sample
KE(1s)
KE(1s)
spec
BE(1s)
hv
E E
1s 1s
Sample Sample Spectrometer Spectrometer
e e
- -
Fermi Level, Fermi Level, E E
f f
Vacuum Level, Vacuum Level, E E
v v
sample
KE(1s)
KE(1s)
spec
BE(1s)
Because the Fermi levels of the sample and spectrometer are aligned, we only need to
know the spectrometer work function, spec, to calculate BE(1s).
Sample/Spectrometer Energy Level Diagram- Insulating Sample
hv
E E
1s 1s
Sample Sample Spectrometer Spectrometer
e e
- -
Free Electron Energy Free Electron Energy
BE(1s)
Fermi Level, Fermi Level, E E
f f
Vacuum Level, Vacuum Level, E E
v v
KE(1s)
spec
E
ch
hv
E E
1s 1s
Sample Sample Spectrometer Spectrometer
e e
- -
Free Electron Energy Free Electron Energy
BE(1s)
Fermi Level, Fermi Level, E E
f f
Vacuum Level, Vacuum Level, E E
v v
KE(1s)
spec
E
ch
A relative build-up of electrons at the spectrometer raises the Fermi level of the
spectrometer relative to the sample. A potential Ech will develop.
10.3.3. Analisis Kimia dengan ESCA/XPS
Binding Energy Referencing
BE = hv - KE - spec- Ech
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Where:
BE= Electron Binding Energy
KE= Electron Kinetic Energy
spec= Spectrometer Work Function
Ech= Surface Charge Energy
Ech can be determined by electrically calibrating the instrument to a spectral feature.
Contoh nilai energi ikat:
C
1s
at 285.0 eV
Au
4f7/2
at 84.0 eV
Where do Binding Energy Shifts Come From?
-or How Can We Identify Elements and Compounds?
Electron Electron- -electron electron
repulsion repulsion
Electron Electron- -nucleus nucleus
attraction attraction
Electron Electron
Nucleus Nucleus
Binding Binding
Energy Energy
Pure Element Pure Element
Electron Electron- -
Nucleus Nucleus
Separation Separation
Fermi Level Fermi Level
Look for changes here Look for changes here
by observing electron by observing electron
binding energies binding energies
Electron Electron- -electron electron
repulsion repulsion
Electron Electron- -nucleus nucleus
attraction attraction
Electron Electron
Nucleus Nucleus
Binding Binding
Energy Energy
Pure Element Pure Element
Electron Electron- -
Nucleus Nucleus
Separation Separation
Fermi Level Fermi Level
Look for changes here Look for changes here
by observing electron by observing electron
binding energies binding energies
Elemental Shifts
Binding Energy (eV)
Element 2p
3/2
3p
Fe 707 53 654
Co 778 60 718
Ni 853 67 786
Cu 933 75 858
Zn 1022 89 933
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Electron-nucleus attraction helps us identify the elements
Elemental Shifts
Binding Energy Determination
The photoelectrons binding energy will be based on the elements final-state
configuration.
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
Fermi Fermi
Level Level
Free Free
Electon Electon
Level Level
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
1s 1s
2s 2s
2p 2p
Initial State Initial State Final State Final State
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
Fermi Fermi
Level Level
Free Free
Electon Electon
Level Level
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
1s 1s
2s 2s
2p 2p
Initial State Initial State Final State Final State
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The Sudden Approximation
Assumes the remaining orbitals (often called the passive orbitals) are the same in the final
state as they were in the initial state (also called the frozen-orbital approximation).
Under this assumption, the XPS experiment measures the negative Hartree-Fock orbital
energy:
Koopmans Binding Energy
E
B,K
-
B,K
Actual binding energy will represent the readjustment of the N-1 charges to minimize
energy (relaxation):
E
B
=E
f
N-1
- E
i
N
Binding Energy Shifts
(Chemical Shifts)
Point Charge Model: Point Charge Model:
E E
i i
=E =E
i i
0 0
+ + kq kq
i i
+ + q q
i i
/r /r
ij ij
E E
B B
in atom i in given in atom i in given
refernce refernce state state
Weighted charge of i Weighted charge of i Potential at i due to Potential at i due to
surrounding charges surrounding charges
Chemical Shifts- Electronegativity Effects
Carbon Carbon- -Oxygen Bond Oxygen Bond
Valence Level Valence Level
C 2p C 2p
Core Level Core Level
C 1s C 1s
Carbon Nucleus Carbon Nucleus
Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom
C 1s C 1s
Binding Binding
Energy Energy
Electron Electron- -oxygen oxygen
atom attraction atom attraction
(Oxygen Electro (Oxygen Electro- -
negativity) negativity)
Electron Electron- -nucleus nucleus
attraction (Loss of attraction (Loss of
Electronic Screening) Electronic Screening)
Shift to higher Shift to higher
binding energy binding energy
Carbon Carbon- -Oxygen Bond Oxygen Bond
Valence Level Valence Level
C 2p C 2p
Core Level Core Level
C 1s C 1s
Carbon Nucleus Carbon Nucleus
Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom
C 1s C 1s
Binding Binding
Energy Energy
Electron Electron- -oxygen oxygen
atom attraction atom attraction
(Oxygen Electro (Oxygen Electro- -
negativity) negativity)
Electron Electron- -nucleus nucleus
attraction (Loss of attraction (Loss of
Electronic Screening) Electronic Screening)
Shift to higher Shift to higher
binding energy binding energy
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Chemical Shifts- Electronegativity Effects
Functional
Group
Binding Energy
(eV)
hydrocarbon C-H, C-C 285.0
amine C-N 286.0
alcohol, ether C-O-H, C-O-C 286.5
Cl bound to C C-Cl 286.5
F bound to C C-F 287.8
carbonyl C=O 288.0
Electronic Effects: Spin-Orbit Coupling
284 280 276 288 290
Binding Energy (eV)
C 1s
Orbital=s
l=0
s=+/-1/2
ls=1/2
Electronic Effects: Spin-Orbit Coupling
965 955 945 935 925
19.8
Binding Energy (eV)
Cu 2p
2p
1/2
2p
3/2
Peak Area 1 : 2
Orbital=p
l=1
ls=1/2,3/2
s=+/-1/2
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Electronic Effects: Spin-Orbit Coupling
370 374 378 366 362
6.0
Binding Energy (eV)
Peak Area 2 : 3
Ag 3d
3d
3/2
3d
5/2
Orbital=d
ls=3/2,5/2
l=2
s=+/-1/2
Electronic Effects: Spin-OrbitCoupling
3.65
87 91 83 79
Binding Energy (eV)
Peak Area 3 : 4
Au 4f
4f
5/2
4f
7/2
Orbital=f
l=3
s=+/-1/2
ls=5/2,7/2
Electronic Effects- Spin-Orbit Coupling
Ti Metal Ti Metal Ti Oxide Ti Oxide Ti Metal Ti Metal Ti Oxide Ti Oxide
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10.3.4. Prinsip Kerja Spektroskopi Emisi Auger (AES)
AES mengukur elektron teremisi dari permukaan yang disebabkan oleh
penyinaran elektron.
transfer energi
e- e- hf
Prinsip dasar: Sinar-x primer akan mementalkan elektron pada level terdalam, ketika
elektron terjatuh pada kulit kosong dengan proses non-radiatif, sisa energi akan
digunakan untuk mengejeksi elektron pada level lebih luar.
Penjelasan lanjut:
L electron falls to fill core level L electron falls to fill core level
vacancy (step 1). vacancy (step 1).
KLL Auger electron emitted to KLL Auger electron emitted to
conserve energy released in conserve energy released in
step 1. step 1.
The kinetic energy of the The kinetic energy of the
emitted Auger electron is: emitted Auger electron is:
KE=E(K) KE=E(K)- -E(L2) E(L2)- -E(L3). E(L3).
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
L2,L3 L2,L3
L1 L1
K K
Fermi Fermi
Level Level
Free Free
Electron Electron
Level Level
Emitted Auger Electron Emitted Auger Electron
1s 1s
2s 2s
2p 2p
L electron falls to fill core level L electron falls to fill core level
vacancy (step 1). vacancy (step 1).
KLL Auger electron emitted to KLL Auger electron emitted to
conserve energy released in conserve energy released in
step 1. step 1.
The kinetic energy of the The kinetic energy of the
emitted Auger electron is: emitted Auger electron is:
KE=E(K) KE=E(K)- -E(L2) E(L2)- -E(L3). E(L3).
Conduction Band Conduction Band
Valence Band Valence Band
L2,L3 L2,L3
L1 L1
K K
Fermi Fermi
Level Level
Free Free
Electron Electron
Level Level
Emitted Auger Electron Emitted Auger Electron
1s 1s
2s 2s
2p 2p
Langkah pertama adalah ionisasi level atomik dalam. Setelah atom terionisasi, atom ini
harus relaksasi dengan mengemisi suatu foton (sinar-x) atau sebuah elektron (proses
Auger non-radiatif).
Dalam banyak hal, alam memilih peristiwa Auger dibandingkan peristiwa lainnya. Secara
rigorous sebenarnya probabilitas ini dapat dihitung dengan Mekanika Kuantum.
Contoh transisi Auger KLL berarti:
* elektron pada level K mengalami ionisasi inisial
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* elektron pada level L bergerak ke K untuk memenuhi kekosongan pada saat yang
sama memberikan energi pada elektron lain di level L menjadi elektron Auger yang
terejeksi.
Elektron Auger yang lain dapat berasal dari LMM atau MNN.
Spektroskopi Auger biasanya digunakan untuk analisis permukaan, spektroskopi ini
cukup sensitif untuk elemen-elemen ringan (Z<30) kecuali Helium dan Hidrogen. J adi
AES merupakan komplenen tehnique XRF.
Remote
A/D - D/A
Lock-in
amplifier
Electron
multiplier
Computer
Tape
Electron gun
Sample
Sputter ion gun
Cylindrical mirror
analyzer
Sweep
supply
Digital
plotter
Energy (eV)
Energy Area
ASR 733
Color
digital
display
Digital
plotter
Depth
10.4. Analisis Kimia dengan Absorpsi Sinar-x: X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy
Absorpsi sinar-x oleh suatu material dapat digunakan untuk analisis material, baik
analisis spesies atom atau pun jarak antar atom terhadap atom yang ditinjau. Teknik ini
dikenal dengan nama EXAFS (Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure).
I I
x
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I
I
x
0
ln =
A
bs
or
pti
on
Photon Energy
Absorption coefficient () vs. incident photon energy
The photoelectric absorption decreases with increasing energy
J umps correspond to excitation of core electrons
oscillation of the X-ray absorption coefficient near and edge
local (<10 ) structure surrounding the absorbing atom
Basic Physics of EXAFS
h
initial final
e
-
E
0
PE =h - E
0
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Excitation of a photoelectron with wavenumber k =2/
R
Oscillations,
i
(k): final state interference between outgoing and backscattered
photoelectron
) 2 sin( ) ( ) (
i i i
kR k A k =
R
i
- distance to shell-i
A
i
(k) - backscattering amp
What it tells us?
Provides local (~10 ) structural parameters
Nearest Neighbors (coordination numbers)
Bond distances
Chemical data can be probed by X-ray Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES)
Oxidation state
Density of states
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