reaches a stable state
7. Radiometric dating
a. radioactive nuclei decay at a known rate
called a half-life
i. the half life is the unit of measurement
of radioactive decay
ii. It is the number of years it takes for 50%
of the radioactive nuclei to decay to the
next level
iii. The half life is different for each
radioactive isotope
iv. Half life is unaffected by temperature,
pressure, or any other environmental
factors.
b. In radiometric dating, the ratio of stable radioactive nuclei in a rock
or fossil is recorded and compared to a graph
c. The graph shows the starting ratio and change (decay) over time
d. The absolute date is read off of the graph