Fire Dynamics II

Carleton University, 82.
583
(CVG****), Fire Dynamics II,
Winter 2003, Lecture # 2
1
Fire Dynamics II
Lecture # 2
Ceiling Jets & Ceiling Flames
Jim Mehaffey

82.583 or CVG****

Carleton University, 82.583
2
Ceiling Jets and Ceiling Flames
Outline
Review of models for unconfined fire plumes
Models for ceiling jets (temperature & velocity)
Models for response of sprinklers / heat detectors
Model for ceiling flame (flame extension)
Flames located against a wall or in a corner

3
Review of Models for Unconfined Fire Plume

4
Unconfined Fire Plume Comprises 3 Regimes

Persistent flame (flame is present 100% of time)

0.03 < z < 0.08

Eqn (2-1)

z = height above fire source (m)

= heat release rate (kW)

-
Q
-
Q
2/5
-
Q
2/5
5

Intermittent flame (flame present < 100% of time)

0.08 < z < 0.20

Eqn (2-2)

Flame height = height where intermittency is 50%
(Correlation - Heskestad 1983)

l = 0.235 - 1.02 D Eqn (2-3)

D = fuel diameter (m)

-
Q
2/5
-
Q
2/5
-
Q
2/5
6

Buoyant (thermal) plume (no flame is ever present)

z > 0.20

Eqn (2-4)

Assume heat is released at a virtual point source

z
o
= 0.083 - 1.02 D Eqn (2-5)

z
o
= height of virtual source above burning item (m)

-
Q
2/5
-
Q
2/5
7
Buoyant Plume Model (2)

Correlations often expressed in terms of

= convective heat released rate (kW)

Radius of the plume, b (m)

b(z) = 0.195 (z- z
o
) Eqn (2-6)

CONV
Q
-
8

Upward axial velocity, u
ax
(m s
-1
)

u
ax
(z) = 1.14 (z- z
o
)
-1/3
Eqn (2-7)

Radial dependence of upward velocity, (m s
-1
)

u(r,z) = u
ax
(z) exp(-r
2
/b
2
) Eqn (2-8)
-
Q
1/3
CONV
9

Axial temperature, AT
ax
= T
ax
- T
(K)

AT
ax
(z) = 26 (z- z
o
)
-5/3
Eqn (2-9)

Radial dependence of temperature, AT(r, z) (K)
AT(r, z) = AT
ax
(z) exp[-(1.2r)
2
/b
2
] Eqn (2-10)

Average temperature, AT
ave

AT
ave
(z) = 14 (z- z
o
)
-5/3
Eqn (2-11)

-
Q
2/3
CONV
-
Q
2/3
CONV
10

Total upward mass flow, (kg s
-1
)

(z) = 0.071 (z- z
o
)
5/3
Eqn (2-12)

****************************************************************

This is probably the simplest model available.
More complex models have been incorporated into
computer models or into standards for smoke control.

-
Q
1/3
CONV
p
m
-
p
m
-
11
Consider a Fire Plume Confined by a Ceiling

12
Unconfined Ceiling Jet
Need to model ceiling jet in order to predict time to
activation of sprinklers or heat detectors
Properties of ceiling jet depend on
Rate of heat release
Diameter of fire base
Height of ceiling (above virtual source)
Models are available (Fire Dynamics I) to predict
Max. temperature as a function of radial distance
Maximum velocity as a function of radial distance
Time to activation of sprinklers or heat detectors if
they are subjected to max. temp & velocity

13
Fire Plume Confined by Ceiling
Experiments - Alpert 1972
unconfined smooth ceiling
buoyant plume impinges on ceiling
steady fires / no hot layer
variety of fuel packages
heat release rate: 668 kW s s 98 MW
ceiling height 4.6 m s H s 15.5 m

Findings
max temp & velocity close to ceiling (Y ~ 0.01 H)
ambient temp for Y > 0.125 H

-
Q
14
Alperts Correlations - Ceiling Jets
For maximum temperature and velcoity

T
max
- T

= 16.9
2/3
(H - z
o
)
-5/3
for r s 0.18 H Eqn (2-13)

T
max
- T

= 5.38( /r)
2/3
(H - z
o
)
-1
for r > 0.18 H Eqn (2-14)

u
max
= 0.96 { /(H - z
o
)}
1/3
for r s 0.15 H Eqn (2-15)

u
max
= 0.195
1/3
(H - z
o
)
1/2
r
- 5/6
for r > 0.15 H Eqn (2-16)

r = radial distance under the ceiling (m)

-
Q
-
Q
-
Q
-
Q
15
Comparison with Buoyant Plume
Temperature in Ceiling Jet
Alpert: for r s 0.18 H { ~ area of plume impingement as
radius of plume is b(z) = 0.195 (z- z
o
)}

T
max
- T

= 16.9
2/3
(H - z
o
)
-5/3

Axial Temperature in Buoyant Plume

AT
ax
(z) = 26 (z- z
o
)
-5/3

or AT
ax
(z) = 20.5
2/3
(z- z
o
)
-5/3
-
Q
-
Q
2/3
CONV
-
Q
16
Comparison with Buoyant Plume
Velocity in Ceiling Jet
Alpert: for r s 0.15 H { ~ area of plume impingement as
radius of plume is b(z) = 0.195 (z- z
o
)}

u
max
= 0.96 { /(H - z
o
)}
1/3

Axial Velocity in Buoyant Plume

u
ax
(z) = 1.14 { /(z- z
o
)
}1/3

or u
ax
(z) = 1.01 { /(z - z
o
)}
1/3

-
Q
CONV
-
Q
-
Q
17
Proximity of Walls
Alpert correlations apply provided fire source is at
least 1.8 H from walls
For fire against wall, air entrainment into plume is cut
in half. Method of reflection predicts Alperts
correlations can still be applied with

2
For fire in corner, air entrainment into plume is cut in
quarter. Method of reflection predicts Alperts
correlations can still be applied with

4

-
Q
-
Q
-
Q
-
Q
18
Example of Use of Eqn (2-13)
Calculate the maximum excess temperature under a
ceiling 10 m directly above a 1.0 MW heat release rate
fire. Assume z
0
= 0.

46.42
(100) 16.9
=
C 36.4 T
0
= A
3 5
3 2
max
10
(1000) 16.9
T T =

19
Calculate minimum heat release rate of a fire against
noncombustible walls in a corner 12 m below ceiling
needed to raise temperature of gas below ceiling 50C
at a distance 5 m from the corner. Assume z
0
= 0.

( )
3 2
3 5
3 2
12
5
12 / 4
38 . 5 50
|
.
|
\
|
=
Q
MW kW Q 472 . 1 1472 = =
( )
3 2
3 5
3 2
max
4
38 . 5
|
.
|
\
|
=

H
r
H
Q
T T

20
Calculate maximum velocity at this position. Assume
z
0
= 0.

6 5
3 1
max
4
195 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
H
r
H
Q
u
6 5
3 1
12
5
12) / 1472 x (4 0.195
|
.
|
\
|
=
s m u 2 . 3
max
=
21
Motevalli & Marks Correlation
=Thickness of Ceiling Jet

= distance below ceiling at which
T - T

= 1/ e {T
max
- T

} with e = 2.718

Eqn (2-17)

for

H* = H - z
o

T
|
.
|
\
|
=
*
24 . 2 exp 1 112 . 0
* H
r
H
T
0 . 2
*
26 . 0 s s
H
r
22
Yuan & Motevalli Correlation
Thermal Profile of Ceiling Jet

y = distance below ceiling (m)

Eqn (2-18)

for

AT(r,y) = AT
max
(r) when y/l
T
~ 0.25

substituting into Eqn (2-17)

y / H* ~ 0.028 [1 - exp(- 2.24 r / H*)]

0 . 2
*
26 . 0 s s
H
r
(
+ =
A
A
T T
y y
r T
y r T

57 . 2 exp 094 . 0 24 . 4
) (
) , (
755 . 0
max
23
Other Correlations - Ceiling Jets
For maximum temperature

AT
m
= (T
max
- T
) =
2/3
(H*)
- 5/3
f(r/H*)

Replace
H H*
-
Q
24
For maximum temperature

Replace
H H*

25
For maximum velocity

U
max
=
1/3
(H*)
- 1/3
f(r/H*)

Replace
H H*

-
Q
26
For maximum velocity

Replace
H H*

27
Thermal Response of Heat Detectors & Sprinklers
Simple model (convective heating)

= t
-1
(T
g
- T
D
) Eqn (2-19)

T
D
= temp of detector / sprinkler link (K)
T
g
= temp of ceiling jet (K)
t = time constant of device (s)

t = m
D
c
D
/ (h A
D
) Eqn (2-20)
m
D
= mass of detector / sprinkler link (kg)
c
D
= specific heat of link (kJ kg
-1
K
-1
)
A
D
= surface area of link (m
2
)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (kW m
-2
K
-1
)

dt
dT
D
28
If T
g
is independent of time

Eqn (2-21)

t
r
= time of activation (s)
T
Dr
= manufacturers listed operation temperature (K)
T
= initial temperature (K)

t can be characterized by devices RTI
t = RTI u
-1/2
Eqn (2-22)
RTI = response time index (m
1/2
s
1/2
)
(
T T
T T
1 n l t
g
Dr
r
t
29
Thermal Response Index - Sprinklers

BSI 94/340340, Draft Code of Practice for the Application
of Fire Safety Engineering Principles to Fire Safety in
Buildings, British Standards Institute, London, p 115
(1994)

Sprinkler Type
T
T
y
y
p
p
i
i
c
c
a
a
l
l
R
R
T
T
I
I
(
(
m
m
1 1/ /2 2
s
s
1 1/ /2 2
)
)
W
W
o
o
r
r
s
s
e
e
S
S
a
a
s
s
e
e
R
R
T
T
I
I
(
(
m
m
1 1/ /2 2
s
s
1 1/ /2 2
)
)
Fast response 30 100
Soldered link 150 N/A
8 mm glass bulb 200 300
30
More Detailed Detector Response Model

RTI = response time index (m
1/2
s
1/2
)
C = conductivity factor (m
1/2
/ s
1/2
)
C is a measure of heat conduction from heat sensitive
element to rest of heat detector or sprinkler
RTI and C can be determined for a detector
For C = 0, this model reduces to simpler model.
Simple model is often accurate enough.
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
D g
D
T
u
c
T
RTI
u
dt
dT
1
31
Detector or Sprinkler in a Channel
Delichatsios (1981)

In channel defined by corridor walls or ceiling beams

Eqn (2-23)

Eqn (2-24)

(
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
A
3 1
b
3 1
b
max
H H
Y
0.2 exp
H
0.29

imp
T
T
6 1
max max
102 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
A =
b
H
T H u

32
Definition of terms
T
max
= Gas temperature near ceiling (K or C)
T
imp
= Gas temperature where it impinges on ceiling
(K or C). Given by Alpert Eqn (2-13).
u
max
= Gas velocity near ceiling (m s
-1
)
H = Height of ceiling above fire source (m)
Y = Distance along channel from point of impingement (m)
2 l
b
= Width of channel (m)

h
b
= Depth of channel (m)

33
Limits of Application

For corridors correlations hold provided
Y > l
b
(gas is flowing along channel) (a)
l
b
> 0.2 H (ceiling jet impingement within channel) (b)

For beams must also have
h
b
/ H > 0.1 (l
b
/ H)
1/3
(no spillage under beams) (c)

or combining (b) and (c)
h
b
/ H > 0.17
34
Time Dependent Fires
In small room with slowly growing fire, Alperts
(steady-state) correlations can ue used with

In large industrial facilities
Travel time of fire gases from burning item to
detector or sprinkler may be > 10 s
If fire grows rapidly, steady-state model may
yield overly conservative results
Q
( ) t Q

35
t
2
Fire Growth
Growth of fire can often be characterized as

Eqn (2-25)

t
i
= time of ignition (s)
o = growth coefficient (kW s
-2
)

Design Fires, NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code
Slow
Medium Eqn (2-26)
Fast
Ultra-fast
( )
2
i
t t Q =o
2
t 0 0469 . 0 = Q
2
t 0 1876 . 0 = Q
2
t 2 0117 . 0 = Q
2
t 3 0029 . 0 = Q

36
Example of t
2
Fire

37
Transient Ceiling Jets
Heskestad and Delichatsios (1978)

Assumed

Dimensionless time

Dimensionless gas travel time
(fire source to ceiling location)

For AT
max
= u
max
= 0

2
t Q o =
t
H
0.489 t*
4/5
1/5
o
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
H
r
1 0.954
t
*
g
t
*
g
*
< t
38

Eqn (2-27)

Eqn (2-28)

3 4
* *
5 / 3
5 / 2
max
313 . 0 188 . 0
14 . 7
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A
H
r
t t
H
T
g
o
3 2
* *
63 . 0
5 / 1 5 / 1
max
313 . 0 188 . 0
) / (
29 . 0
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
H
r
t t
H r
H
u
g
o
t
*
g
*
> t
39

For AT
max
= u
max
= 0

For Early on, fire is small & transport time
relatively long, transient effects are
prominent. Eqns (2-27 & 28) apply.

For Later, fire is large & transport time
relatively short, transient correlations
revert to Heskestad and Delichatsios
steady-state correlations (p 2-23 & 25)

t
*
g
*
>> t
t
*
g
*
> t
t
*
g
*
< t
40
Example: Sofa p 2-35 with t
i
= 0 in room with H = 5 m.
Calculate AT
max
and u
max
for r = 4 m and t = 120 s.

11.41 120
5
) 1736 . 0 (
0.489 t*
4/5
1/5
= =
72 . 1
5.0
4.0
1 0.954
t
*
g
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
10 . 22
5.0
4.0
0.313 0.188
1.72 11.41
313 . 0 188 . 0
* *
=
+

=
+
H
r
t t
g
41
i
Calculate AT
max
and u
max
for r = 4 m and t = 120 s.

T
max
= 84 K +293 K = 377 K = 104C
( ) K 84 10 . 22
0 . 5
) 1736 . 0 (
14 . 7
3 4
5 / 3
5 / 2
max
= = AT
( ) m/s 2.6 10 . 22
) 0 . 5 / 0 . 4 (
) 0 . 5 ( ) 1736 . 0 (
29 . 0
3 2
63 . 0
5 / 1 5 / 1
max
= = u
42
i
Calculate AT
max
and u
max
for r = 4 m and t = 120 s.

Steady-state: Heskestad & Delichatsios (p 2-23 & 25)

3 4
3 / 5
3 / 2
max
313 . 0 188 . 0
1
75 . 2
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= A
-
H
r
H
Q
T
K 104
5.0
4.0
0.313 0.188
1
5.0
) 120 x (0.1736
2.75
3 4
5/3
2/3 2
max
=
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= AT
43
i
Calculate AT
max
and u
max
for r = 4 m and t = 120 s.

Steady-state: Heskestad & Delichatsios (p 2-23 & 25)

u
max
= 2.8 m / s
3 2
63 . 0
3 / 1
3 / 1
max
313 . 0 188 . 0
1
179 . 0
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=

-
H
r
H
r
H
Q
u
44
Simple model (convective heating)

= t
-1
(T
g
- T
D
) Eqn (2-19)

No simple solution when T
g
and u are time-dependent

Must solve numerically (with computer)
dt
dT
D
45
Detector Response for Simple Time-Dependent T
g
(t)
Assuming u is Relatively Constant

Eqn (2-19) = - t
-1
{(T
D
- T
) - (T
g
- T
)}

If (T
g
- T
) = | t = - t
-1
{(T
D
- T
) - | t }

Solution is (T
D
- T
) = | { t - t [ 1 - exp (- t / t) ] }

If | is small & time of activation >> t then for t >> t

(T
D
- T
) = | { t - t}

( )
dt
T - T d
D
( )
dt
T - T d
D
46
Confined Ceilings
For large industrial or warehouse facilities, models for
unconfined ceiling jet flows are often sufficient
In small rooms or for long times after ignition in large
industrial or warehouse facilities, ceiling jet can become
completely immersed in hot smoky layer
Hence ceiling jet entrains hot gas rather than cool air
temp of ceiling jet higher than for unconfined ceiling
Reduction in activation time of sprinkler or heat detector
To predict properties of ceiling jet, must know temp of hot
layer & height of interface between hot layer and cool layer
Analytical and computer models are available for such
scenarios

47
Ceiling Flames

48
Ceiling Flames
Flame impinges on ceiling & spreads out radially, even
if ceiling is non-combustible

Heskestad & Hamada ( 93 to 760 kW)

Flame extension, r
f
(m)
r
f
= 0.95 (l - H) Eqn (2-29)

Heskestad flame length (burning in open)

l = 0.235 - 1.02 D Eqn (2-3)
= Q
-
Q
2/5
49
Ceiling Flames
Ceiling flames may ignite combustible or damage non-
combustible ceiling elements, cables and pipes
Ceiling flames enhance thermal radiation to floor
augment burning rate of burning item
augment flame spread over burning item
augment heating or remote combustibles (targets)

50
Ceiling Flame Increases Flame Spread & Burning
Consider burning of 0.76 m x 0.76 m slab of PMMA in an
enclosure allowing air access from four sides
Max rate of burning ~ 3 x open-burning rate
Achieved in approximately 1/3 the time

51
Flames in a Corner
For flames above a burning object located against a
wall or in a corner (of non-combustible materials)
asymmetric and therefore reduced entrainment of
air have a major impact on the flame dynamics
flame length is increased
52
Temperature above fires in 1.22 m high wood pallets (x)

53
References
D. Drysdale, An Introduction to Fire Dynamics,Wiley, 1999, Chap 4
B. Karlsson and J.G. Quintiere, Enclosure Fire Dynamics, CRC Press,
2000, Chap. 4
R.L. Alpert, Ceiling Jet Flows, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, 3rd Ed., 2002

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= initial temperature (K)

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