Contents
Search
Ezzat E. Gomaa*
ABSTRACT
In geothermal operations, most consideration in reservoir performance is given to the decline in production temperature with time. Abandonment criteria for a geothermal
system is often defined by the lowest temperature at which
produced fluids can be accepted by a utility. Therefore, the
first step in evaluating the geothermal potential of any resevoir is to determine its characteristic temperature decline
versus heat production relationship. This is usually done
by formulating a representative reservoir model and using
it to predict performance under generalized operating conditions.
i -M 4
Generally numerical simulation techniques 1>/'-:5>4 offer
an elaborate tool for evaluation of geothermal reservoirs
and optimization of their producing operations. However,
these techniques require extensive amount of data and consume significant computer and engineering times. Reservoir
simulation studies are generally deferred till the field is partially developed.
Several simple (Zero dimensional) models have also been
proposed by previous authors i '">'> for analyzing performance of geothermal systems. These models deal with the
reservoir as a box and consider pressure transient effects,
energy and mass balances, two-phase steam-water thermodynamics, reservoir recharge etc. They do not account for the
sand-shale (pay-non pay) distribution of the reservoir rocks,
the initial areal variations in reservoir temperature and the
locations of producing and injection wells with respect to
the heat anomaly. In addition, most of these models require
*
The conceptual geothermal model is essentially a combination of geologic representations and energy balance of
the reservoir.
(a)Geothermal Systems With Intergranular Permeability
When fluid-flow is mainly through permeable rocks, the
basic concept in this modelling procedure is to represent
the geothermal reservoir by two elements; shaly-sand
and sandy-shale. In other words, divide the reservoir
678
rocks into two categories, one where sand is predominant and the other where shale is predominant and normally referred to as shale-breaks. Fluid-flow is assumed
to take place only in the shaly-sand while heat flow can
occur in both.
Heat in the shaly-sand can directly be transmitted to the
flowing brine through mixing and contact and, therefore, its contribution is controlled by the sweep effeciency
associated with the field development. On the other
hand, heat in the shale-breaks can only be transmitted
through conduction and, therefore, its contribution is
dependent on the thickness and distribution of the shalebreaks, thermal properties and fluid flow rate in the reservoir. Figure (1) shows a schematic representation of
this modelling concept. Note that the shaly-sand is further subdivided into clean sand and dispersed shale. The
dispersed shale refers to discountinuous shale streaks and
lenses interbedded throughout the shaley-sand.
(b)Fractured Geothermal Systems
When fluid-flow is mainly through fractures, the reservoir is represented by two parts; fractures (100% porosity)
and matrix rock (non-permeable).
Again, fluid-flow takes place only in the fractures while
heat-flow occurs in both fractures and matrix rock. Heat
in the fluid-filled fractures can be directly produced or
transmitted to the reinjected brine through mixing and
contact. The extraction of heat from the fracture, by the
reinjected brine, is controlled by the sweep (or mixing)
efficiency in the fracture. On the other hand, heat in the
matrix rock can only be transmitted to the reinjected
brine by conduction and, therefore, its contribution is
dependent on the relative size and distribution of the
matrix blocks, thermal properties and fluid flow rate in
the reservoir. Figure (2) show a schematic illustration of
the fractured system model.
SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE DECLINE
(a) Intergranular permeability system:
For a given reference temperature, the overall heat capacity of the reservoir is calculated for both fluid-flow-dominated (shaley-sand) and non-fluid-flow (shale-breaks)
parts as follows:
Cs
= 4.356 x 10" H
= 4.356 x 10 " U A l ^ c ^
(2)
where :
C = heat content of fluid-flow-dominated part (shaley-sand), Quads/F
C"sh = heat content of non-fluid-flow part (shalebreaks), Quads/F
hi = net sand thickness, ft
lu = dispersed shale thickness, ft.
hg = total shale-breaks thickness, ft.
c = volumetric heat capacity of clean, water-saturated
sand, Btu/cu.FtoF.
c ^ = volumetric heat capacity of shale, Btu/cu.
FtF.
Defining a contact-mixing efficiency (fg) and a shalebreaks contribution factor (fsh) to represent the volume
fractions contributing, to heat production from the shalysand and shale-breaks, respectively, the reservoir heat
procution can be expressed as:
Q = (fSCs+ fafshCsh) AT
(3)
where :
fa = areal sweep efficiency
Q = Net heat produced, Quads
AT = reservoir temperatur drop,F.
The net heat produced, Q, is calculated as the difference
between total enthalpy of produced fluids and total enthaply of injected fluids. Q is expressed in Quads (10
Btu) which is a commonly used unit in the geothermal
industry.
The areal sweep efficiency is based on total field area. It
represents the fraction of the field area which is contacted by the reinjected brine. Its value is, therefore, a function of the development plan,, For full-field development
f is usually close to 100%.
The specific temperature drop per unit heat production
can then be expressed as ;
(4)
AT* = rr~rf~r~r~
L + f
C
*s s a *sh sh
where :
AT* is in F/Quad
(b) Fractured Systems:
Pwcw
(5)
C = 4.356 x 10"11 A h ( l - 0 f ) c
(6)
m
wnere :
Cj = heat content of fluid-flow-dominated part (fractures), Quads/F
C m = heat content of non-fluid-flow part (matrix rock),
Qads/F
c
m = volumetric heat capacity of matrix rock, Btu/cu.ft.
p w = density of reservoir fluid, lb/cuoft.
c
=
specific heat of reservoir fluid, Btu/lb.F
w
Defining a contact-mixing efficiency (ff) and a matrix
rock contribution factor (f m ) to represent the volume fractions contributing to heat production from the fractures
and the matrix rock respectively, the reservoir heat production can be expressed as :
Q = (ffCf+ V m ^ m ) ^*
(7)
and as before; the specific temperature drop per unit heat
production can be expressed as :
1
in F/Quad
AT* =
(8)
ffCf+fafmCm
The above equations can be used to plot AT* as a function of the contact-mixing efficiency and the shale breaks
or matrix rock contribution factor. This is illustrated in the
following examples.
EXAMPLES
1. Intergranular Permeability System:
679
Consider a geothermal system with fluid-flow in intergranular permeability rocks with the following properties :
Resource area
10,000 acres
Clean sand thickness
2,000 ft
Dispersed shale thickness
550 ft
Shale breaks thickness
1,500 ft
Initial reservoir temperature distribution shown in Figure (3)
Clean sand porosity
0.25
Volumetric heat of capacity water-saturated
clean sand
40 Btu/cu.fi.F
Volume!ric heat capacity of shale 45 Btu/cu.ft.F
Specific heat of reservoir fluid
1.0 Btu/lb F
We can then calculate :
C = 0.0456 Quads/F
C sh = 0.0294 Quads/ F
2. Fractured System :
Consider a geothermal system with fluid-flow in fractured rock with the following properties :
Resource area
15.000 acres
Reservoir thickness
2,750 ft
Original reservoir temperature
500 F
Interconnected fracture porosity 0.13
Reservoir fluid density
51 Ib/cu.ft.
Volumetric heat capacity of matrix rock 41Btu/cu.ft.F
Specific heat of reservoir fluid
1.01 Btu/lb.F
We can then calculate :
C f =0.0120Quads/F
C m = 0.0641 Quads/F
Figure (5) shows AT* as a function of f^-and f for arcal
sweep efficiency of 100%.
PRODUCTION
ATp = QAT*
TEMPERATURE
For a given geothermal system, onee the specific temperature drop (AT*) has been determined, production temperature can be calculated as a function of heat produced.
The sel of curves, relating production temperature to net
heat produced for various locations of producing wells is
referred to as Charateristic Production Temperature Decline
Curves. These curves are calculated in the following manner:
(a) Prior to Breakthrough of Reinjected Brine :
Before the reinjected brine reaches the producing wells,
the production temperature is essentially equal to that of
the displaced reservoir fluid. For a uniform initial reservoir temperature, the production temperature will remain constant till breakthrough.
For a non-uniform initial reservoir temperature ( as
shown in Example 1) the production temperature will
decline from the start with the temperature drop proportional to the net heat produced. Therefore, before breakthrough :
for uniform initial reservoir temperature :
AT p = 0
(9)
(10)
where :
Q
= net heat produced, Quads
p = production temperature drop, F
V
= fraction of reservoir volume that lies between
injection wells and producing wells boundries.
AT* = specific temperature drop, F/Quad
The total net heat produced prior to breakthrough can
be calculated as :
For intergranular permeability system :
" 1111 A h,
Q b t = 4.356 x 10"
and for fractured systems :
CHARACTERISTIC
DECLINE CURVES
w ( H 0 - H j ) (11)
^ W ( H O - H i ) (12)
Q b t = 4.356 x
AhV0f
where :
Q b t = net heat produced during the constant temperature production period, Quads
f,
= sweep efficiency prior to breakthrough of reinjected brine
HQ = enthalpy of reservoir fluid at average initial reservoir temperature, Btu/lb
Hj = enthalpy of reinjected brine, Btu/lb
Enthalpy values can be obtained from steam tables
(b) After Breakthrough of Reinjected Brine :
After the reinjected brine reaches the producing wells,
the production temperature drop will be related to net
heat produced, temperature of reinjected brine and the
relatlive position of producing wells and injection wells
with respect to the heat anomaly. It can be prorated
from the average reservoir temperature drop and the
temperature drop at injection wells boundary, see Figure (6). The prorating procedure is based on volume contacted by the reinjected fluid and on the logarithmic relationship with radial distance. The production temperature drop is calculated as :
2AT-ATj)+[ATr(
ATa
AT 4
F
radius of producing wells boundary, ft.
radius of injection wells boundary, ft.
R al
logarithmic average of R and Rj, ft.
It should be noted that there is a discontinuity in the
Characteristic Production Temperature Decline Curve at
Q b t . It is suggested to calculate AT versus Q before and
after breakthrough, then extrapolate both lines till they
meet.
680
The above procedure is illustrated by the two examples
discussed earlier. Detailed calculations are shown in Tables (1) and (2). The calculated Characteristic Production
Temperature Decline Curves are shown in Figures (7)
and (8)
ESTIMATION
OF
CONTACT-MIXING
EFFICIENCY
The heat contained in the shale-breaks can only be recovered by conduction to the flowing reinjected brine.
The shale-breaks contribution factor is a measure of how
well this heat is recovered during the field life. Its value
is dependent mainly on the thickness of the individual
breaks, the distance between injectors and procedures, injection rate and thermal properties of the reservoir shale.
A numerical reservoir simulator was used to run sensitivity analyses in an effort to quantify the relationship
between the shale-breaks contribution factor and the above
mentioned parameters.
Since thermal properties of shales does not vary that
much from a reservoir to another, it was decided to consider only three parameters for the correlation; shale-breaks
thickness, production rate and distance between injector
and producers. Fixed values of shale thermal properties
were used throughout the analysis which are typical of
most shales encountered in geothermal fields. The production rate was represented in reservoir pore volumes per year
to normalize the effect of reservoir thickness and porosity
and to include the effect of distance between injectors and
procedures. The grid used is shown Figure (9) and the average reservoir properties used to represent the geothermal reservoir are given in Table (3).
By nature, fractured systems are very difficult to evaluate in terms of geometry and reservoir properties. This
makes the estimation of matrix rock contribution factor
also difficult. But since the mechanism by which the matrix rock contributes to the heat production is similar to
that from shale-breaks, in an intergranular permeability
system, perhaps the correlation shown in Figure (10) can
be used to estimate approximate values for the fractured
system. In that context, the average shale-break thickness
corresponds to the average matrix block dimension. The
latter may be estimated from well logs, if available.
COMPARISON OF CONCEPTUAL MODEL WITH N U MERICAL SIMULATION
For a given geothermal resource, the geothermal potential is best expressed in terms of electrical energy. The most
commonly used unit in the industry is megawatt-year. For
example, if a field can support 500 megawatts for 30 years,
its geothermal potential is expressed as 15,000 megawattyear.
The geothermal potential for any field can be estimated
from its Characteristic Production Temperature Decline
Curve as follows:
E = 3.344 x l 0 4 Q u l t F p
(16)
where :
E
= geothermal potential, megawatt-year
Q u j t = ultimate net heat recovered, Quads
F
= conversion efficiency of power plant
The ultimate net heat produced is read from the Characteristic Production Temperature Decline Curve at a
temperature equal to the minimum acceptable feed-temperature for the power plant. The conversion efficiency is
generally a function of the power plant design and feedtemperature, however, its value is in the range of 15 - 30%.
681
As an illustration, the geothermal potential for the geothermal system considered in Examples (1), (2) and (3) are calculated in Table (5).
REFERENCES
1.
Faust, C.R. and Mercer, J.W. :"Mathematical Modelling of Geothermal Systems" Second U.N. Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources, San Francisco, California, Proc. Lawrence
Berkelay Lab., U.C., Berkeley, Calif. (1975), 1635 1641.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Kasameyer, P.W. and Schroeder, R.C. :"Thermal Depletion of Liquid Dominated Geothermal Reservoirs
with Fracture and Pore Permeability", Proceeding 1
workshop, Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford Univ. , Calif. (1975), 249 - 257.
7.
8.
Grant, M.A., Donaldson, I.G. and Bixley, P.F. : "Geothermal Reservoir Engineering" Academic Press,
(1982).
9.
10.
11.
Steam Tables. "Properties of Saturated and Superheated Steam" 11 printing, C.E. Power Systems, Combustion Engineering Inc., Connecticut (1982).
12.
Chevron's SIS Code 3. "Three Dimensional Compositional Steam Injection Simulator" Chevron Corp., La
Habra, Calif.
NOMENCLATURE
= Resource area, acres
m
sh
cw
AT a
AT;
AT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author thanks the management of PT Caltex Pacific
Indonesia for their permission to prepare and publish this
work.
682
TABLE (1)
PRODUCTION TEMPERATURE DROP FOR
EXAMPLE (1)
Given :
AT
f 0=0.6
5
4-
Tj = 200F
= 250 F
R ^ 11,780 ft
o = 307 Btu/lb
ATj
R al
= 50 F
= 6335 ft
a = 283 F
AT; = 300 F
R a] = 6288 ft
Therefore, AT p = 270 F or T p = 230 F
The same procedure can be applied to determine the
production termperature as a function of net heat produced
for various locations of producing well. The resulting Charateristic Production Temperature Decline Curves are
shown in Figure (8).
TABLE (3)
AVERAGE RESERVOIR PROPERTIES USED IN SIMULATION
Sand porosity
Net/gross ratio in shaley sand
Brine permeability in sand
Brine permeability in shaley-sand
Formation compressibility
Thermal conductivity for water-saturated sand
Thermal conducivity for shale
Vertical thermal conductivity
Volumetric heat capacity of watersaturated sand
Volumetric heat capacity of shale
Initial reservoir pressure
Brine return temperature
Initial Reservoir temperature
0.25
0.75
1000 md
750 md
10 x 10"6 psi"1
35 Btu/day FtF
18 Btu/day Ft F
25 Btu/day Ft F
40 Btu/cu.ft. F
44
Btu/cu.ft.F
1500 psia
200 F
450 F
TABLE (4)
DESCRIPTION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM USED IN
EXAMPLE (3)
Reservoir area
Reservoir thickness
Total shale-breaks thickness
Number of shale-breaks
Net/gross ratio in shaley-sand
Sand porosity
Average initial reservoir temperature
(uniform distribution)
Brine-return temperature
Estimated sweep efficiency at breakthrough
Volumetric heat capaciry of water-saturated
sand
Volumetric heat capacity of shale
Specific heat of reservoir fluid
Density of reservoir fluid at 475 F
Contact-mixing effiency
Fluid production rate
Radius of producing wells boundary
10,000 acres
1,030 ft
330 ft
3
0.75
0.28
475 F
200 F
0.8
40 Btu/cu.
ftF
44 Btu/cu.ft.
F
1.01 Btu/lb .F
511b/cu.ft
1.0
0.1 Res. PV/
Year
1340 ft
683
Radius of injection wells boundary
Enthalpy of reservoir fluid at 475 F
Enthalpy of injected brine
11778 ft
459 Btu/lb
168 Btu/lb
TABLE (5)
CALCULATION OF GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL FOR
EXAMPLES (1), (2) AND (3)
We can calculate :
Given :
Example
No.
2
3
Q u l t Quads
4.15
6.50
2.65
Geothermal
Potential, MWyear.
27,700
43,400
17,700
684
SAND LAYER
WITH INTERBEDDED
SHALE STREAKS
SHALE BREAK
WITH INTERBEDDED
SAND STREAKS
V . ' ,
= CLEAN SAND
. " , * . ,
h 2 - DISPERSED SHALE
SHALE
_BREAKS
1 + h2
/:-;;V;^:'::^v-vv^^^V;:v:-:;^
ir^-rv.-
SHALE-BREAKS
SKALY-SAND
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Figure ( 1 )
SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR
INTERGRANULAR PERMEABILITY SYSTEM
h3
685
MATRIX ROCK
FRACTURES
Fracture Porosity =
Fractures Volume
0f
= 0 j x Bulk Volume
Figure ( 2 )
SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR
FRACTURED SYSTEM
686
Figure ( 3 )
INITIAL RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR EXAMPLE (1 )
687
120 r
100
o
80
bcr
Q
60
cc
CONTACT - MIXING
EFFICIENCY, fs
UJ
Q_
2
UJ
CJ
40
u
LJJ
Q.
CO
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
20
0.2
0.4
Q6
Figure ( 4 )
SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE DROP FOR EXAMPLE ( I ) INTERGRANULAR PERMEABILITY SYSTEM
0.8
1.0
688
100
CONTACT - MIXING
EFFICIENCY, f f
20
JL
0.2
_L
0.4
0.6
Figure ( 5 )
SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE DROP FOR EXAMPLE ( 2 ) FRACTURED SYSTEM
0.8
1.0
689
Injection wells
Bondary (Radius R-,)
'-..
Producing wells
"..Boundary
B
(Rodius R p )
./
Initial Production
/ Temperature
LU
cr
UJ
UJ
o
cc
LU
CO
LU
DC
Figure
Rp
al
"QV
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM ANOMALY CENTER
(6 )
EFFECT
OF W E L L
LOCATIONS
ON TEMPERATURE DROP
690
550
RADIUS OF INJECTION WELLS BOUNDARY
= 11780 feet
500
450
UJ
a:
H
400
UJ
Q_
U
O 350
b
o
or
D.
300
250
200 J
0
3
4
NET HEAT PRODUCED,QUADS
Figure ( 7 )
CHARACTERISTIC TEMPERATURE DECLINE CURVES FOR EXAMPLE.(1)
691
550
500
450
5
400
LJ
RADIUS OF PRODUCING
WELLS BOUNDARY,FEET
B
8 350
300
250
8000
2000
6000 4000
200
4
6
8
MET HEAT PRODUCED , QUADS
10
Figure ( 8 )
CHARACTERISTIC
T E M P E R A T U R E DECLINE C U R V E S FOR E X A M P L E ( 2 )
692
41
*V)
M
C
o
V
o
4)
o
41
.a
O
O
CM
CM
lO
CM
JZ.
IO
CM
#
JZ.
m
CM
o
CM
(0
z
o
o
o
CO
<
^
UJ
QC
CO
UJ
CO
&5
UJ
cr
o
u.
Q
UJ
CO
Q
a:
5I
5
co
693
CO
CO
UJ
IBUTION FACTOI
-BREAK ; THICKN
ce
cc
<
X
CO
cc
BRE;
U5E
CJ
CO
<
UJ
**<
UJ
SHA
- 8
CO
UJ
cc
o
u.
o
O
LU
CC
a:
Q
o
694
Layer
Thickness^feet
100
Shaley- Sand
100
Shaley - Sand
40
100
60
Shale
60
Shale
Shale
Shaley - Sand
125
Shaley - Sand
125
Shaley - Sand
85
Shale
10
85
Shale
tl
75
Shaley - Sand
12
75
Shaley - Sand
Figure (11)
SIMULATION GRID USED FOR EXAMPLE ( 3 )
695
in
ro
O
to
Q_
in
UJ
U
cvi
CO
u
^_
CD
B.
cvj a
UJ
Q
UJ
r-
O
Q
CL
CL
ro
HUl
O
UJ
MPL
1.5
UJ Ul
Ul
r^ X
UJ
1 1
5
m
O co
Hi
u. o z