COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

SYLLABUS CONTENT

Coastal environments
Questions for Investigation
What processes and factors are
responsible for distinctive coastal
landforms?

How can coasts be protected

from the effects of natural
processes?

Key Ideas
Weathering, erosion,
transportation and deposition
give rise to distinctive types of
coastal landform.
These processes are influenced
by a range of factors, which vary
from place to place.

Content
The study of an extended stretch of
coastline or coastlines, including
practical research and out-ofclassroom work fieldwork, to
illustrate:

There are a number of ways that

coastal areas can be protected,
ranging from hard engineering to
managed retreat.

The study of an extended stretch of

coastline or coastlines, including
practical research and out-ofclassroom work fieldwork, to
illustrate:

_a range of features associated

with coastal erosion;
_a range of features associated
with coastal deposition;
_the processes responsible for
these features, including wave
action and sub-aerial processes;
_the factors affecting the
development of these features
including rock type and structure,
aspect and sea-level change.

_the reasons why some coastal

areas need to be protected;
_the different methods of coastal
protection, including hard and soft
engineering and managed retreat;
_the planning, management and
environmental issues associated
with different coastal protection
methods.
In what ways can coastal areas
be a valuable economic and
environmental resource?

Coastal areas provide

opportunities for a number of
human activities, including:
_industrial development;
_transportation;
_residential development;
_energy development;
_recreation and leisure;
_conservation.

The study of at least two contrasting

coastal environments to illustrate:
_the variety of activities found in
coastal areas;
_the reasons for the growth and
development of these different
activities;
_that conflicts may result from the
growth and development of these
activities.

REMEMBER
In your exam you are also required to write a 25 mark essay question in part B
You can choose between writing an essay on coasts OR an essay on rivers

THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF COASTS

The coast is the frontier between the land and the sea and is one of the most dynamic and fragile environments on
earth. It is constantly being re-shaped by waves, tides and ocean currents and the effects of the weather. Where rock
structures are more resistant or sheltered from prevailing winds and waves changes occur more slowly. Where rock
structures are less resistant and are open to storm surges and heavy rainfall, sudden and dramatic changes can
occur, reshaping the landscape in minutes in the case of coastal landslides or rockfalls.

A range of factors affects coastal environments

LAND
shape of the coastline
relief of the land
presence/lack of a beach
structure of the coast
resistance of the rocks
sub-aerial processes
river sediments
coastal (land) ecosystems)

SEA
- coastal (maritime) ecosystems
- wave and energy direction
-size and type of wave
-local currents and longshore drift
-tidal changes
- water depth
- offshore sedimetnts

HUMAN ACTIVITIES
- intervention into natural
systems
- use of land for development

The
nature
of coasts

WEATHER & CLIMATE

wind strength and duration
rainfall and temperature
strorms and surges

COASTS: UNIT 1: What processes and factors are responsible for distinctive
coastal landforms?

Weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition give rise to distinctive types of coastal landforms
These processes are influenced by a range of factors, which vary from place to place.

For a case study example (a stretch of coastline), illustrate

a range of features associated with coastal erosion;
a range of features associated with coastal deposition;
the processes responsible for these features, including wave action and sub-aerial processes;
the factors affecting the development of these features including rock type and structure, aspect and sealevel change.

WE ARE GOING TO START BY LOOKING AT SUBAREIAL PROCESSES the coast is a boundary

between the land and the sea, we are going to look at the LAND first

WEATHERING PROCESSES AT THE COAST

Weathering is an important process, which shapes the coastline. In particular, it is one of the contributing
factors leading to cliff collapse and recession
Terrestrial processes (processes operating on the land) include:
Corrosion/ solution/ carbonation
In coastal areas the proximity of sea water can speed up the effect of chemical weathering. Saltwater
evaporation from sea spray leads to the growth of salt crystals in rocks. As they develop, the salt
crystals expand, forcing rocks to disintegrate. Particular types of rock are susceptible to corrosion,
especially if they contain limestone, which is dissolved by the carbonic acid in salt water or rainwater
Wetting/ drying
Softer rocks such as clays and shales are very susceptible to wetting and drying. Where these rocks are
in the coastal splash zone, they are constantly prone to expansion and contraction as they become wet
and then dry out. This causes weaknesses in the rock which allows marine processes to attack and
erode the rock away easily
Freeze thaw
Where temperatures at the coast fluctuate above and below freezing, any water in the joints/ faults in
the exposed rock will freeze and expand in volume by 9% exerting pressure on the rock, during the day
the water will thaw when temperatures rise. This repeated process will eventually weaken the rock
sufficiently for it to break apart.
BIOEROSION
Biological organisms such as gastropods rasp a rock surface as they graze over it
Mollusks and sea urchins bore into the rock face
The mechanical action of plant roots can break open rocks
Species of birds and mammals e.g. puffins and rabbits, burrow in to the cliffs making weathering and
erosion more likely

SLOPE PROCESSES/ MASS MOVEMENT AT THE COAST

Mass movement

The downhill transfer of slope materials as a coherent body.

Include any large-scale movement of the earths surface, which are not accompanied by a
moving agent such as river, glacier or ocean wave.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-22404564
Mass movement is the downward movement of soil and rock under the influence of gravity. It is most
frequent on slopes above 25 degrees and with little vegetation and rainfall over 900mm and often
occurs after rainstorms when soil becomes waterlogged and heavy.
Mass movements is a major form of natural land degregation in some regions. Types of mass movement
include soil creep, earth flow, slumps, landslides and avalanches.

FAST MASS MOVEMENTS:

1) slides sliding material maintains its shape and cohesion until it impacts the bottom of the slope and
leads to large, slumped terraces. Slides range in scale.
2) Falls rock falls occur on steep slopes (>70 degrees). The initial cause of the fall may be weathering e.g.
freeze thaw or disintegration, or erosion acting on lines of weakeness in the rock. Once rocks are
detached they fall under the influence of gravity. If the fall is short, it produces relatively straight scree
(talus); or if it is long it forms concave scree e.g. Wastwater, Lake District. Falls lead to scree slopes and
large slumped terraces. In upland areas falls and slides are important sediment source for rivers.
3) Slumps occur on weaker rocks (e.g. clay) and have a rotational movement along a curved slip plane.
The clays absorb water and becomes saturated, exceeding its liquid limit. It then flows along a slip
plane. Frequently the base of a cliff has been undercut and weakened by erosion, therefore reducing its
strength
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE THAT SLOPE PROCESSES OPERATE

erosion or excavation undermining the foot of a slope, weight loads of buildings and embankments,
and loss of stabilizing roots through the removal of vegetation.
ROCK TYPE AND STRUCTURE in the north and west of Britain the rock type is mainly old, hard,
resistant rocks such as granite, basalt and carboniferous limestone, which lead to the formation of
upland rugged areas. To the south and east of Britain, the rock type is younger, weaker rocks, such as
chalk and clay, which form subdued, low lying landscapes.

WHAT TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT OPERATE ON THE LAND AT THE COAST?

In more resistant rocks such as chalk, rockfalls can occur as a result of wave action weakening the base of the cliff and
sub-aerial processes attacking the upper part of the cliff face. These processes can lead to individual fragments of rock
falling or in extreme circumstances whole sections of cliff collapsing as rockfall on steep cliff faces.
Landslides are often associated with weaker rocks such as clays and sand and can be triggered by periods of heavy rainfall.
When the ground becomes saturated, the combination of extra weight, slope and increased lubrication can lead to slope
failure and small scale mudslides or landslides.
Slumping or rotational slide, is a result of a combination of marine processes undercutting the base of a cliff, heavy rainfall,
and curved slipping planes where different rock types meet. In rotational slide, sections of the cliff give way along a well
defined concave slip surface. The fallen material stays as an identifiable mass until further weathering and erosion act
upon it. Slumps occur where a section of cliff collapses as a jumbled mass of rock. Slumps are common where a permeable
rock lies over an impermeable rock or where the cliff consists of unconsolidated rock e.g. glacial deposits in north Norfolk
and Holderness.
TASK Name and explain the type of mass movement shown in the diagram below

http://www.onegeology.org/extra/kids/earthprocesses/massMovements.html
Type of mass movement
1

Explanation

2
3
4

CASE STUDY BEACHY HEAD ROCK FALL

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/beachyHead.html

Landslides at Beachy Head, Sussex

Beachy Head (Figures 1 and 2) is a famous natural and historic site and tourist
attraction on the south coast. The cliff top area is part of the Downland Country Park
managed by Eastbourne District Council.
The section of cliff surveyed at Beachy Head is situated to the east of the modern
lighthouse. The survey spans a 400 m south-facing stretch of beach with a cliff height
of between 120 and 160 m.

Figure 2 Field sketch at Beachy Head

As part of a programme of work monitoring coastal erosion and landsliding at several sites around the coast of Great
Britain, BGS has surveyed the cliffs at Beachy Head in Sussex using terrestrial LiDAR see Terrestrial LiDAR Survey
Techniques

Geology
The geology of the cliffs at Beachy Head consist of Cretaceous chalk comprising the Seaford Chalk and Lewes Nodular
Chalk formations (formerly called the Upper Chalk Formation) overlying the New Pit Chalk Formation (formerly part of
the Middle Chalk).
The New Pit Chalk Formation (Turonian) in the lower part of the cliff is largely obscured by chalk debris. This is
principally blocky, white firm to moderately hard chalk with numerous marls. Flint occurs sporadically or in seams in
different part of the formation.
Overlying the New Pit Chalk Formation is the Lewes Nodular Chalk Formation, which is Turonian to Coniacian in age. This
consists of hard nodular chalk and chalkstone, which is locally porcellaneous. It has some interbeds of firm chalk,
particularly in upper part and some thin marl seams including one at the base. The Lewes Nodular Chalk Formation is
subdivided into 12 members, separated by marls or hardgrounds.
Overlying the Lewes Nodular Chalk Formation is the Seaford Chalk Formation. This is Upper Coniacian to Lower Santonian
in age and consists of white chalk with beds of flint nodules, some of which are large to very large. It constitutes the entire
cliff between Beachy Head lighthouse and Birling Gap to the west. It consists of three members, the Haven Brow (upper),
Cuckmere (middle), and Belle Tout (lower). The Bedwell's Columnar Flint separates the Haven Brow and Cuckmere whilst
the distinctive Seven Sisters Flint separates the Cuckmere and Belle Tout.

Landslides
On the foreshore, the chalk platform is littered with debris aprons from
recent and earlier rockslides and rockfalls. The dominant landslide
mechanism is a type of sliding failure with a very deep tension crack
penetrating most of the Seaford Chalk Formation. This mechanism is
described in Duperret et al. (2004) as being characteristic of cliffs in the
Seaford Chalk and Lewes Nodular Chalk formations in England and
their equivalents in France due to the prominent vertical and subvertical joint and fault patterns within these formations.
Two major landslide events have occurred at Beachy Head since 1999:

January 1999 landslide

Figure 3 January 1999 landslide debris apron. Photographed July 1999 (left) and October 2007 (right) showing how the
debris apron is still present after several years of erosion.
On the night of 10 January 1999, a large landslide occurred at Beachy Head severing power and telecom cables from the
cliff top bunker to the lighthouse. For several months, the failure required emergency manning procedures by Trinity
House Lighthouse Service. The volume of this landslide is estimated to have been 128 000m3 (Hobbs et al., 1999) and
between 100 000 and 150 000 m3 (Mortimore et al., 2004). This landslide produced a large debris apron (Figure 2), which
persists to the present day.
The lighthouse base is situated at approximately 192 m from the cliff toe at high tide. The debris apron extended originally
about 115 m from the cliff toe and came within 65 m of the lighthouse. The cliff at this point is 126 m high.
A further minor landslide occurred on 8 April 1999 and involved a displaced 'slice' of chalk left by the January slide.

Devil's Chimney landslide April 2001

This landslide occurred at 14.30hrs on 3 April, 2001 and destroyed the landmark known as the 'Devil's Chimney' (Figures
3 and 4). The landslide followed three days of preliminary subsidence and detachment movements amounting to a
displacement of a few metres.
A deep tension crack, probably penetrating the entire thickness of the Seaford Chalk Formation, developed following preexisting joints. The separated block tilted seaward further opening the tension crack and increasing the vertical stresses at
its base. Debris and water were able to enter the fissure over many years, before the final slide where failure occurred.
This failure is thought to have occurred in two stages separated by a few days or hours.

Figure 4 Devil's Chimney before (left) and after (right) the landslide

Figure 5 Devil's Chimney before (left - photograph Bill Vanstone) and after (right) the landslide

TASK
Case study notes:
1. What makes this coastal landscape vulnerable to freeze thaw weathering?
2. How does freeze thaw operate?
3. What other weathering processes affect chalk? Describe how these operate
4. What will happen to material weathered from the cliff face?
5. What mass movement events may occur as a result of weathering AND wave action at the base of the cliff?

FACTORS AFFECTING COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS WAVES

Most work along coasts is done by waves. Waves are created by the transfer of energy from the wind blowing across
the surface of the sea.
Waves are the main source of energy along the coasts, being created either when winds blow for great distances over
the surface of the sea as the drag effect creates a swell (swell waves) or when local weather conditions produce storm
waves. Exposed coastlines such as those found in the southwest of England, experience waves whose fetch began
several thousand of kilometers away.

WAVE FETCH:

What factors influence the size of the waves?

..

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Why is the surfing better in Cornwall than in Tynemouth (North East England)

..

..

..
BREAKING WAVES
In deep water, wave particles follow a circular
motion. In shallow water (once the depth becomes
less than a quarter of the wave length), the wave
encounters friction with the sea bed and the circular
motion changes to an elliptical motion as the frictional
drag of the sea bed slows down the base.
The top of the wave continues to move forward faster
than the base of the wave causing the wave to break.
The position of the plunge line will vary according to
changing conditions.
As a wave breaks, water rushes up the beach (swash)
and is then carried back down the beach by gravity
(backwash). Water returning down the beach is often
concentrated into rip currents.

Annotate the following diagram

11

UNDERSTANDING WAVE FORMATION

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/understanding-wave-formation/4018.html
1) How do waves form?

2) What factors affect the amount of energy the wave will have?

3) What happens when the wave reaches shallow water?

4) what do the terms swash and backwash refer to

5) What is a constructive wave? What type of beaches do they form? Give a case study example

6) What is a destructive wave? What type of beaches do they form? Give a case study example

Note: the backwash is always

at
Label swash and
backwash on the
photograph

To the beach
12

TYPES OF WAVES
DESTRUCTIVE WAVES

Often called plunging waves and

are often the result of storm
activity
High with a short wave length and
a short wave period ( 10 14
waves per minute).
They are often local waves.
Destructive waves steepen quickly
as they approach a beach.
Waves break from a considerable
height creating large amount of energy
The waves plunge with greater force on to the beach.
The swash is short and there is a more effective backwash which drags
material down the beach and out to sea
The overall effect is that whilst some large storm waves may throw shingle to
the top of the beach and form a storm ridge, most material is dragged
downwards to form a breakpoint bar.

TASK: Draw and annotated diagram of a destructive wave

CONSTRUCTIVE WAVES

Often called spilling waves

Long wave length and a long wave period
(6-8 waves per minute)
Usually low waves - wave height is less
than 1 m
They are often swell waves.
Create a shelving profile that allows water
time to percolate rather than run off
They have low energy, and spill onto the beach
Constructive waves steepen slowly as they approach a beach.
The wave breaks gently, the swash moves up the beach slowly and water
percolates quickly into the sand.
The backwash is usually weak it has little power to move the sediment back
towards the sea, so a beach gradually develops
These waves slowly push material up the beach creating sandy ridges or
berms (high sandy ridges), and ridges and runnels (small ridges and
depressions on the lower beach).

TASK: Draw and annotated diagram of a constructive wave

13

THE FORCE & NATURE OF THE WAVES ARE ONE OF THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE RATE OF
EROSION ALONG THE COAST IMPORTANT FOR ESSAY WRITING!

What determines the force of the waves?

Breaking point of the wave - when a wave breaks it releases a great deal of energy. A wave which
breaks at the foot of a cliff releases the most energy and causes fastest erosion, particularly
corrasion. A wave which breaks offshore will have lost most of its energy as it travels up a beach.
Type of wave - steep destructive waves have more energy, and power to erode, than shallow
constructive waves.
Fetch of the wave - waves tend to become higher and more erosive as their fetch increases.
Shape of coastline - refraction makes waves stronger and more erosive on headlands rather than
bays.
Gradient of the sea-bed - the steeper the gradient of sea-bed, the more likely it is that the wave will
break closer to the shore. Less of the wave's energy is used in overcoming friction with the sea-bed,
so there is more energy to erode.

DIFFERENT WAVE ENVIRONMENTS

Storm wave environments are characterized by frequent low pressure systems creating strong offshore
winds which generate powerful waves. E.g. north west Europe
Swell wave environments less extreme patterns of wind and waves, but a considerable swell build up
opver a long fetch e.g. west Africa
Tropical cyclone wave environments extreme winds which allow huge waves to develop and push
massive amounts of water towards coastal areas e.g. south east Asia, Caribbean

TIDES

Tides are important as they set the level at which the sea operates. A tide is the alternative rise and fall of the
level of the sea. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon, and to a lesser extent the earth. The
moon pulls water towards it, causing a swell which creates a high tide. Twice each month the sun, moon and
earth in alignment, this creates the maximum gravitational pull and the highest tides
Tidal ranges vary considerably around the UK, with Kent and Sussex reaching over 4m, while Dorset and
West Wales have relatively low figures. Spring tides are especially worrying in low lying estuaries as they can
lead to coastal flooding, especially when combined with storm surges.
Areas where the tidal range is small (less than 3m) tend to contain depositional features such as spits, bars
and sand dunes.
Tide levels are predictable and are published in tide tables When high tides coincide with unpredictable
events such as strong winds, large waves and heavy rain, the result can be catastrophic flooding.

STORM SURGES

A storm surge (unusually high sea level) is created when the following factors concide:
High tides
Strong onshore winds creating high levels of wave energy
Low pressure weather systems allowing the sea to expand
The shape of the landscape can add to the intensity of a storm surge. Where the sea is pushed into a narrow
area between two landmasses, it is forced to rise, flooding coastal areas.

TASK: Why are waves often considered to be more significant than tides when considering threats to coastal areas?

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EROSION AT THE COASTLINE

Process operating along coasts involve water and sub-aerial processes. A combination of erosion processes and sub
areal processes (weathering and mass movement) wear away the coastline.

Terrestrial/ sub aerial processes (processes

Marine processes (the waves eroding the foot of the
cliffs)
Wave pounding
Hydraulic action
Abrasion
Attrition
corrosion

Where the geology is suitable, corrosion

(solution) can be an effective erosive force. In
areas of limestone or chalk rocks, the sea is
often a milky colour where the rock material
has become dissolved in the seawater. The salt
in seawater is also capable of corroding some
rock types.

Rocks and pebbles collide

with each other as they are
moved by the waves. This
action, of attrition reduces the
size of beach material and
increases its roundness by
smoothing away rough edges.

active on the face and top of cliffs include:

Bio erosion
Weathering
o Corrosion
o Wetting and drying
o Freeze thaw
Mass movements
o Rockfall
o Rotational slide/ slumping
o Landslide/ mudslide

On most coasts, storm waves are able to pick

up large quantities of beach material and hurl
it at the cliffs. In this way, the process of
abrasion (corrasion) becomes a powerful force
which erodes mainly the lower part of the
cliffs.

Wave pounding results from the weight of water in individual waves striking the
coast. Typical winter storms may generate waves with an average pressure of 10
tonnes per square metre. This can rise to 30 tonnes per square metre in extreme
conditions.
In areas where there is limited beach material to absorb the energy of breaking
waves, cliff faces can be attacked. Breaking waves exert a force of up to 40 tonnes
per square meter on cliff faces. They also force air into joints and cracks in the cliff
surface. This compressed air has the power to loosen and break away pieces of
rock (hydraulic action). Additionally, where air is trapped in joints and fissures,
the resulting pneumatic pressure weakens cliffs, causing collapse and removal of
large blocks.

15

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF COASTAL EROSION (in addition to WAVES!)

1)GEOLOGY OF THE COASTLINE
The Geology is a crucial factor in determining the rate of erosion which occurs and the landforms that
are found in the coastal zone.
KEY TERMS
Lithology

Lithology is about the composition of the rock itself, which

determines how vulnerable it may be to chemical or
mechanical damage. A rocks permeability if often
controlled by its grain size and the joint patterns or
bedding planes within the rock
These effects are most noticeable along cliffs with massive
joints (limestone) or where water encourages gullies and
landslides (clay)

Structure

refers to the arrangement of rocks in the landscape and

includes features such as strata (layers), dip (angle of
rocks) and faults

MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF THE ROCK

More resistant rocks such as chalk and limestone, erode more slowly and often produce spectacular cliff
and headland features (below left, Limestone Coast)
Weaker rocks such as clay and sands, have less structural, strength and are eroded easily, producing a
lower cliff profile with mudslides and slumping (below right, Holderness, boulder clay cliff eroding at
2 metres per year!)

COHESION
some rock types are more coherent (have well connected individual particles and few lines of weakness
e.g. chalk and sandstones) the result of this is a more solid coastline with a steep profile and slow
rates of erosional retreat.
Other rock types are less coherent, meaning they have poorly connected particles or a lot of cracks and
joints, leading to a high level of weakness. Clay is an example of a poorly cemented rock which is
affected by both sub aerial and marine processes often resulting in slumped or stepped cliff profile
JOINTING- densely jointed or faulted rocks are susceptible to hydraulic action. Faults, joints, cracks and
bedding planes can all act as points of weakness.

16

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ROCK - some rocks are soluble in water (e.g. chalk is soluble in acidified
water) and can be eroded by corrosion.
THE DIRECTION OF THE ROCK STRATA (PROFILE FORM)
Horizontally bedded strata usually form steep cliffs, where strata is dipping towards or way from the
sea usually leads to the formation of a more gentle cliff profile.

THE DIRECTION OF THE ROCK STRATA (PROFILE FORM)

The direction in which rocks occurs in relation to the coast plays and important part in the resulting
landforms.
o Coasts where the rock type runs parallel to the sea are concordant coasts and often produce
straighter coastlines.
o Coasts where the rocks outcrop at right angles to the sea are called discordant coasts and often
produce headlands and bays. E.g.Purbeck coast, Dorset.
Along the coastline of the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset,
there are both discordant and concordant coastlines.
The discordant coastline has been formed into
Studland Bay (soft rock), Ballard Point (hard rock),
Swanage Bay (soft rock) and Durlston Head (hard
rock).
After Durlston Head, the strata stop alternating and
the coastline is made up of hard rock. This concordant
coast has fewer features.

17

QUESTION Study figure 62 (below)

1) Explain why cliffs in profile A are likely to erode easily
2) Explain how the lithology of profile B is producing the cliff profile shown
3) Suggests reasons why profile D might erode least rapidly
4) Suggest why the coast in profile C might erode most rapidly
Guidance these questions emphasise the links between rocks and structure and how cliffs are eroded. Focus on the
labeling and the shape of the cliffs.

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2) GLACIATION Sea level, sediment and landform

The sea level has and continues to fluctuate greatly throughout time. On a day to day basis, the sea level changes according
to the tide but the sea level also changes on a much grander time scale too. These changes in sea level are normally caused
by ice ages or other major global events.
The sea level changes for a variety of reasons. These reasons can be put into two categories, eustatic and isostatic change,
depending on if they have a global effect on sea level or a local effect on the sea level.
Negative change: A fall in sea level in relation to the land.
Positive change: Sea level rises in relation to the land (or land sinking in relation to the sea).
Eustatic Change global effect
Large scale/worldwide changes.
In times of maximum glaciations, 3 to 4 times more water was stored on land than it is today.
Global change in the hydrological cycle resulted and a worldwide eustatic fall in sea level of up to 150m.
Eustatic change is when the sea level changes due to an alteration in the volume of water in the oceans or,
alternatively, a change in the shape of an ocean basin and hence a change in the amount of water the sea can hold.
Eustatic change is always a global effect.
During and after an ice age, eustatic change takes place. At the beginning of an ice age, the temperature falls and
water is frozen and stored in glaciers inland, suspending the hydrological cycle. This results in water being taken
out of the sea but not being put back in leading to an overall fall in sea level. Conversely, as an ice age ends, the
temperature begins to rise and so the water stored in the glaciers will reenter the hydrological cycle and the sea
will be replenished, increasing the sea levels.
Increases in temperature outside of an ice age will also effect the sea level since an increasing temperature will
cause the ice sheets to melt, putting more water in the sea.
The shape of the ocean basins can change due to tectonic movement. If the ocean basins become larger, the
volume of the oceans becomes larger but the overall sea level will fall since theres the same amount of water in
the ocean. Conversely, if the ocean basins get smaller, the volume of the oceans decreases and the sea level rises
accordingly.
Isostatic Change
Isostatic sea level change is the result of an increase or decrease in the height of the land. When the height of the
land increases, the sea level falls and when the height of the land decreases the sea level rises. Isostatic change is a
local sea level change whereas eustatic change is a global sea level change.
During an ice age, isostatic change is caused by the build up of ice on the land. As water is stored on the land in
glaciers, the weight of the land increases and the land sinks slightly, causing the sea level to rise slightly. This is
referred to as compression. When the ice melts at the end of an ice age, the land begins to rise up again and the sea
level falls. This is referred to decompression or isostatic rebound. Isostatic rebound takes place incredibly slowly
and to this day, isostatic rebounding is still taking place from the last ice age.
Isostatic sea level change can also be caused by tectonic uplift or depression. As this only takes place along plate
boundaries, so this sort of isostatic change only takes place in certain areas of the world.
Features of Sea Level Change
Sea level change can produce many features along coastlines. Again, we can categorise these features based on how theyre
formed.
1) Emergent Landforms

Emergent landforms begin to appear towards the end of an ice age and they
occur when isostatic rebound takes place faster than a eustatic rise in sea
level. Put more simply, the lands height rises faster than the seas.
Emergent features are features of coastal erosion that appear to have
developed well above the current sea level. Really, they developed when the
sea was at that level and then the sea level changed during and ice age and
now theyre above sea level.
One such emergent landform is a raised beach. Raised beaches are wave-cut
platforms & beaches that are above the current sea level. You can normally
find some old cliffs (relic cliffs) too behind these raised beaches with wavecut notches, arches, stacks etc. along them.
These emergent features no longer experience coastal erosion but they are
still weathered, often being weathered biologically, chemically and via
freeze-thaw weathering.

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Raised beaches show that sea level has changed. ( I have a bit of one in my classroom!!)
o A raised beach is an elevated area of sloping ground, sitting above the present tide line. In the past this area was
at sea level.
o There are many examples of this feature throughout Britain, particularly along the West coast - this is because the
area experienced the greatest weight of ice during the last Ice Age (about 10,000 years ago).
o During an Ice Age, the massive weight of ice bearing down on a landmass caused it to sink. Over time, as the
earth's temperature rose and the weight of ice decreased, areas of land began to slowly rise back out of the sea.
This bounce back' motion - the localised change in sea level, relative to the land - is known as isostasy, or
isostatic uplift.
o Some raised beaches may consist of several different levels, each indicating a different stage in the shoreline's
development. The town of Stonehaven has been built on an area of raised beach, at three different levels.

The Main Postglacial

Raised Beach at
Skateraw, resting on a
raised rock platform
developed in
Carboniferous Limestone

2) Submergent Landforms
o Submergent landforms are the opposite of emergent landforms. They form when the eustatic rise in sea level
takes place faster than the isostatic rebound after an ice age. Basically, the water starts to flood the land and fills
up landforms on the land.
o One submergent feature is a Ria. This is a river valley thats been flooded by the eustatic rise in sea level. Theyre
almost exactly like a typical river valley but they have even more water in them. The cross section of a ria is really
similar to the one youd find for a river in the lower course. One thing to note, the floodplain of the river also gets
flooded, altering the cross profile of a ria ever so slightly so that it includes the floodplain.
o Another submergent feature is a Fjord. These are steeper and deeper variants of riases that are relatively narrow
for their size. They have a u-shaped cross profile and are often found in particularly icy sections of the world. Any
guess what they could be? Thats right, theyre flooded glacial valleys In general, fjords are really deep however
they have a shallow mouth (known as a threshold) as this is where the glacier deposited its load. Fjords are pretty
stunning pieces of scenery, an example of one is Sogne Fjord in Norway
o The final submergent feature is a dalmatian coastline. These form in areas of the world where valleys (especially
glacial valleys) lie parallel to each other. When the valleys are flooded by the rise in sea level, the tops of the
valleys remain above the surface of the sea and appear to be a series of islands that run parallel to the coastline.
The best example of a dalmatian coastline is the one from which they get their name, the Dalmatian coast in
Croatia.
Future sea-level rise
Since the 17th century the world has been slowly warming, and sea levels are rising at an increasing rate due to the
release of greenhouse gases and global warming. Sea levels are expected to continue to rise because warmer water
occupies a greater volume than cold water and because of melting ice from glaciers, sea ice and the polar ice caps (tough
greater evapotranspiration could lead to increased snowfall in Greenland and Antarctica). Present rate of sea-level rise is
2mm per year, but with increased global warming it could reach 10 mm per year. Until recently it was thought coastal
ecosystems could adjust to sea-level changes, however in 1999 WWF stated 80% of the worlds beaches are eroding.
Presently 10 million people are at risk of coastal flooding and 46 million can be affected by storm surges. A rise of 1 m in
sea level over the next 100 years could inundate 25% of Bangladesh affecting 60% of the population, and would flood 30%
of Egypts arable land. Cities at risk include Tokyo, Shanghai, London, Bangkok, Calcutta, Hong Kong and Miami. Low lying
countries such as the Maldives and Tuvalu could be completely submerged

20

BREAKING POINT OF THE WAVE - when

a wave breaks it releases a great deal of
energy. A wave which breaks at the foot
of a cliff releases the most energy and
causes fastest erosion, particularly
corrasion. A wave which breaks offshore
will have lost most of its energy as it
travels up a beach.
TYPE OF WAVE - steep destructive
waves have more energy, and power to
erode, than shallow constructive waves.
FETCH OF THE WAVE - waves tend to
become higher and more erosive as
their fetch increases.

HUMAN PROTECTION - in
many locations, physical
structures (e.g. sea walls)
have been installed to absorb
the energy of waves and so
reduce the rate of erosion.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE

OF COASTAL EROSION
The rate of erosion is affected by
1) force of the waves (erosivity)
and 2) the resistance of the coast
to erosion (erodibility).

VEGETATION - the foliage and roots of

vegetation bind soil and rocks together and
reduce the rate of erosion.

landscape and includes features such as strata (layers), dip

(angle of rocks) and faults

FAULTING - densely jointed or faulted rocks are

susceptible to hydraulic action. Faults, joints, cracks and
bedding planes can all act as points of weakness.
STRATA - the direction in which rocks occurs in relation
to the coast plays and important part in the resulting
landforms. Coasts where the rock type runs parallel to the
sea are concordant coats and often produce straighter
coastlines. Coasts where the rocks outcrop at right angles
to the sea are called discordant coasts and often produce
headlands and bays. An example of both of these can be
found at Purbeck coast, Dorset. Horizontally bedded
strata usually form steep cliffs, where strata is dipping
towards or way from the sea usually leads to the
formation of a more gentle cliff profile.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ROCK (LITHOLOGY) - some
rocks are soluble in water (e.g. chalk is soluble in
acidified water) and can be eroded by corrosion.

SHAPE OF COASTLINE - refraction makes

waves stronger and more erosive on
headlands rather than bays.
GRADIENT OF THE SEA-BED - the steeper the
gradient of sea-bed, the more likely it is that
the wave will break closer to the shore. Less
of the wave's energy is used in overcoming
friction with the sea-bed, so there is more
energy to erode.

ROCK STRUCTURE refers to the arrangement of rocks in the

COHERENCE OF THE ROCK PARTICLES - some

rock types are more coherent (have well
connected individual particles and few lines of
weakness e.g. chalk and sandstones) the result
of this is a more solid coastline with a steep
profile and slow rates of erosional retreat.
Other rock types are more coherent, meaning
they have poorly connected particles or a lot of
cracks and joints, leading to a high level of
weakness. Clay is an example of a poorly
cemented rock which is affected by both sub
aerial and marine processes often resulting in
slumped or stepped cliff profile.

MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF ROCKS - some rocks (e.g.

granite) are stronger and more resistant to erosion than
others (e.g. unconsolidated sediments such as volcanic
ash). Rocks which can become saturated with water can
collapse (e.g. fuller's earth). More resistant rocks such as
chalk and limestone, erode more slowly and often
produce spectacular cliff and headland features. Weaker
rocks such as clay and sands, have less structural,
strength and are eroded easily, producing a lower cliff
profile with mudslides and slumping

21

LANDFORMS OF COASTAL EROSION

Coasts of erosion form as a result of high energy waves, large fetch, high exposure and limited deposition.
Rocky coastal environments are dominated by erosional features such as cliffs, headlands and shore platforms.
The shape of the coastline, both in plan and profile is affected by the geology of the coastline, particularly the
structure of the rock and the lithology. They are also associated with drift aligned coasts that are influenced by
longshore drift (more of this later). This transfer of sediment along the coast limits the development of beaches
and leads to greater cliff exposure, hence cliff retreat.
Coastlines that are discordant in geology help create typical headland and bay features that also erode over
time to form wave-cut platforms and arches and stacks.

LANFORM 1 CLIFFS & WAVE CUT PLATFORMS

Cliffs are vertical or steeply
sloping rocks.
The angle of the slope depends on:
1)
2)

Name and explain this feature

22

Wave cut platforms are remnants of the previous cliff line.

Wave cut platforms, form as a ledge of bedrock left behind as the cliff retreats.
The platform slopes at at 4-5 degree angle down to the sea.
It forms as waves erode the base of the cliff in the inter-tidal zone.
o Waves scour away at the base through processes of abrasion, hydraulic action and solution, until over
time a wave-cut notch forms.
o As the notch enlarges, the cliff face becomes undermined until at some point it collapses under its own
weight.
o Attrition and transportation then remove the cliff debris leaving behind a small bedrock ledge, which
marks the old cliff line.
o This process is repeated over time as the cliff retreats forming a larger wave-cut platform.
o Eventually a beach may develop on the platform which will provide some protection to the cliff and in
turn slows down the rate of retreat. Wave-cut platforms are characterized by their gentle sloping angle,
hard bedrock and rock pools, which develop unique coastal ecosystems.

LANDFORM 2 HEADLANDS & BAYS

Coastlines with alternative hard and soft rocks consists of a series of headlands and bays

Headlands and bays are most commonly found at discordant coastlines where the cliff is subject to
differentiated rates of erosion, due to bands of varying resistant geology. However, they also form at
concordant coasts and in sections of cliff that have more distinct lines of weakness.

23

The distinctive structure of the Purbeck coast of Dorset has a sequence of limestone and clay rocks. These
produce discordant features on the eastern foreland (where the rock structure is at right angles to the coast)
and concordant (parallel) features of the south facing coast around Lulworth Cove. Once established, headlands
become the focus of intense local erosion as relatively deeper water and the refraction of waves exploit
weaknesses in the lithology.

Bays are sheltered, low energy zones that form in bands of weak geology, e.g. clays. Here the cliff erodes at a
faster rate. Bays are flanked by headlands which are exposed rocky outcrops positioned at 90 perpendicular to
the bay. They consist of more resistant rock, e.g. limestone.
Due to the way waves refract around headlands, destructive waves concentrate their energy on their sides and
over time develop unique coastal features, such as caves, arches and stacks.
Wave refraction is the process by which waves become distorted by differentiated rates of friction caused by
shallower water ahead of coastal features. In deep water waves are unaffected but in shallow water waves slow
down. On approaching the shoreline waves will curve into beaches and reduce the likelihood of drift. Waves
approaching headlands slow down and build height creating destructive waves,The waves become refracted
around the headland and so wave energy becomes concentrated on the sides of the headland.

Wave refraction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G1FIBuybN78 and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fP1QK0XCt1U
Lines drawn at right-angles to the wave crests (known as
orthogonals) show the bending of the wave crests by refraction.
The effect of refraction is to concentrate wave energy on the
protruding headlands. This helps to explain why bay beaches
attract deposition while deeper water around headlands favours
erosion.
Longshore currents carry the eroded headland material and
deposit it in the bays. In time, the coastland becomes less
irregular as headlands are eroded and bays filled in

24

LANDFORM 3: CAVES, ARCHES, STACKS AND STUMPS

As oblique waves (this is a fancy way of saying waves at a slant, or
sloped angle) enter shallow water, they tend to turn so that their
crests are parallel to the coast. This is known as wave refraction.
Waves can be seen refracting around the headland and bay in the
picture
This refraction concentrates wave attack on all sides of the headland.
Any lines of weakness in the rock is then subjected to hydraulic
action and corrasion forming caves and narrow inlets and,
eventually arches and stacks.
If the rock contains soluble minerals, corrosion will also weaken the
rock. Arches and stacks are most common on discordant coasts.
They are rarer on concordant coasts, where rocks levels are parallel
to the coast

GCSE DIAGRAM

A LEVEL DIAGRAM

25

Old Harry http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/old-harry-rocks-dorset/3244.html

CASE STUDY: Isle of Purbeck, South Coast of England

Give the grid references for the following
features:
Headlands Foreland, Peveril Point

Bays Swanage, Studland

Cliffs Durlston Bay, Ballard Point

Caves - Tilly Whim

Stacks Old Harry

Groynes (indicate longshore drift)

Sandy beaches sand dunes

salt marshes

TASK: Produce a case study revision poster.

Place a map (geological would be helpful) of the Purbeck coastline in the center.
You need to find an example from this coastline of each of the landforms we have studied
then include an annotated photograph of it and a diagram to explain its formati
26

MARINE TRASNPORTATION LONGSHORE DRIFT (OPERATES ON A DRIFT ALIGNED BEACH)

Prevailing wind brings waves in on an angle, which is slightly reduced in the nearshore by wave refraction. As waves break, their swash transports sediment up
the beach at angle but the backwash under the influence of gravity bring it back perpendicular. As a result sediment is transported down the beach in a zig-zag
pattern. Most sediment is suspended in the water but when moved by the breaking wave it is transported through saltation and traction. A strong current is also
present in the nearshore, called the longshore current. Sediment is also transported in the longshore current. The current varies in strength from beach to beach
but works like stream down within trough between the beach and an offshore bar.

27

FEATURES OF COASTAL DEPOSITION

MARINE DEPOSITION
TASK: Choose words from the box below to complete the missing spaces in the paragraph
deposits

largest

storm berm

highest tides

backwash

swash energy

ridge

largest shingle

sorted by wave deposition

offshore

porous

mud

constructive

finest sand

weakened

smaller

lightest

storm

When the strong

of a

wave moves up a beach it carries sand or shingle

with it.

The

material is deposited at the upper limit reached by the swash.

The

then carries

water, and therefore

material back down the beach but it progressively loses

, as it does so. This is because the beach is very

water passes through the spaces between individual sand particles. The flow of the backwash
is

material.

Consequently, as the backwash weakens as it flows back towards the sea and gets weaker, it
___________

as a result, until it can carry only the

shingle and sand particles of a progressively smaller size.

The material on a beach is, therefore,

______________

deposited at the top of the beach and the

the

is

is deposited near the sea. The smallest

_______ particles settle in the low energy environment ___________.

When a

occurs at the time of the

usual high tide level to form a

, large shingle is tossed above the

at the top of the beach (called a

).

A cross-section of a beach is called a beach profile. The shingle ridges often found towards the back
of a beach are called berms
TASK: label on the photograph
1. The storm berm
2. The smallest sediment (sand)
3. The largest pebbles/ shingle

28

LANDFORMS OF COASTAL DEPOSITION

BEACHES
THE BEACH PROFILE
KEY TERM
Beach profile

Refers to the cross sectional shape of a beach from the high water mark to the low water
mark

The beach profile extends from the offshore zone to the backshore zone. The beach itself forms from the
nearshore to the backshore within the tidal range.
The amount of unconsolidated sediment available in a shore-zone system, called its sand budget, determines
the number of bars and other depositional features that form along the coastline

BERMS & STORM BEACHES

raised ridges or plateaus that mark highest tidal point.
It's normal for a beach profile to support several berms
that mark different tide levels.
The highest berm is called the spring tide berm and is
made up of the largest and most course sediment,
which merges into the STORM BEACH at the very back
of the shore

OFFSHORE BARS & BARRIER ISLANDS

Offshore bars are elongated ridges and mounds of sand
or gravel deposited beyond a shoreline by currents and
waves.
RIDGES & RUNNELS
linear features on the foreshore that run parallel to the
shoreline. Ridges are the sandy bars, runnels the depressions
between them. They form as the tide migrates across the
swash zone.

29

BEACH PROFILES AND SEDIMENT TYPES

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE SHAPE OF THE BEACH
1. The type of sediment shingle or sand
2. The amount of wave energy affecting the beach
3. Whether the waves are swash aligned or drift aligned
1) THE TYPE OF SEDIMENT
Shingle
beaches

Shingle beaches are steeper and narrower than sand

beaches because shingle is coarser than sand
therefore has a higher percolation rate Swash running up a shingle beach quickly loses
energy so pebbles are carried only a short distance
However, percolation is rapid so there is little
backwash to drag the sediment back down the beach
As a result, sediment moves in one direction only
up the beach and piles up to form slopes of up to
12 degrees (steeper gradient)

Sandy

beaches

typically flatter (>5) and wider

lower percolation rates (the smaller particles are
evenly distributed and water takes longer to
percolate down into the sand), a longer swash and
more powerful backwash producing a wider beach
with lower slope

Sometimes beaches made of similar sediments have different profiles, this is due to differences in wave energy,
the second factor that influences beach profiles
2) THE TYPE OF WAVE
High
energy
waves

High waves, separated by long troughs, input huge

amounts of energy to the nearshore zone
With long swash times and powerful backwashes they
flatten sand beaches and transport sediment offshore,
where it is stored in breakpoint bars
Wide, flat beaches are a response to the huge energy
inputs from storm and swell waves
At coasts dominated by destructive waves the beach
profile is narrow and steep. The tidal range will also be
smaller.
= wide flat beaches

Low
energy
waves

= steep
beaches

Low energy waves are just a few centimeters high and

have a short wave period
The induce a net transfer of sediment onshore, creating
steep beaches, with prominent beach face (the part of the
beach below the berm) and berm

In mid to high latitudes, beaches often have a seasonal profile.

Winter = storms are more frequent, and beaches may develop wide, flat profiles
Summer = beaches experience more low energy waves and consequently have steeper profiles.

30

BEACH PLANS
1) SWASH
ALIGNED

3) DRIFT
ALIGNED

Form when waves approach the coastline and break parallel to the beach (the dominant
waves are fully refracted)
Swash and backwash move sediments follow the same pattern up and down the beach,
often creating a stable, straight beach with an even, longitudinal profile
Swash aligned beaches are smoothly curved, concave beaches. pocket beaches in bays
and coves which are crescent shaped are usually swash aligned
Swash aligned beaches are more influenced by constructive wave patterns, which are also
important for building up large beaches
During storm conditions severe backwash can move sediment out to sea, creating sand or
shingle bars on the seabed
2) . Swash beaches are more associated with large beach profiles, with dunes, a variety of
berms and beach drainage features

Form when waves approach the coastline at an angle (the dominant waves are never fully
refracted) this generates longshore movement of sediment along the coast
As ediment is moved along the coast by the action of longshore drift, large wide beaches
struggle to establish, keeping beaches relatively narrow.
It is drift aligned beaches that are mainly associated with spits, bars and tombolos

SPITS AND BARS

Straight coasts can differ from bays, in having straight beaches made of either sand and shingle which
has been moved along the coast by longshore drift from an area where the sediment has been eroded.
The material is deposited where the coast changes direction, at a river mouth or Bay. As deposition
continues, it builds up and the beach continues to grow out across the bay or river mouth to form a
spit. This landform is a long, narrow, ridge of sand or shingle, with one end attached to the land and
the other ending up in open water.
Some spits have a curved hook at their ends, this happens when onshore winds blow winds from a
different angle to that of the prevailing wind. If the spit then grows in the original direction again, it
will have a hooked form.

In South West Mexico, the Copalita River deflects the spit, and the rivers flow prevents the spit from
extending out to join the other bank.
TASK: Draw an annotated diagram to explain the formation of a spit

31

LANDFORM

BARS

LANDFORM TOMBOLO

32

CHESIL BEACH
From what direction
was the photograph
taken?
Name features X and Y.

OS MAP WORK

TASK: Using the map above, give the grid references for the following features
South coast of England, 25km east of Isle of Purbeck
Cliffs (_____________)

Groynes (_________________) so, longshore drift from the cliffs towards the east

Shingle beaches (_____________) and sandy beaches (___________)

A spit with several hooked ends (Hurst Spit, (___________) and (___________)

Sand dunes on the spit (______________)

Salt marsh behind the spit (____________)

33

LANDFORM SALT MARSHES

The water behind a spit is a low energy environment in which small particles of mud can settle. The
mudis brought in when the tide rises and sinks in the sheltered water.
Gradually it accumulates to form a mud flat on which which plants tolerant of seawater and of being
covered by water twice a day begin to grow.
These plants encourage more deposition by slowing the water movement further. Their roots help to
trap more mud and hold it firmly into place. As the surface level of the mud rises, vegetation increases
and the area becomes a salt marsh.

The salt marsh in the photograph is very flat. At high tide it is covered by water, and at low tide the
water drains back to the sea through channels which meander across the marsh. The deposited mud
that is building up the marsh can be seen in the channel. At high tide, water flows in from the sea
through these channels and floods all over the marsh, depositing more mud. Eventually, the level of
the marsh on the landward side will be raised so that it is rarely flooded.
A considerable proportion the marsh surface is occupied by water in the form of tidal channels and
saltwater pools.
CASE STUDY SALT MARSHES ALONG THE TEXAS COAST
The long coast of Texas, south of the
Houston in the USA, has spits, bars and
long sandy islands offshore. These
provide the quiet environment
necessary for mud to settle in the intertidal zone of the mainland. Extensive
mud flats and salt marshes have been
formed.
However, these marshes are under
threat in many ways:
This area is an important oil and gas field, with at least one oil well in the middle of a salt
marsh. Other possible sources of oil leaks washing over the salt marshes are from tankers
leaving the ports of Houston and Galveston. Any wildlife and plants covered by the oil would be
be killed and a spill would lead to infertility in some animal species. Habitats would be
destroyed too. Erosion of the marsh may then occur, especially in the hurricane season
(summer and autumn)
34

 One of the greatest threats to salt marshes is the artificial drainage of their inland edges for
agricultural purposes. Other areas are drained to provide space for port facilities and urban
areas
Pollution by heavy metals or oil, in run-of from nearby towns and cities, is always likely
In the same way, pesticides and fertilisers from farmland pollute marshes when they enter
watercourses that flow down to the saltmarsh
Spilt fuel and litter from passing boat traffic is another source of pollution
In accessible parts of the marsh, people and animals kill vegetation by trampling on it
If the marsh is used for animal grazing, the normal development of vegetation is stopped
On other potential serious threat would result form flooding if the sea level were to rise due to
global warming.
TASK complete the following table..
Salt marshes provide.
protection for the coast
protection for the land
protection for the sea
an important habitat
... a recreational resource?

ESSAY: Should the coast be left in its natural state or exploited for human enjoyment and economic gain?

35

LANDFORM OF DEPOSITION - SAND DUNES

Sand dunes are ridges of sand, which form at the back of beaches and on spits. The conditions
necessary are shown on the following diagram:

The obstacle needed to begin the process of dune formation can be any plant or material on the beach.
Friction with the obstacle slows the onshore wind so that it loses energy, it can no longer carry the
sand in suspension or saltation and deposits it around the obstacle. This increases the size of the
obstacle, so the deposition process continues and the dune grows. While it is still within reach of
spray from the waves, only salt tolerant plants can grow on it.
Over time, the embryo dunes grow and join together to form a line
known as a fore dune. This is moved in and inland direction because the
wind picks up sand from the seaward face of the dune and deposits it on
the leeward side. Meanwhile, a new embryo dune can be forming nearer
the sea. Eventually, lines of dunes are formed parallel to the sea.
As the dunes are moved
away from the sea and grow higher, they are
colonised by marram grass, a plant resistant to the
drought conditions that prevail.
Marram grass plays an important part in the growth
of the dune, because it grows upwards rapidly after
being covered in the windblown sand. It also has a
network of very long roots that help to anchor the
sand. The leaves and stems slow down the wind and
protect the sand from erosion. The yellow mobile
dune ridge is often the highest.
Marram grass is the dominant plant on the seaward
slope, but other plants grow on the leeward slope.
In time, the dune becomes a semi-fixed grey dune, because humus
from plant decay helps to form a soil giving it a grey colour. Plant
nutrients continue to be added as vegetation decomposes. Finally,
the dune becomes a fixed dune with an almost total cover of
vegetation and many plant species. The dunes furthest inland are
the oldest. Over time the depth of the soil increase, as does its
humus content. This leads to greater water retention in the soil.
These improving conditions allow a greater variety of plant species
to grow. The vegetation becomes denser and taller.
Eventually, the number of plant species declines as tall trees grow
and shade out some ground vegetation. The longer roots of the trees are also more successful than the
smaller plants in taking up water and nutrients from the soil
The addition of plant nutrients may increase the pH of the soil over time in the younger dunes, the
older dunes become increasingly acidic, as nutrients are leached out of the soil by rainwater. On
coasts like Gibraltar Point where there are many calcerous shells in the sand, the pH will decrease
inland as the calcium is washed out of the soil.
36

Long, marshy depressions, some with

strips of water, lie between the dune
ridges. These depressions are known as
slacks. They contain water loving plant
species, which differ from slack to slack,
because the ones further inland have
more sediment deposited in them
leading to drier and less salty conditions
for plant growth.

Younger dunes are very fragile, because marram grass

cannot tolerate trampling. When the grass dies, the wind
easily removes the exposed sand. This leaves a depression
or a valley like shape cutting right through the dunecalled a blowout. Therefore, you often see dunes fenced
off to keep people and animals away from the dunes,
reducing the potential for erosion and allowing the
vegetation time to recover and stabilise the dunes.

An example of a very large area of sand dunes in Les Landes

in south west France where the prevailing winds are strong,
onshore westerlies. Here, on the older dunes, soils are deep
enough and contain sufficient water and nutrients for
coniferous forests to grow. As Les Landes in an important
tourist area, information boards and leaflets have been used
to educate the public about fragility of the dunes. Wooden
boardwalks have been provided for people to walk on, and
access to the most fragile areas has been prevented by
fencing them off.

37

COASTS UNIT 2:
How can coasts be protected from the effects of natural processes?
There are a number of ways that coastal areas can be protected, ranging from hard
engineering to managed retreat.
The study of an extended stretch of coastline or coastlines, to illustrate:
the reasons why some coastal areas need to be protected;
the different methods of coastal protection, including hard and soft engineering and managed
retreat;
the planning, management and environmental issues associated with different coastal
protection methods
TASK: Read and make notes on the following section (in italics) Coastal zone management. This
reading is to be done before the lesson, to provide background to the topic on coastal
management, techniques and conflict.

COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

Coastlines are the most important and intensely used of all areas settled by humans, for a number of reasons,
including:
Historical settlement
Trading or political linkages
Climate
Availability of fertile alluvial soils
Proximity to fish stocks
Aesthetic and recreational purposes
From a human point of view, the coastal zone is a resource to be used and exploited, whereas from an
environmental perspective, the coastal zone is the environment most adversely affected by human activities.
COASTAL MANAGEMENT & CONFLICT why is management needed?
The coast as a ECONOMIC
RESOURCE to be used and
exploited
(settlement, industry, trade,
fishing, tourism and
recreation)

Interactions between
competing coastal
users require further
management

the coast as a FRAGILE

ENVIRONMENT to be
PROTECTED against the
adverse affects of human
activities

The coastal zone is used for various activities ranging from nature conservation to waste disposal, with most
coasts supporting multiple activities. Interactions inevitably occur between two or more coastal users, and
management is required to plan and coordinate the different uses of the coast to avoid conflicts.
In the past, coastal management was mainly concerned with single issues, which could be dealt with by a single
authority. This is no longer the case. The increased complexity of coastal management issues, and the varying
spatial and temporal scales at they operate, bring in many different organisations which an interest in the

38

management of the coastline. These organisations typically include administrative authorities (councils,
government agencies, environmental organisations), industry and other interest groups (residents, tourism). For
effective management of the coast, an integrated approach should be adopted, and the term integrated coastal
zone management (ICZM) is used to indicate this approach.

Any ICZM initiative requires sustainability so that human activities should be non destructive and the
resources we exploit should be renewable. It is clear therefore, that many coastal practices are not
sustainable. A sustainable approach has generally meant a management plan with a longer term view and
a more holistic perspective.
The output of ICZM consists of both legal policies and advisory initiatives. The latter are generally in the
form of coastal management plans or shoreline management plans, which chart out a course for the future
development of a stretch of coast and/or assist in current management problems. Legally binding
initiatives are a very powerful means to direct practices in the coastal zone.
o For example, the Dynamic Preservation Strategy adopted by the Dutch national government in
1991 included a legal provision that prescribed that the Dutch coastline to be maintained at its
1990 position, irrespective of future developments. In other words, land losses due to coastal
erosion are considered unlawful and have to be compensated for by beach nourishment. On a local
level, councils can use by-laws to control activities in the coastal zone.

From a Geographical point of view, the main issue associated with an ICZM is to protect the coast from erosion and
loading. Both of these aspects are particularly relevant at the moment, because 70% of our sandy coastlines are
eroding and sea level is rising at an increasing rate. There are four principal options to deal with coastal erosion
and flooding due to sea level rise:
1) No active intervention
This option is available only if the coastline is underdeveloped and nothing is at stake by giving up the
land to coastal erosion
2) Managed realignment
This option involves the relocation of coastal communities and industry, with a prohibition on further
redevelopment. In this strategy, risks are minimized and the costs of protection are avoided. However,
social and economic costs associated with relocation and compensation are potentially high. The
retreat option involves a strong governmental role with supportive legislation
3) Accommodation
This allows continued occupancy and used of vulnerable coastal areas by adapting to, rather than
protecting fully against, adverse impacts. It means learning to live with sea level rise and coastal
flooding. Accommodation options include elevating buildings, enhancing storm and flood warning
systems and modifying drainage. The accommodation option can involve also changing farming
practices to suit the new environment or simply accepting the risks of inundation and increasing
insurance premiums. The accommodation option requires high levels of organisation and community
participation.
4) Hold the line
This option involves physically protecting the coast through hard engineering with structures such as sea walls
and groynes or soft engineering through beach nourishment, for example. A summary of coastal protection
measures and problems associated with their implementation are shown in the table (below). Protection has
clear social, economic and political advantages because assets and investments are safeguarded while
economic activity can continue largely unhindered. Protection is the most expensive option to implement and
maintain, and is only economically justifiable is the land to be protected is of great value.
The first three strategies are based on the premise that increasing land losses and coastal flooding will be allowed
to occur and that some coastal functions or values will be changed or lost. On the other hand, these strategies help
to maintain the dynamic nature of the coast and allow it to adjust to rising sea levels naturally. It is beneficial to
allow as many coastal regions as possible to retreat naturally because erosion of these natural areas will liberate
sediments, which may lessen the impact of sea level rise on areas which are not allowed to retreat naturally. The
overall outcome is an increase in the resilience of the coastal system to sea level rise.

39

The first three options are most sustainable from a geomorphological points of view (although not necessarily
from a socio-economic perspective) Certainly, in developed countries there seems to be an increased push by
national governments to pursue these more sustainable protection strategies.
Notwithstanding the desire to maintain the dynamic nature of coasts, there will always remain a large role for
coastal protection measures for the simple reason that many coastal areas are too valuable to be given up.
When properly designed and constructed, hard engineering structures do serve an important purpose: storm surge
barriers, such as constructed across the Thames and in the south west of the Netherlands, have prevented serious
flooding on several occasions; sea walls and breakwaters protect coastal development from damage during
extreme wave events; and groynes are successful to some extent in trapping sediments and maintaining a beach.
The side effects of hard engineering are considerable, however, and Its is well established that, following the
construction of hard coastal structures, erosion problems on the downdrift unprotected coastline are often
exacerbated (or even created). Soft engineering practices, in the form of beach nourishment or beach recharge,
largely circumvent the problem associated with hard engineering. The artificial placement of a large amount of
sediment, either on the underwater slope or on the beach itself, protects not only the recharged coast, but also the
neighboring coastline, because sediment transport processes will redistribute the nourished sediment. This
redistribution also represents a major downside of beach nourishment and treatment will have to be repeated at
regular intervals. To reduce sediment losses following beach nourishment, groynes may be placed at the
boundaries of the nourished area. On the whole, beach nourishment is more aligned with sustainable coastal
management and is now very widely used.

HOW COASTS BE PROTECTED FROM THE EFFECTS OF NATURAL PROCESSES

Its becoming increasingly important for councils and governments to start managing coastlines in order to
protect them from increasing coastal erosion and flooding due to altering sea levels. The reason for coastal
management is obvious, to protect homes and businesses from being damaged and even destroyed by coastal
erosion or flooding. Failure to do so can have severe economic and social effects, especially along coastlines
which are used for tourism and industry (pretty much all of them).
Management of coastlines is also important to help protect natural habitats, however governments generally
dont engage in coastal management where there isnt an economic risk as effective coastal management is very
expensive.
When engaging in coastal management, theres four key approaches that can be taken:
1. Hold the line - Where existing coastal defences are maintained but no new defences are set up.
2. Advance the line - New defences are built further out in the sea in an attempt to reduce the stress on current
defences and possibly extend the coastline slightly.
3. Retreat the line (surrender) - Move people out of danger zones and let mother nature unleash take control.
4. Do nothing - The easy option, deal with the effects of flooding and erosion as they come or just ignore them.
This is generally what happens in areas where theres no people, and so nothing of value (to the
government) to protect.
SEDIMENT CELLS
The processes of erosion, transportation and deposition within the
coastal margin is largely contained within sediment cells or littoral
cells. There is thought to be 11 large sediment cells in England and
Wales as shown in the map. A sediment cell is generally thought to
be a closed system, which suggests that no sediment is transferred
from one cell to another. The boundaries of sediment cells are
determined by the topography and shape of the coastline. Large
features, like the peninsulas, such as the Llyn Peninsula in Wales act
as huge natural barriers that prevent the transfer of sediment. In
reality however, it is unlikely that sediment cells are fully closed.
With variations in wind direction, and tidal currents it is inevitable

40

that some sediment is transferred between cells. There are also many sub-cells of a smaller scale existing within the
major cells.
How is the coastline managed in the UK?
Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has overall responsibility for the
coastline protection from erosion and flooding
The coastline is divided into 11 sediment cells (lengths of coast line which are relatively self contained
in terms of the movement of sediment the boundaries are often headlands or estuaries which act as
natural barriers to the movement of sediment)
Each cells is divided into smaller sub cells for more effective management each with a Sustainable
Management Plan (SMP)

Shoreline Management Plan

Document which assesses the risks (to people and to the environment) associated with coastal
processes and proposes a policy to manage those risks. This policy is produced in consultation with
stakeholders, local people and national groups such as the Environment Agency and English Nature in
England
The SMP will
o Identify issues and conflicts associated with management
o Propose a coastal defence plan for the next hundred years: present day (next 20 years); medium
term (20-50 years) and long term (50-100)
o The criteria for management is
Hold the line maintain existing defenses
Advance the line build new defenses
Managed realignment allow the land to flood with careful monitoring and
management further in land
No active intervention no investment/ management

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Method of maintaining the whole coastal zone (not just the shoreline)
Set up in 1996 by the European Union
Management as environmentally sustainable, economically fair, socially responsible and culturally
sensitive and that uncoordinated policies can lead to conflict and further deterioration of the coast

MANAGING COASTAL EROSION

Variety of methods
Hard engineering focus on reducing wave energy by putting large structures in place between the sea
and the land, higher technology, high cost, human made solutions
Soft engineering work with the existing natural processes, low tech and lower cost, more sustainable
but less effective than hard engineering techniques
Managed retreat (managed realignment/ coastal realignment) allowing existing defences to be
breached and areas to flood, developing flood marshes which act as a natural defence against storms
this is inexpensive, but cannot be used in highly developed areas
Often a combination of techniques are used, put in place after a cost- benefit analysis is conducted and an
Environmental Impact Assessment carried out in order to calculate the economic and environmental costs of
each available option.
TASK: Make an A3 sheet to summarise the different methods of beach management. For each one, print out and
annotate a photograph to explain how it works and, if you can, give a case study example of where it is used

41

HARD ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Technique

Description

Sea Walls

These are the most obvious defensive methods.

Sea walls are exactly that. Giant walls that span
entire coastlines and attempt to reduce erosion
and prevent flooding in the process. Theyre big,
ugly and very expensive requiring constant
maintenance so that they dont fail. They also
produce a strong backwash in waves which
undercuts the sea wall making their long term
sustainability questionable.
Traditionally, sea walls are large flat walls
however more modern sea walls have a curved
structure that reflects waves back into incoming
waves, breaking them up and further reducing
erosion.

Groynes

Groynes are relatively soft hard engineering

techniques. Theyre low lying wooden walls that
extend out to sea. The idea of groynes is to
capture sand that moves down the beach via
longshore drift and help build up a larger
section of beach in front of an area thats
experiencing coastal erosion. The new beach
will increase the distance that waves have to
travel to reach the coast and, in the process,
theyll lose most of their energy, reducing their
impact. Groynes are pretty effective but they
have one major drawback. Groynes will remove
a lot of the sand thats present down-drift of the
beach which will result in a thinner beach at this
area. This, in turn, means that sections of the
coast will be more exposed to erosion down
drift of the groynes which can create new
problems relating to coastal management.

Illustration

Advantages/
Disadvantages

Case study example

42

Gabions

Gabions are quite simply bundles of rocks in a

metal mesh. Theyre placed at the base of a cliff
in an attempt to reduce the impact of waves on
the cliff and prevent the cliff from being
undercut. Theyre not particularly effective and
theyre quite unsightly but theyre sure as hell
cheap.

Revetments

Revetments are concrete (or in some cases

wooden) structures that are built along the base
of a cliff. Theyre slanted and act as a barrier
against waves not too dissimilar to a sea wall.
The revetments absorb the energy of the waves,
preventing the cliffs from being eroded.
Revetments can be modified so that they have
rippled surfaces, which further help to dissipate
the wave energy. Revetments are normally
successful at reducing coastal erosion but they
are expensive to build. Once built however, they
dont require as much maintenance as a sea
wall.

Riprap

Riprap are just rocks and stones that have been

put against the base of a cliff. Theyre similar to
gabions in their purpose but they arent bound
together in a mesh. This makes them look
slightly more appealing as they blend into the
environment better however the rocks are
susceptible to being moved by the sea.

43

Breakwaters

Breakwaters are offshore concrete walls that

break incoming waves out at sea so that their
erosive power is reduced to next to none when
they reach the coast. Breakwaters are effective
but they can be easily destroyed during a storm
and they dont look particularly nice.

Tidal
barriers

Big, retractible walls built across estuaries that

can be used as a floodgate to prevent storm
surges. Theyre hugely effective but theyre also
hugely expensive.

44

Soft Engineering Techniques

Technique

Description

Beach
Nourishmen
t

This is where sand and shingle are added to a beach

in order to make it wider. This increases the
distance a wave has to travel to reach the cliffs and
so the wave will lose more energy and have less
erosive power when it reaches the cliffs. The sand
and shingle has to be obtained from elsewhere and
is normally obtained from dredging.

Land
Managemen
t

Land management is often used to help protect and

rebuild dunes. Sand dunes act as a good barrier
against coastal flooding and erosion and they can be
exploited as a natural defence against the sea. In
order to do so though, the dunes must be left
relatively undisturbed so boardwalks are
constructed and sections of sand dune systems are
marked as out of bounds to the general public in
order to reduce the erosion of the dunes by
humans.
Marshland can be used to break up the waves and
reduce their speed, reducing the waves erosive
power. The marshlands also limit the area which
waves can reach preventing flooding. The
marshlands can be created by encouraging the
growth of marshland vegetation such as glassworts.

Marshland
Creation

Beach
Stabilisation

Advantages/
Disadvantages

Illustration

Case study

The goal of bea stabilisation is the same as beach

nourishments goal, to widen the beach and
dissipate as much wave energy as possible before it
reaches the cliffs. Beach stabilisation involves
planting dead trees in the sand to stabilise it and
lower the profile of the beach while widening the
beach too.

45

Case study: coastal management in Holderness

Watch - http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/a-farm-is-threatened-by-coastal-erosion-at-holderness-eastyorkshire/3189.html

The Holderness coast is located on the east coast of England and is part of the East Riding of Yorkshire; a
lowland agricultural region of England that lies between the chalk hills of the Wolds and the North Sea
The Holderness Coast is one of Europe's fastest eroding coastlines. The average annual rate of erosion is
around 2 metres per year but in some sections of the coast, rates of loss are as high as 10 metres per year. The
reason for such high rates of coastal erosion can be attributed to both physical and human causes.
Physical Causes

The main reason for coastal erosion at Holderness is geological. The bedrock is made up of till. This
material was deposited by glaciers around 12,000 years ago and is unconsolidated. It is made up of
mixture of bulldozed clays and erratics, which are loose rocks of varying type. This boulder clay sits on
layer of seaward sloping chalk.
The Holderness Coast is a lowland coastal plain deposited by glaciers. The boulder clay is experiencing
more rapid rates of erosion compared to the chalk. An outcrop of chalk can be seen to the north and
forms the headland, Flamborough Head.
The section of coastline is a 60 kilometre stretch from Flamborough Head in the north to Spurn Point in

The soft boulder clay cliffs become saturated with rain water creating instability.
The cliff is too steep and fails either as a block of material (slump) or as a slurry slide
Cliff failure reduces the angle and prevents further erosion for a period as it creates a plug of support
Large waves from the north east remove the debris as longshore drift to the South. This removes the
support and cliff steepens again.

46

Marine processes play an important role at the Holderness coast. The size of fetch, the frequency of both sea
storms associated with passing depressions, and the process of long shore drift all act to limit the process of
deposition to keep a narrow beach.
A long fetch under the influence of north-easterly winds creates larger waves with strong backwash that erode
the exposed cliffs. The location of Holderness is on the track of mid-latitude depressions that increase the
frequency of destructive waves. The proportional arrows show that double the amount of sediment is removed
in the backwash than transported along the beach through longshore drift. These physical factors interrelate to
ensure that beach material doesnt build up. Beach depth therefore remains narrow offering little protection to
the weak boulder.clay cliffs.
Human Causes
Humans can influence the rates of erosion through the choice of coastal management they deploy. A number of
methods are known to increase rates of erosion.
Sea walls, provide solid protection to coastal towns and promenades. However, their curved solid design
reflects wave energy rather than absorbing it and so the wave energy is returned to the beach. As a result
beaches become eroded and the the sea wall without beach replenishment will become exposed and
undermined.
In addition, rock islets, which are placed in the nearshore zone parallel to the shore to act as wave breaks
help create low energy zones behind. In this way beaches are built up in size. However, between the rock
islets beaches are exposed and can accelerate erosion as waves refract around them.
Groynes are also a significant problem as they interfere with the natural sediment transfer of the coast.
Groynes are placed perpendicular to the coastline to trap sediment as it is moved by longshore drift. In
doing so the section of coastline protected by groynes builds up larger beaches. As a consequence however,
beach material is stopped from moving down the coast leading to narrower beaches and a speed up in the
rate of erosion. The influence of groynes is evident at Mappleton. Here decison makers have protected the
base of the cliff with rock armour and placed two large rock armour groynes to act as groynes to build up
the size of the beach.

47

At the tourist resorts of Hornsea, Withenrsea and Bridlington a combination of management schemes have
been deployed. These include sea walls, groynes and beach replenishment. Together this stabilizes and protects
the cliff and builds up a large beach to protect the sea wall. Rates of erosion increase south of each town as a
result of the interruption of longshore drift.
In addition, these towns will experience a process known as outflanking, whereby the towns defences will
create differentiated rates of erosion. Sections of coast directly north and south will erode faster. Over time the
towns will project seawards like a headland. This in turn will create the need for further coastal defense on the
sides due to the process of wave refraction concentrating wave energy on the sides.
One final consequence of human caused erosion
is the threat to Spurn Head, at the Humber
Estuary. Spurn Head is a spit, which supports a
small salt marsh. However, due to the constant
interruption of long shore drift along the
Holderness Coast its sediment balance has been
altered. This led to the loss of the old village of
Kilnsea, Beach size is narrower and rates of
erosion have increased.

.
In the case of the Holderness Coast, we can clearly see that a number of factors are causing the fast rates of
retreat. The most important factor is undoubtedly the geology and susceptibility of boulder clay to erosion. This
is compounded by the high fetch, frequency of North Sea storms and marine processes that combine to
maintain a narrow beach profile. These physical factors are responsible for erosion over a longer time frame.

REVISION SUMMARY
The Holderness coast is in the north east of England. This is one of the most vulnerable coastlines in the
world and it retreats at a rate of one to two meters every year.
The problem is caused by:
Strong prevailing winds creating longshore drift that moves material south along the coastline.
The cliffs are made of a soft boulder clay. It will therefore erode quickly, especially when saturated
The village of Mappleton, perched on a cliff top on the Holderness coast, has approximately 50 properties.
Due to the erosion of the cliffs, the village is under threat.

In 1991, the decision was taken to protect Mappleton. A coastal management scheme costing 2 million was
introduced involving two types of hard engineering - placing rock armour along the base of the cliff and
building two rock groynes.

Mappleton and the cliffs are no longer at great risk from erosion.
The rock groynes have stopped beach material being moved south from Mappleton along the coast.
However, this has increased erosion south of Mappleton. Benefits in one area might have a negative
effect on another.

The increased threat of sea level rise due to climate change, means that other places will need to consider
the sustainability of coastal defence strategies for the future.

48

CASE STUDY: Hard Engineering: Lyme Regis By The British Geographer

Lyme Regis, with a
population of 4400
is located in the
centre of the
Heritage Jurassic
Coast in Dorset,
South England. It is
exposed to the
southwesterly
waves of the Atlantic
and the stormy
conditions of the
English Channel.
Why is Lyme under threat?
The highly active nature of the coastline can be seen along local cliffs on either side of the town. Without hard
engineering scheme Lyme Regis would gradually be eaten away by the sea and afflicted by destructive
landslides threatening homes, businesses and the lives of local people and visitors alike.
The diagram below shows a simplified cross section of the land at Lyme Regis and the processes that make it
unstable.

1. The rock deep below the town is made up of layers of stong limestone with shale in between. The
bedrock is stable and solid
2. On top of the bedrock there are unstable slippery clays, green sand plus other muddy and sandy
material. This moves over the strong limestone layers below to form landslides
3. The layers slope down towards the sea making it easier for the unstable layer to move over them
particularly during wet weather
4. The sea eats away at the bottom of landslides and undermines the land. This prevents a toe or plug
forming - and means that the unstable material keeps moving
5. Old coastal defence built to protect the town have been undermined by the sea
6. Localised shallow landslios take place in areas of weakness usually in arc shapes
7. Buildings subside as the land moves
8. Houses become damaged due to movement of the land behind
9. The beach is depleted, offering little protection against the sea
10. Houses under threat as the landslides expand inland.

49

Physical Evidence of the Problems

Lyme Regis suffers frequent landslides and slippages. Evidence of which can be seen in the photos below:

Lyme Regis is an important tourist town. Tourism is Dorset's predominant industry, providing over 38,000 jobs
in the county and generating a total annual income of over 830 million. The coastal zone is undoubtedly one of
the principal attractions. The coastal zone attracts in the region of 16.5 million visitors each year, with
approximately 1 million that come from overseas - a growth of 17% since 1989. Lyme Regis is an important
coastal attraction located in the centre of The Jurassic Coast. The Jurassic Coast is a natural World Heritage Site
and is internationally important for its rocks, fossils and coastal landforms.
For both economic and environmental reasons it is important to invest in protecting the town from future
landslide events. With World Heritage Site status it is important that any defenses are sympathetic to the
environmental needs of the coast, but at the same limit human interference with natural processes that supply
the fossils.
The Phased Approach - HARD ENGINEERING
The Lyme Regis Coast Protection Scheme was initiated by West Dorset District Council in the early 1990s. It
aims to provide long-term coast protection for the town and to reduce damage and disruption caused by
landslides, through a long-term programme of engineering works. A phased approach was adopted for Lyme
Regis, which would allow for budget allocation to be spread out as well as limiting the disruption to the tourist
seasons.
Phase I of the scheme, which includes a new sea wall and promenade next to the mouth of the River Lim, was
completed in 1995. It was awarded the Secretary of State's Special Commendation for Environmental
Excellence at the British Construction Industry awards. The works also won a 1997 Civic Trust Award for
Outstanding Contribution to the Quality and Appearance of the Environment and helped the district council
gain beacon status in 2004. As part of the scheme a multipurpose promenade was built. This promenade is
illustrated in figure 5 below. It shows, the sea wall with rock armour apron to prevent it being undermined. In
addition, within its cavity it holds space for vital services. In the final design new sewage drainage and large
public waste units were integrated. In this way they gained a useful economy of scale. Phase II was completed
in 2007 to protect the area from Cobb Gate to the harbour from landslides and coastal erosion.

50

51

The final option was made up of three main parts:

1. Stabilising the land
Access to the sea front had to be improved. Cobb Road, which was slipping down the hill, was stabilised,
strengthened and widened. The land behind the beach was stabilised to prevent landslides, with over 1,000
deep- bored pins fixing it to the more stable shale and limestone below. New drainage systems were put into
the reshaped parkland.
2.Protecting the foreshore
The old rock armour called Beacon Rocks at the end of the Cobb was extended with the use of giant boulders
(each weighing 18 tonnes) of a resistant igneous rock from Norway. The main aim was to protect the foreshore
from the sea and stop the new sandy beach being washed away. The new sea wall and two new jetties would
protect the promenade and also stop the beach from being washed away by longshore drift.
3. Replenishing the Beach
The new sand and shingle beaches have been restocked with material brought from France. The new beach also
acts as protection for the new promenade. There are two types of beach. A sandy beach for tourism needs at the
Cobb end and a shingle beach toward at the eastern end (orange on map).
Figure 7 shows a full summary of all the works and their design elements. The key benefits and costs are
summarized in the table

Hard
engineering

Soft
engineering

Managed
retreat

Do nothing

Prevent and
discourage

ECONOMIC
Advantage
In the long
term
businesses will
be protected

Disadvantage
Very expensive

SOCIAL
Advantage
In the long
term houses
will be
protected

Local business
will benefit if
more tourists
use the new
beach
Long term
investment
may help
future
generations
Costs nothing

Expensive

Creates better
beaches for
tourist to use

Expensive in
the short term

Long term
investment
may help
future
generations
There are no
advantages

Cheap option

Expensive to
pay for the
new homes
and businesses
if they are
damaged

Expensive to
pay for new
homes and
businesses if
they are
damaged

There are no
advantages

Disadvantage
Likely to create
short term
problems of
lack of access
during
construction
Some people
may not like
the changed
visual
appearance
Present
generations
will not benefit
Will lead to
continued
problems:
people may
lose their
homes and
businesses
Will lead to
continued
problems:
people may
lose their
homes and
businesses

ENVIRONMENTAL
Advantage
Disadvantage
May improve
May lead to
the quality of
problems
the coastal
where there
zone
may be no
protection
Improves
visual quality
of beaches
New natural
environments
may be created
New natural
environments
may be created

New natural
environments
may be created

Another area
may be
affected by the
loss of sand
and shingle
May create
visual
problems of an
unmanaged
coast
May create
visual
problems of an
unmanaged
coast
May create
visual
problems of an
unmanaged
coast

52

SOFT ENGINEERING CASE STUDY: WALLASEA ISLAND http://www.abpmer.net/wallasea/index.asp

Situation
Wallasea Island is on the south side of the Crouch Estuary in Essex and also linked to the Roach Estuary. These
estuaries feed into the North Sea.

In the past, the area was protected by a sea wall, and the land behind the wall was drained by Dutch engineers
and used for farming. However, due to lack of maintenance the wall on the north shore was in poor condition
and by 2004 had begun to collapse in several places. There was a high risk that the walls would fail resulting in
flooding the island and causing damage to the estuary.
The threat of coastal flooding on Wallasea Island puts a wide range of assets in the coastal floodplain at risk,
including 2,700 properties, 9,500 hectares of high-grade farmland, 168km of flood defenses and a variety of
natural habitats. Large areas of land are several metres lower than the normal high water in the estuary. As sea
levels raise intertidal wetlands and salt marshes in front of sea defenses - internationally important wildlife
habitats become eroded. This process is known as coastal squeeze.
The Wallasea Island Project
The more traditional approach of
building hard defenses such as sea
walls is being replaced where
appropriate by managing the land in
a more sustainable way:
Hard engineering
strategies are usually costly
to build and maintain and
can have a visual impact on
the landscape
Soft engineering strategies
such as beach nourishment
and managed realignment
have less impact on the
environment, are more
sustainable and need less
maintenance.

53

Managed realignment has a number of benefits:

Reduces the cost of hard defenses by shortening the overall length of defenses to be maintained
Recreates river, estuary or coastal habitats and uses them to absorb wave energy and store water in
times of flood
Creates natural habitats or replaces habitats lost elsewhere
The project was designed to create the UK's largest man-made marine wetland. It uses realignment involving
the construction of a new sea wall along the length of the north bank of the island; then allowing the land in
front to be inundated by the sea. This widens the area of intertidal habitat, which is good for wildlife and
recreation as well as helping to manage flood risk.
In the past, high flood tides and surges were absorbed by salt marshes along the coast. These areas were
reclaimed for farmland, such as the wheat fields on Wallasea Island. Since the Second World War there has
been a food surplus in the UK, which means this farmland is no longer so important. The managed realignment
project on Wallasea Island would give more space for water by working with natural processes: the new
wetland would increase storm protection as storm waves would lose their energy as they flowed over the site.
Realignment was chosen at Wallasea for the following reasons:
A sufficiently large site to attract vast numbers of birds, including those that had used other wetland
sites
Little chance of the surrounding estuary being damaged
No adverse effect on those using the area
Remote estuary location
The site was not protected for its conservation interest and there was limited public interest in the area
No opposition as Wallasea Farms, the existing landowner, was concerned about the poor state of the old
sea defenses and offered full support for the project
The Environment Agency investigated the tidal and environmental impact of managed re-alignment. The main
area of concern was to make sure that there was no negative impact on the River Crouch and the people,
businesses, fisheries and boats that use it. The EA took measurements to work out how the tides in the Crouch
and Roach estuaries behave, then compared these with models of what would happen after the wetland was
created. Surveys were undertaken of existing wildlife on the site to ensure maximum protection was possible
for creatures such as reptiles, water voles, insects and ground nesting birds.
Development of 110
hectares of new
wetland at the site
began in May 2005
and went through
three stages. The
project cost 8
million. Although
this programme is
an example of
managed
realignment of the
coastline, some
engineering work
was still needed.

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Stage 1: Completed November 2005

1. A new stronger sea wall was built at the back of the site on the landward side (white line)
2. A new freshwater 'borrow dyke' was built(turquoise).This formed a freshwater marsh for nesting
avocet, redshank and water voles. In front of the wall there is a salt marsh, formed by pumping mud
into the area.
3. A robust retaining bund wall was built to hold the imported mud for the salt marsh and to ensure that
no silt was swept back into the Crouch. The saline lagoons and a number of artificial islands were
created.
4. A new beach was developed inside in the North East corner of the site.
Stage 2
Over 700,000 tonnes of mud was pumped ashore to build the new salt marsh. This material was dredged up at
Harwich: it would have been otherwise dumped at sea. The dredger Medway Two worked 24 hours a day, seven
days a week, placing up to 40,000 tonnes a week. Only clean pollutant-free material was used; it was pumped
into a pipeline that ran along the top of the sea wall and into the retaining bund, where it settled out.
Stage 3
In May 2006 the final landscaping of the wetland took place 'in the dry'. Finally, the old sea walls were
breached in several places to allow the tide to flood in and the wetland to start forming.
The project was completed at a cost of 8 million on 4th July 2006 when a 300 metre section of the old sea wall
was bulldozed to allow the sea to flood the area at high tide. The wetlands area covers about 115 hectares. The
volume of water entering the site on each tide ranges from 790,000 cubic metres on a neap tide to 1,700,000
cubic metres on a spring tide. It is expected that by 2011, the area will have naturally evolved into a wetland,
lagoons and mudflats. Figure 3 shows the staged inundation.

RSPB Wild Coast Project

The Wallasea Island Wild Coast Project aims to extend the work of the Defra funded Wallasea Island wetland
restoration project, by creating a series of mudflats, salt marshes and lagoons to the south of the original
project. RSPBs (The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) vision for Wallasea Island is to turn this area of
arable farmland, which is in danger of unmanaged flooding, back to its historical condition as a rich mosaic of
mudflats and salt marsh habitat, with approximately 133ha of mudflats, 276ha of salt marsh and 56ha of
shallow saline lagoons. A habitat adaption zone of 48ha will support further new salt marsh as sea level
continues to rise.

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A six-phased approach will be

adopted to enable adequate
time to research and model
potential designs and impacts
on tidal currents. A range of
licenses and consents need to be
attained. The new plans will be
phased in over a 10-year period.
Through a partnership with
Crossrail, clean recovered
materials will be transported by
ship.

Distinct salt marshes separated by boundary zone or adaptation zones. There are a series of lagoons and salt
marshes with drainage creeks. Once completed, it will be a landscape used by people as well as wildlife,
enjoyed by local communities and those from farther afield. Visitors will be able to come to Wallasea lsland for
relaxation and enjoyment, whether for bird watching, walking, cycling, painting or photography.
Wherever possible, public access will allow visitors and wildlife to happily coexist. The current access along the
north (Defra) seawall will be unaffected by construction works and we will provide more than 15 kilometres of
new and improved access routes, and a range of visitor facilities after the habitat is created.
Conclusions
The success of the original wetland restoration at Wallasea Island is clear to see. Restoration has been
successful in developing salt marsh, saline lagoons and mudflats. The cost was mainly incurred on new sea wall
defenses. The project has had enormous environmental benefit and abundances of wader birds and
overwintering waters birds have all shown and increase. For overwintering waterbirds the observed increase
was from 7024 in 2006/07 to 16,574 in 2010/11. Although these figures do not take into account natural
variation in bird abundance, they do show a promising trend of growth. In addition the project has provided an
area 115ha of natural flood defense that wasnt previously available.
In addition the RSPBs Wild Coast Project promises to offer in excess of 500 additional ha of restoration. It must
be stated that this is an enormous project for the RSPB and will require additional private investment.
However, through partnership with Crossrail there is the expectation that phase 1 will be in place by 2015 so
the future looks promising. This project will not only offer great flood defense for the Crouch and Roach
Estuaries but the materials provided would reduce the volume of seawater entering on each tide and prevent
adverse effects on navigation, shellfisheries and on other sea defenses in the estuary. The new bank towards
the western end of the project will ensure that the RSPBs project does not increase flood risk to properties and
businesses on the rest of the island.
In the context of climate change and future sea level rise, joint private and civic funded restoration projects like
the Wild Coast Project offer the UK a vital contribution toward the adaptation required for future coastal
management and which may become a model for future schemes. Local authorities and agencies on restricted
budgets will need to look at how management schemes can achieve dual functionality to justify their cost. In the
case of Wallasea Island we can see real evidence of smart spending. The two projects provide for flood defense
and improved biodiversity. In addition through the creation of a visitors centre and recreation opportunities
they have ensured a future income stream.

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COASTS UNIT 3: In what ways can coastal areas be a valuable economic

and environmental resource?
Coastal areas provide opportunities for a number of human activities, including:
industrial development;
transportation;
residential development;
energy development;
recreation and leisure;
conservation.
The study of at least two contrasting coastal environments to illustrate:
_the variety of activities found in coastal areas;
_the reasons for the growth and development of these different activities;
_that conflicts may result from the growth and development of these activities.
Coastal areas can provide valuable economic and social opportunities, resulting in increasing numbers of
people wanting to live near the coast. This trend has become more apparent with increased global trade, the
development of the tourist economic and the increasing demand for coastal lifestyles. As a result, coastal areas
are often placed under competing pressures and this can be a source of conflict. The challenge, therefore, is to
find sustainable ways of managing competing demands.

Case study: tourism in Studland Bay Nature Reserve

Studland Bay is located in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset and is popular with
tourists. It can be accessed by ferry from the desirable area of Sandbanks
in Poole during the summer. It is only a few minutes drive from the resort
of Swanage and most visitors arrive by car.
Studland Bay is a good example of a place where conflict can occur
between interest groups.

The issues:
The nature reserve is an area of sand dunes. These are dynamic, but often unstable and vulnerable
environments.
Areas such as this are home to rare species of plants and birds.
The area is attractive to tourists because of the dunes and the wide, sandy beach. The beach can get
very crowded in summer months.
Visitors need somewhere to park and also demand other facilities, such as paths and public toilets.
Tourists bring their problems such as litter and fire hazards (caused by barbecues and cigarette ends).
How is the area managed?

Vulnerable areas and areas recently planted with marram grass (which is used to stabilise the dunes)
are fenced off to limit access and damage.
Boardwalks have been laid through the dunes to focus tourists onto specific paths.
Car parks have been provided and people are not permitted to drive onto the beach.
Fire beaters are positioned within the dune area in case of a fire.
Facilities including a shop, caf, toilets and litter bins are provided near the car parks to focus tourists
into one area.
Information boards educate visitors about the environment and how they can help to protect it.

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DESTRUCTION OF AN IMPORTANT COASTAL ECOSYSTEM AT THE COAST MANGROVE FORESTS

In the tropics and subtropics,
mangrove swamps are formed on
coastal mudflats. Some species of
mangrove have stilt roots that
anchor the plant in the soft mud and
slow down water movement
encouraging the deposition of more
mud. Other have conical breathing
roots which stick vertically up out of
the mud from the underground root
system.

Mangrove swamps are invaluable for protection the coas

from flooding. As mangroves can grow to a height of 15
meter, they also offer some protection from the strong winds
of hurricanes.
In the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, there were more than
6,000 deaths in coastal village in Sri Lanka that had cut down
its mangroves, compared with only 2 deaths in a
neighbouring village which had kept their mangroves.
The new study, conducted by scientists at the University
of Delhi, India, and Duke University in the United States,
analysed the 1999 'super cyclone' that ravaged Orissa
state in eastern India, killing an estimated 10,000 people.
The scientists found that coastal villages in Orissa with the
widest mangrove belts suffered fewer deaths, compared to
those with narrower or no mangroves.
Their statistical models suggest that without mangroves,
villages within ten kilometres of the coast would have
suffered an average of 1.72 additional deaths.

TASK: Below is an article from National Geographic about mangroves it is a wee bit more difficult than
what you are used to reading in your Geography text book. The language is more complex and it is a little
bit longer. The article highlights the uses and threats to mangrove forests. I would like you to read
through the article and highlight (using different colours) some key information. You may want to look
up some of the words you might be unfamiliar with so that you fully understand the article.
1. Highlight in yellow the features of mangrove swamps
2. Highlight in green the uses of mangrove swamps (i.e. what people use them for, how they can
protect the coastline from erosion, resources they provide etc)
3. Highlight in pink the threats to mangrove swamps (I.e. why are they being damaged etc)
4. Highlight in blue the potential consequences of the destruction of mangrove forests (e.g. global
warming)
5. Highlight in orange the possible solutions (i.e. what is being done to conserve this ecosystem or
manage its use more sustainably?)
Now then! If you do not possess highlighters, you can just underline the information, and if you dont
have the right colour highlighters, just use the colours you have and make a key you can do it!
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/mangroves/warne-text/1
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Mangroves live life on the edge. With one foot on land

and one in the sea, these botanical amphibians occupy a zone of desiccating heat, choking mud, and salt levels that
would kill an ordinary plant within hours. Yet the forests mangroves form are among the most productive and
biologically complex ecosystems on Earth. Birds roost in the canopy, shellfish attach themselves to the roots, and
snakes and crocodiles come to hunt. Mangroves provide nursery grounds for fish; a food source for monkeys, deer,
tree-climbing crabs, even kangaroos; and a nectar source for bats and honeybees.
As a group, mangroves can't be defined too closely. There are some 70 species from two dozen familiesamong
them palm, hibiscus, holly, plumbago, acanthus, legumes, and myrtle. They range from prostrate shrubs to 200foot-high (60 meters) timber trees. Though most prolific in Southeast Asia, where they are thought to have
originated, mangroves circle the globe. Most live within 30 degrees of the Equator, but a few hardy types have
adapted to temperate climates, and one lives as far from the tropical sun as New Zealand. Wherever they live, they
share one thing in common: They're brilliant adapters. Each mangrove has an ultrafiltration system to keep much
of the salt out and a complex root system that allows it to survive in the intertidal zone. Some have snorkel-like
roots called pneumatophores that stick out of the mud to help them take in air; others use prop roots or buttresses
to keep their trunks upright in the soft sediments at tide's edge.
These plants are also landbuilders par excellence. Some Aborigines in northern Australia believe one mangrove
species resembles their primal ancestor, Giyapara, who walked across the mudflats and brought the tree into
existence. The plants' interlocking roots stop riverborne sediments from coursing out to sea, and their trunks and
branches serve as a palisade that diminishes the erosive power of waves.
Despite their strategic importance, mangroves are under threat worldwide. They are sacrificed for salt pans,
aquaculture ponds, housing developments, roads, port facilities, hotels, golf courses, and farms. And they die from a
thousand indirect cuts: oil spills, chemical pollution, sediment overload, and disruption of their sensitive water and
salinity balance. Calls for mangrove conservation gained a brief but significant hearing following the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami. Where mangrove forests were intact, they served as natural breakwaters, dissipating the energy of
the waves, mitigating property damage, perhaps saving lives. Post-tsunami, the logic of allowing a country's
mangrove "bioshields" to be bulldozed looked not just flawed but reprehensible.
Bangladesh has not lost sight of that logic, putting a great premium on the ability of mangroves to stabilize shores
and trap sediments. A low-lying country with a long, vulnerable coastline, Bangladesh is also land starved, with a
crushing population density of 2,500 persons per square mile (2.6 square kilometers). By planting mangroves on
delta sediments washed down from the Himalaya, it has gained over 300,000 acres (120,000 hectares) of new land
on the Bay of Bengal. The plantings are relatively new, but there have been mangroves here for as long as the
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers have been draining into the bay. The vast tidal woodland they form is
known as the Sundarbansliterally "beautiful forest." Today, it's the largest surviving single tract of mangroves in
the world.

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In the forest's most luxuriant sections a dozen mangrove species, from feathery golpata palms to the towering
sundri tree, form labyrinthine stands up to 60 feet (18 meters) tall. Beneath the sundri, the glutinous mud bristles
with the tree's breathing roots. Twelve inches high (30 centimeters) and as thick as deer antlers, they grow so
tightly together there's barely room to squeeze a foot between them. In drier areas, groves of semi-deciduous
mangroves blaze red in the months before the monsoon. Spotted deer glide through the filtered shade, stopping
abruptly when a troop of macaques shriek an alarm call. Woodpeckers hammer in the high branches, while on the
forest floor dry leaves rustle with the scuttling of mud crabs. A butterfly called the Sundarban crowcharcoal
with splashes of whiterests on a twig, opening and closing its wings like a prayer book.
Evening falls with the junk junk junk sound of nightjars, then all is quiet. Night belongs to the tiger. These forests
provide one of the last remaining haunts for the Bengal tiger and its only saltwater habitat. According to local
tradition, the tiger's name, bagh, must never be uttered. To speak it is to summon it. So people talk of mamu, uncle.
Uncle tiger, lord of the Sundarbans.

Half a million Bangladeshis risk mamu's displeasure by coming into the Sundarbans each year to harvest its
products. They come as fishermen, woodcutters, palm-frond cutters, cutters of thatching grass, harvesters of wild
honey. The workers spend weeks at a time in the forest, living off its bounty as they earn a few taka for their labor.
Seafood, fruits, medicines, tea, sugar, even the raw materials for beer and cigarettes are to be found in the
Sundarbans larder.
Throughout the tropical world it's the same: Mangrove forests are the supermarkets, lumberyards, fuel depots, and
pharmacies of the coastal poor. Yet these forests are being destroyed daily. One of the greatest threats to
mangrove survival comes from shrimp farming. At first glance, shrimp might seem the perfect export for a poor
country in a hot climate. Rich countries have an insatiable appetite for it (shrimp has overtaken tuna to become
America's favorite seafood), and the developing world has the available land and right climate to farm it.
A prime location for shrimp ponds, though, happens to be the shore zone occupied by mangroves, an unhappy
conflict of interests that has a predictable outcome: The irresistible force of commerce trumps the all-tooremovable mangrove. To compound matters, shrimp farmers typically abandon their ponds after a few crop cycles
(to avoid disease outbreaks and declining productivity) and move to new sites, destroying more mangroves as they
go.
Mangrove-rich Brazil was slow to stake its claim in the bonanza. By the time shrimp fever hit Brazil's northeastern
states, around the turn of the millennium, shrimp-farming pioneers such as Thailand, the Philippines, and Ecuador
had been uprooting their mangroves for decades. Today, in the Brazilian port city of Fortaleza ponds the size of
football fields crowd the landscape like rice fields. Paddle wheel aerators froth the water, and workers in kayaks
fill feeding trays with fish meal. Even where mangroves have been spared, access to them is often blocked by the
shrimp farms.
At the riverside settlement of Porto do Cu"the gates of paradise"an electrified fence shuts out villagers from
their traditional harvesting grounds. But there is worse. The shrimp ponds have no lining, so salt water has
percolated through the sandy soil and contaminated the aquifer beneath. The villagers have been forced to
abandon wells that until recently drew sweet fresh water to the surface. The water is no longer sweet; it is salgada,
saline, undrinkable.

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At Curral Velho, a community to the west of Fortaleza, people have been finding a voice to oppose Big Shrimp.
Demonstrations have been organized, land deals challenged, a public education center set up. Sister Mary Alice
McCabe, an American nun who is helping the community in its struggle, says that one of the difficulties in raising
awareness about carciniculturashrimp farmingis that most Brazilians aren't aware of the environmental
damage it causes. "'Where does it happen, out at sea?' they ask. 'No, no, no,' we tell them, 'they're digging up your
mangroves, they're destroying your coastline.' "
As serious as the threat from shrimp farming is to the world's remaining mangroves, there looms a potentially
more disastrous problem: rising sea levels. Standing as they do at the land's frontiers, mangroves will be the first
terrestrial forests to face the encroaching tides.

Loss of mangrove forests could prove catastrophic in ways only now becoming apparent. For more than 25 years
Jin Eong Ong, a retired professor of marine and coastal studies in Penang, Malaysia, has been exploring a less
obvious mangrove contribution: What role might these forests play in climate change? Ong and his colleagues
have been studying the carbon budget of mangrovesthe balance sheet that compares all the carbon inputs and
outputs of the mangrove ecosystemand they've found that these forests are highly effective carbon sinks. They
absorb carbon dioxide, taking carbon out of circulation and reducing the amount of greenhouse gas.
By measuring photosynthesis, sap flow, and other processes in the leaves of the forest canopy, Ong and his team
can tell how much carbon is assimilated into mangrove leaves, how much is stored in living trees, and how much
eventually makes its way into nearby waterways. The measurements suggest that mangroves may have the
highest net productivity of carbon of any natural ecosystem (about a hundred pounds per acre [45 kilograms per
0.4 hectares] per day) and that as much as a third of this may be exported in the form of organic compounds to
mudflats. Mangroves, it seems, are carbon factories, and their demolition robs the marine environment of a vital
element.
Ong's team has also shown that a significant portion of the carbon ends up in forest sediments, remaining
sequestered there for thousands of years. Conversion of a mangrove forest to a shrimp pond changes a carbon sink
into a carbon source, liberating the accumulated carbon back into the atmospherebut 50 times faster than it
was sequestered.
If mangroves were to become recognized as carbon-storage assets, that could radically alter the way these forests
are valued, says Ong. If carbon trading becomes a realitythat is, if forest-rich, carbon-absorbing countries are
able to sell so-called emissions credits to more industrialized, carbon-emitting countriesit could, at the least,
provide a stay of execution for mangroves.
ut Ong notes that the financial incentives have to be great enough to make forest preservation economically viable.
"Take Indonesia, which has the largest total area of mangroves of any country in the world. It can't afford to save
them for nothing," he says. "But if the Indonesians could trade the carbon-storage potential of their mangroves as
a commodity, that would create a great incentive to stop bulldozing them for shrimp ponds or chipping them for
the production of rayon."
Countries that have squandered their mangroves could also replant them, gaining both a tradable asset and
coastline protection. At Ong's research site small boys stuff their pockets with cigarillo-shaped mangrove seeds, or
propagules. The boys will sell them for a few cents. Ong says that throughout Asia there's a run on propagules, as
countries replant their mangrove defenses in the wake of the 2004 tsunami.

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On the east coast of Africa, a very different kind of mangrove experimentation is going on. In Hirgigo, Eritrea, a
few miles down the coast from the port of Massawa, two men sit on planks on the hot desert sand. With a knife for
a chisel and a rock for a hammer, they knock the bottoms out of empty tomato sauce cansdiscards from the
Eritrean Navy. Nearby, on the shores of the Red Sea, a group of women push the hollow cans into the soft sediment,
forming long alleys on the mudflats. Into each can, the women press mangrove propagules.

This is the planting of the Red Sea, the brainchild of cell biologist, cancer-drug pioneer, and humanitarian Gordon
Sato. In the early 1980s, Sato's laboratory at the University of California at San Diego developed Erbitux, a
breakthrough drug for colorectal cancer. These days 79-year-old Sato works to cure a different disease
povertyattacking the problem not by culturing cells but by cultivating mangroves.
Eritrea was reeling from war and famine when Sato first traveled there in the mid-1980s. Since water is such a
scarce resource in this arid country, Sato wondered if he could develop some form of salt water-based agriculture
on Eritrea's long coastline, to help provide food for the hungry. Mangroves seemed a logical, if unconventional,
choice. They occurred naturally, though patchily, along the Red Sea shore, they flourished in salt water, and camels
were known to eat the leaves. If camels ate them, why not feed the foliage to sheep and goats? Grow enough
mangroves, Sato reasoned, and you could provide food security for thousands.
So, like a maritime Johnny Appleseed, he began plantingand failed. All the saplings died. Undaunted, Sato looked
closely at places on the Eritrean coast where mangroves were growing naturally, and he noticed they occurred
only where fresh water was channeled during the brief rains that fall on this desert coast. Sato reasoned it was not
fresh water the trees needed but minerals the water was bringing from inlandspecifically nitrogen, phosphorus,
and iron, elements in which seawater is deficient.
By conducting a few simple trials, Sato and a small team of helpers from the Eritrean Ministry of Fisheries assessed
how much of the three elements mangrove seedlings needed and devised a low-tech method of supplying them.
When the propagules are planted, a small piece of iron is buried alongside. So, too, is a small plastic bag with holes
punched in it containing a fertilizer rich in nitrogen and phosphorus
Now, six years on, 700,000 mangroves are growing on the formerly treeless shore of Hirgigo. Sato calls the project
Manzanar, after the World War II internment camp in the California desert where, during his teens, he and his
family were relocated, along with thousands of other Japanese Americans. It was the memory of older internees
there coaxing crops from the arid soil that inspired him all these years later.
At Sato's Manzanar many of the mangrove trees are now well above head height, and the yellow-green coats of
ripe propagules are beginning to split open, showing the plump green leaves within. The mangrove mud is
sprouting pneumatophores, as if someone had sown a crop of pencils. Barnacles and oysters have started to settle
on them, and crab and winkle trails crisscross the sediment. Plant a few trees, and you usher in an ecosystem. Build
nature a house, and she makes it her home.
That home extends its influence out to sea. At the end of a long rock jetty, Ibrahim Mohammed Ibrahim peels off his
shirt, winds it around his head, then steps into the water to check his net. He wades chest deep along it, feeling the
mesh for fish and turning up a nice barracuda and a jack. He cleans them on the rocks, plunging them repeatedly,
almost reverently, in the water.

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Since planting began, Hirgigo's fishermen have started to catch small species such as mullet. Ibrahim put the
equation simply: "No mangroves, no mullet." And the little fish that make the mangroves their home attract
bigger, predatory fishthe kind that snag in Ibrahim's net and sell for good prices in the Massawa market.
In a pen on the outskirts of the village, a flock of sheep crunches mangrove propagules as if they were apples. Sato
is using these animals to fine-tune the livestock-rearing side of the project. He has found that mangrove leaves and
propagules, though highly nutritious, are not a complete stock food. Fish meal, which Sato is having made locally
from fish processing, seems to provide the missing nutrients.
Outside the pen, donkeys nibble in the dust. The stubble of grass is so miserable and sparse it doesn't provide even
the faintest green tinge to the parched earth. The nearby houses are nothing more than dusty improvisations of
flattened iron, bits of cloth, and scraps of wood. Sato dreams of seeing a livestock pen beside every house. "In this
country, a few goats can be the beginning of an empire," he says. "I want to give everyone this chance." Who would
have imagined it: The mangrove, foundation of empires.
The town of Massawa recently celebrated the 15th anniversary of its liberation from Ethiopian forcesa Davidand-Goliath struggle (as Eritreans tell it) in which the pride of the Ethiopian Navy was bested by a ragtag band of
Eritreans in speedboats. A sign on a caf shows a soldier in heroic pose and the slogan "Able to do what can't be
done."
Out on the mudflats another old soldier is attempting the impossible: turning the tide of poverty by growing
mangroves. The gardeners of Manzanar would be proud.
CASE STUDY: MANGROVES vs. DEVELOPMENT ON GRAND CAYMAN
Originally, 36% of Grand Cayman was occupied by mangroves. The largest area was in the centre of the island.
Because it is located in a hurricane zone, this very low lying island always needed the protection the mangroves
provided. It is also at risk from tsunami caused by tectonic activity along the Caribbean Plate Boundary.
However, between 1997 and 2009, there was a lot of development on the island, such as the building of new
hotels and condominiums.
At least 10% of the islands mangroves that existed in 1997 had been lost to various developments by
2009
By 2010, 66% of the mangroves that existed pm the western peninsula had been removed.
In 2010, a further 83 hectares of mangroves were removed to make way for a development at Dragon Bay,
which stretches from Seven Mile Beach to the North Sound. Some of the properties in the North Dragon Bay
development will have private beaches. There will be a gold course, tennis courts and the marina, among other
facilities. This project has caused controversy. The developer maintain that the area of mangroves removed for
it had been badly damaged by Hurricane Ivan in 2004 (others say the mangroves had largely recovered) The
developer is now planning to replant mangroves along some of the coast of the resort.

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Tourists started to visit Grand Cayman in the 1960s, and tourism now provides 75% of the GNP (a measure of
the wealth of the country). As a result of the 1977 Development Plan many of the areas of mangrove swamp
were reclaimed for road building, golf courses, tourist accommodation, marina and housing.
Local people have mixed opinions about this issue. Some describe the western side of the island as a concrete
jungle. There is also considerable anger about the development because mangroves valued as a protection
against high winds and storm surges in 2004, 75% of homes and other buildings on the islands were severely
damaged by Hurricane Ivan, this would have been much worse without the protection of the mangrove buffer
zone.
Mangroves have other uses too:
Their roots help to stabilise the coast against erosion
They are a source of firewood
Mangrove swamps absorb inorganic nutrients that drain into them in water from farmland and urban
areas. This prevents them from being deposited in the sea and harming marine life
Mangrove leaves decay and add organic nutrients to the water, which provides food for the small fish
that hatch and shelter in the mangrove area
Mangrove swamps and provide a nursery for fish and shellfish
They are important wildlife habitat, as well as temporary homes for migrating birds. They are
important breeding and feeding grounds for birds
They are also important for recreation especially for fishing, bird watching, wildlife photography and
boating
However, people in favour of the development argue that more employment will be provided directly in the
tourist industry. There will be an increase in people working in hotels, running boat trips to the famous
Stingray City and diving expeditions in the amazing Cayman Wall. Indirect employment will also result, as
shopkeepers and restaurants will also gain more revenue and the overall economy will be better (multiplier
effect).
On such a small island, caution is needed regarding further development. When an area becomes
overdeveloped, it loses its attractiveness and tourists find somewhere else to go.

TASK
Make notes for these following two case studies, using the criteria from the syllabus please
structure your notes according to the bullet points below (as far as you are able)
1) Outline the variety of activities found in this coastal area; (in what ways is this
stretch of coastline a valuable economic and environmental resource?)
2) Explain the reasons for the growth and development of these different activities;
3) Discuss the conflicts may result from the growth and development of these activities.
4) Examine how these conflicts can be managed what management strategies have
been used? How successful have they been?
CASE STUDY: Coastal development and conflict in Bangladesh Pg 88-92
CASE STUDY: Spains concrete coast Pg 93-96

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