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A10: Superpower Relations 1945-1962: Key Events

Knowing and understanding the key events from each topic is obviously essential. For
Section A topics like Superpower Relations, you need to be able to describe or explain the
causes, key features and consequences of each event. Make sure you study the following
list of key events as part of your revision:

1.) The Yalta Conference February 4th-11th 1945


Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

War situation

Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan

The talk of democracy and free

had changed:
Germany was
close to defeat.
USA led by
President
Roosevelt
UK led by
Prime
Minister
Winston

Discussions over
the post-war
world were
needed.
USA & UK
wanted USSR
to declare war

within three months of the defeat of


Germany.
Compromise over Poland. All agreed to form
a Polish government pledged to hold free
elections. Borders of Poland also changed
USSR gained land from Eastern Poland
whilst Poland would gain land from East
Germany.
The Declaration on Liberated Europe.
USA, USSR & UK commit to work for

Churchill

on Japan.

democracy in Europe.

USSR led

Needed to

Allies agree to form the United Nations.

by Joseph
Stalin

agree a political
solution for
liberated
countries,
especially
Germany and
Poland.

Germany and Berlin to be divided into four


zones of occupation between Britain,
France, USA and USSR.
Big Three restate their agreement that the
USSR should have a sphere of influence in
Eastern Europe.

elections was interpreted differently


by USA and USSR. American free
speech vs. Stalins idea that communism
represented the people so no opposition
allowed.
Yalta raised false expectations in the
USA that Stalin would allow westernstyle governments in Eastern Europe.
Stalin paid only lip service to idea of
free elections in Poland. In March, 16
leaders of the Polish resistance were
arrested by Stalin and never seen again.
Further talks over Poland achieved
nothing. USSR refused to allow prowestern Poles into new government.
Soviet troops had captured most of
Eastern Europe. Stalins demand for a
sphere of influence had to be taken
seriously.

2.) The Potsdam Conference July 17th - Aug 2nd 1945


Who?

Causes

What happened?
A compromise was reached over war

USA
represented
by
President
Harry S.
Truman

reparations. Each ally would take

Nazi Germany was

reparations from the zone they

over. Hitler was

occupied. USSR was also given industrial

dead. The Allies

equipment from Western zones in

needed to decide

return for raw materials.

Europe. Both superpowers

Agreed to prosecute Nazi war

their half of Europe.

how to disarm and


punish Germany.

had to be reached
represented
by Prime
Minister
Winston
Churchill &

The conference ended

The war against

A political solution
UK

Consequences

over the liberated


countries. The
Western Allies
now occupied the
whole of western
Europe. The Soviet

criminals.

without agreement on what


would happen to the newly
liberated states across
were determined to keep

Trumans attempt to assert

Statement of aims of the occupation of

his authority by declaring a

Germany by the Allies: demilitarisation,

powerful new weapon at the

denazification, democratisation,

conference only made Stalin

decentralisation and decartelisation.

more determined to protect

Details of the German-Polish border


were finally agreed.

the USSR. He saw this as a


threat from the USA. He
therefore wanted to create a

Red Army occupied

The communist dominated Polish

buffer zone in Eastern

the whole of

Provisional Government of National

Europe.

Clement

eastern Europe.

Unity was recognized by all three

Attlee

Roosevelt had

Prime
Minister

powers.

The USA and UK became


aware of their need to

died and Truman

Was confirmed that the Polish

confront communism in

was keen to meet

Provisional Government of National

Europe. Truman approved

USSR

Stalin. He wanted

Unity would hold free and fair

Churchills 1946 Iron Curtain

represented

to be tougher with

elections as soon as possible.

speech, in which he said that

by Joseph

Stalin over issues

Stalin

like Poland.

The terms of the surrender of Japan


were agreed. Japan had to agree
unconditional surrender or face prompt
and utter destruction.

countries in the West were


free and countries in the East
were under communist control
behind an Iron Curtain.

3.) Churchills Iron Curtain Speech March 1946


Who?

Causes

What happened?

By 1946 it became

Former
UK
Prime
Minister
Winston
Churchill
who lost
power in
the
1945
general
election

clear that Europe

Churchill gave a speech in the

had been divided.

presence of President Truman at

From 1945-1948,

Westminster College, Fulton,

Stalin rigged

th

elections to establish
communist
governments in
Poland, Hungary,
Bulgaria, Romania,
East Germany &
Czechoslovakia.

Missouri on 5 March 1946:


From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste
in the Adriatic an "Iron Curtain" has
descended across the continent.
Behind that line lie all the capitals of
the ancient states of Central and
Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin,
Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,

The West

Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous

responded to this

cities and the populations around

division with a war

them lie in what I must call the

of words, designed

Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in

to portray Stalin as a

one form or another, not only to

power-hungry

Soviet influence but to a very high

dictator. Truman had

and in some cases increasing measure

even compared Stalin

of control from Moscow.

to Hitler.

Consequences
The speech showed that both
sides now clearly viewed each
other as opponents. Stalin
responded by saying:
Mr Churchill now adopts the
position of the warmonger, and in
this Mr Churchill is not alone. He
has friends not only in Britain but
in the USA as well. A point to be
noted in this respect is that Mr.
Churchill and his friends bear a
striking resemblance to Hitler
and his friends.
This war of words led to both
sides initiating spying and
assessment reports on each
other to determine the thinking
of their opponents. This resulted
in the Long Telegram and
Novikovs Telegram.

4.) The Long Telegram & Novikovs Telegram 1946


Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

Kennan responded to Truman with a telegram on 22nd

The telegrams made

February 1946 that reported:


US
ambassador
to Moscow,
George F.
Kennan
Soviet
ambassador
to
Washington,
Nikolai
Novikov

Truman and
Stalin were
both keen to
understand

There could be no peace with the USSR while it


was opposed to capitalism.

intentions and
they both

facing the imminent

capitalism.

each others
threats so

feel that they were

The USSR perceived itself to be at war with

th

September that reported:

commissioned

reports to be
written by

America wanted to dominate the world.


The USA was no longer interested in cooperation.

embassy staff.

The American public was being prepared for war


with the USSR by capitalist elites.

possibility of war.
The USA now
believed that the

The USSR was rebuilding its military.

Novikov responded to Stalin with a telegram on 27

both governments

USSR was planning


world domination
whilst the USSR
believed the same
about the USA.
These fears led the
USA to form the
Truman Doctrine.

5.) The Truman Doctrine March 1947


Who?

Causes

George Kennan advised Truman


that the USAs best hope was to
contain communism rather than

What happened?
The Truman Doctrine stated that:

fight it on the battlefield.


Much of Europe was devastated
after the war and communism was
President
Truman of
the USA

appealing. Truman was worried

neighbouring countries were next


in line to be threatened.
In Feb 1947 the UK announced it
could no longer afford to pay
for troops in Greece and Turkey.
The US feared communism would
spread to these countries.

because it suggested that


America had the responsibility
to protect the world, not the

democratic freedom.

UN which marked an end to

America had a responsibility to

USAs traditional policy of

America would send troops and


money help governments against
communism.

The doctrine was significant

communist tyranny and

fight for liberty.

about the Domino Theory: if


communism took over one country,

The world had choice between

Consequences

Communism should not be


allowed to grow and spread and
should be contained.
Over the course of the Cold War,

the Truman doctrine provided arms


and money to defend Greece, Korea,
Cuba, Vietnam, Afghanistan and
South America.

isolationism.
The doctrine assumed that
Capitalism and Communism were
incompatible = the unofficial
start of the Cold War.
Truman was now committed to
a policy of containment.
US military aid to Greece
meant that the communists
were defeated in the Greek
Civil War in 1949.

6.) The Marshall Plan June 1947


Who?

Causes
Economic crisis in
Europe: food
shortages,
unemployment, food
rationing and

President

starvation. Communist

Truman of

party support was

the USA

growing, especially in

George C.
Marshall,
US

France and Italy


where riots broke
out.

Secretary

Truman knew that to

of State

weaken the
attraction of
communism, he
needed to rebuild and
encourage prosperity
in Europe.

What happened?

The USA decided to offer economic


aid to Europe, organised by US
Secretary of State General George
Marshall. Committed $13 billion
USD to rebuild the ruined
economies of Europe.
Countries had to agree free trade
agreements with the USA in order
to receive money. This would
benefit the American economy as
the US would provide the money
and goods needed to rebuild.
American money was made available
to eastern Europe and the USSR as
well. Stalin ordered Poland &
Czechoslovakia not to accept it.

Consequences
European leaders met at the Paris
Conference of 1948 to discuss Marshall
Aid. The USSR walked out of the
conference as they believed the US was
trying to split Europe into two camps.
Stalin claimed that Marshall Aid had
tricked western Europe into an economic
reliance on the US. Led to the creation of
Soviet rivals: COMINFORM and COMECON.
West European economies experienced an
economic boom and had returned to prewar levels of growth when the plan ended in
1952.
Divided Germany as the military governors
of western Germany agreed to accept
money. Divide in Europe was now
economic, not just ideological.

7.) Creation of COMINFORM Sep 1947


Who?

Causes

Stalin was concerned


that eastern European
countries would be
tempted by the
Communist
Party General
Secretary
Joseph
Stalin

Marshall Plan. He wanted


to prevent this by forcing
Eastern European
countries to become
satellite states,
controlled by the USSR.
Stalin wanted satellite
states on his European
borders to trade with,
and for military defence.

What happened?

Consequences

At an international conference, the USSR


created the Communist Information Bureau
(COMINFORM) which represented Communist
Parties across Europe and brought them under
the control and manipulation of the USSR.
COMINFORM encouraged Communist Parties
in Western Europe to organise demonstrations
and strikes in order to wreck the Marshall
Plan. 2 million workers went on strike in
France in 1947 calling for their government to
reject Marshall Aid.
COMINFORM was also used to stamp out
opposition and ensure the loyalty of Eastern
European governments. 5% of population was
imprisoned in Hungary by 1953.

COMINFORM organised
strikes in Western Europe
did not work as growing
prosperity weakened the
attraction of communism.
COMINFORM
strengthened Stalins hold
on Eastern Europe. He
could use COMINFORM to
investigate government
ministers and employees,
and remove or imprison
those who were not loyal.

8.) Creation of COMECON - Jan 1949


Who?

Causes
The failure of
COMINFORM to
destroy Marshall
Plan through political

Communist
Party
General
Secretary
Joseph
Stalin

opposition forced the


USSR to consider an
economic rival. Stalin
wanted to minimise
the influence of the
USA.
Stalin wanted to
prevent Eastern
Europe from
benefiting economical
from the West.

What happened?

Consequences

The Council for Mutual

Was not very successful as the Soviet

Economic Aid (COMECON)


was designed as a trading
organisation of communist
countries. Aims was to
economically develop Eastern
Europe and prevent trade

Union had little spare cash to inject


into the economies of Eastern Europe.
Meant that Eastern Europe did not
develop as fast as Western Europe.
The USSR used COMECON to help

with Western Europe.

rebuild itself first not its satellite

USSR, Bulgaria,

encouraged COMECON members to

Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Poland and Romania were all
members in first year.
Albania and Eastern
Germany joined in 1950.

states. The USSR eventually


specialise in different products.
Stalins wish of a sphere of influence
over Eastern Europe was now made
an economic reality.

9.) The Berlin Blockade and Airlift June 1948


Who?

Causes
Stalin didnt want a
divided Germany.
Germanys main

Communist
Party
General
Secretary
of the
USSR,
Joseph
Stalin
US
President
Harry
Truman

economic resources
were in the west and he
wanted to prevent the
USA from having
further influence in
Germany. He feared
they were rebuilding
Germany as an ally
against the USSR.
He viewed the merging
of the Allied zones of
Germany in 1947, along
with the introduction of
the Deutschmark in
June 1948 as an
attempt to divide
Germany. He expected
the western powers to
make a humiliating
retreat.

What happened?

Consequences

Stalin set up a military blockade


around West Berlin on 23

rd

June

1948. He planned to cut western


Germany off from its capital: Berlin.
This would prove that a divided
Germany could not work.
All roads and railways to Berlin were
blocked by the Soviets. Stalin
assumed the West would give in as 2
million Berliners were starving.
Truman responded with the Berlin
Airlift. It was the first major test of
the Truman Doctrine. Allied planes
would supply West Berlin from the air.
The first flight was on the 26th and by
Sep, a US aircraft was leaving every 3
minutes. 70 large cargo planes airlifted
600-700 tonnes of food and supplies
every day. This increased to 1000
tonnes within weeks. At its height, the
airlift provided over 170,000 tonnes of
supplies, flying along 3 air corridors
during January 1949.

Stalin backed down on 12th May


1949. Stalin seemed like the
aggressor as the attack on Berlin
looked like the first step in a march
westwards. This was a propaganda
success for the USA.
Blockade seemed to prove to the West
that the USSR wanted to take over
Europe. This led to the creation of
the NATO alliance in April 1949 and
the creation of West Germany (FDR)
as an independent state in Sep 1949.
This in turn forced the USSR to
establish East Germany (GDR) as an
independent nation one month later.
Stalin ordered the speeding up of
atomic testing as he realised that
without an atomic bomb, he could not
win confrontations with the USA. The
USSR test their first atomic bomb in
1949, starting the arms race.

10.) Creation of NATO April 1949


Who?

1949 USA,
UK, Canada,
Iceland,
France,
Portugal,
Italy, Belgium,
Luxembourg,
Netherlands,
Denmark and
Norway. 1952
Greece and
Turkey. 1955
West
Germany.
1982 Spain.

Causes
The Berlin
Blockade raised
the possibility of
war in Europe as it
was the first
military
confrontation of
the Cold War.
European
countries were
keen to establish
a military alliance
in order to keep
the USA in, the
USSR out and the
Germans down.

What happened?
The North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) was
established as a military alliance
between the USA and Western
Europe. An attack on one member
would be considered as an attack
on all members.
It was in effect a military alliance
with the aim of defending the
West against communism. It
wasnt just a promise either. Five
divisions of US troops were based
in Germany.
West Germany joined NATO in
1955, adding millions more troops.

Consequences
The creation of NATO significantly
heightened tensions in the Cold War. The
creation of NATO now added a clear
military divide to Europe.
The USSR felt threatened by the
creation of NATO and especially when
West German troops joined. The USSR
responded by creating the Warsaw Pact in
1955 which was a military alliance of
Eastern European countries.
The build-up of military alliances turned
into an arms race when the USSR tested
its own nuclear bomb in 1949. But
paradoxically, the threat of Mutually
Assured Destruction (MAD) prevented war
in Europe.

11.) The Korean War June 1950 July 1953


Who?
North Korea,
led by Kim Il
Sung
South Korea
led by
Syngman
Rhee
China led by
Mao Zedong
USA led by
President
Truman and
Dwight D.
Eisenhower
from 1953
US/UN
Forces led by
General
Douglas
MacArthur

Causes
Truman believed the
Russians were behind
the attack and it was
a test of his policy of
containment.
China had become
communists in 1949
providing further
proof that
containment was

What happened?

Korea was divided after the Second


World War. On 25th June 1950, North
Korea led by Kim Il Sung invaded the
South in an attempt to re-unite the
country by force.

in Korea. The Security Council approved


the use of force to defeat the

In Sep 1949 the USSR

In Sep 1950, US troops led by

atomic bomb. Truman


became convinced
that communism
wanted to take over
the world.
UN vote gave the USA
greater legitimacy to
invade

in the world. Proved that


containment could work to prevent
the Domino Theory would later

War led to rearmament


throughout the western world. The
Involvement of USSR and China
persuaded the US to increase
defence spending, up to 400% after

General Douglas MacArthur led a


successful counter-attack and by 1st
Oct, US troops had reached the 38

to containing communism anywhere

Vietnam.

Council to back the use of US troops

Northern invasion.

Demonstrated the US commitment

influence decision making in

Truman asked the UN Security

needed.

had developed an

Consequences

th

parallel. When MacArthur invaded


North Korea, the Chinese intervened,
pushing US led forces back to Seoul.
For the rest of the war, stalemate
ensued. Ceasefire was agreed on 27th
July 1953. Korea remained divided.

the war. Marshall Aid money also


was diverted to defence spending in
Western Europe.
Dangers of nuclear war, proposed
by General MacArthur scared the
world and put pressure on the
superpowers to negotiate. After
the death of Stalin in 1953, this led
to a thaw in relations.

12.) Creation of the Warsaw Pact May 1955


Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

The USSR responded to


NATO by creating the

USSR, Poland,
Czechoslovakia,
Romania,
Bulgaria,
Hungary,
Albania and
East Germany.

The formation of NATO in 1949

Warsaw Pact which was a

altered the balance of power in

military alliance of

Europe in the Wests favour.

Eastern European

Stalin needed his own rival alliance

countries. The countries

to ensure parity with the west.

agreed to respect each

The addition of West Germany


to NATO in 1955 along with over a
million extra German soldiers

others independence and


to defend each other in
the event of war.

accelerated the need for the

Unlike NATO, the Warsaw

USSR to create a military alliance.

Pact countries were


strictly dominated by the
USSR.

The creation of a communist


military alliance cemented the
control of the USSR over Eastern
Europe.
It also contributed to the
increasing competition of the
arms race. The Warsaw Pact had
poor technology and relied on
conscription, therefore the USSR
focused on developing nuclear
weapons as a means of deterrence.

13.) The Hungarian Uprising Feb-Nov 1956


Who?

Causes
Hungarians were dissatisfied
with Soviet rule. After 1949,
COMINFORM imposed an
oppressive regime on Hungary.
Hungarian land was given to other
countries, resources shipped to

Hungarian
Dictator
Matyas
Rakosi
Hungarian
Leader
Erno Gero
Hungarian
Leader
Imre Nagy
Hungarian
Leader
Janos
Kadar
USSR led
by Nikita
Khrushchev

Russia, political parties abolished


and Matyas Rakosi was appointed
dictator in Aug 1952.
Rakosis reign was harsh he
used what he called salami
tactics to deal with opposition
one slice at a time. He
imprisoned over 387,000 people
and was responsible for over
2000 deaths.
The death of Stalin in 1953 led
to the end of Stalinism and the
start of what Khrushchev called
peaceful co-existence with the
west. This was taken to mean
that Soviet rule was to be
relaxed in Hungary.
In June 1956, there were antiSoviet demonstrations in Poland.
Khrushchev agreed to allow
reforms there. This inspired
many Hungarians to demonstrate
and protest, hoping to gain
reforms in their country.

What happened?

Consequences

After Khrushchevs secret speech


in Feb 1956, many students began
to riot in Budapest, attacking
Soviet troops with petrol bombs
and grenades. Police lost control
and protests erupted in other
cities. By the summer, Khrushchev
realised that Rakosi was
extremely unpopular & replaced
him with Erno Gero in July 1956.
This made little difference.
On 24th Oct, Khrushchev agreed
to calls for a more liberal leader
and appointed Imre Nagy. He
proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact,
making Hungary a democracy with
free election, communism should
end and Hungary should ask the UN
for help against the USSR.
Khrushchev worried that to allow
this greater freedom and let
Hungary leave the Warsaw Pact
would mean the end to Soviet
control of Eastern Europe. He
responded by sending 200,000
Soviet troops and 2500 tanks into
Hungary to crush the government.
They reached Budapest on 4

th

Nov.

20,000 Hungarians were killed and


another 200,000 fled to Austria.

Nagy fled to the Yugoslavian


embassy but was arrested by
Soviet troops as soon as he left.
He was accused of treason by
Khrushchev and was hanged in
June 1958.
The west was accused of
abandoning the Hungarians.
The USA had encouraged the
uprising but didnt want to risk
nuclear war. May have actually
improved relations as USSR had
seen the USA as having no
desire to interfere in its sphere
of influence.
The lack of military help from
the USA discouraged other
radicals in Eastern Europe from
rising up. In that sense,
Khrushchevs show of force
worked to strengthen his
control on Eastern Europe.
Janos Kadar was appointed as
the new Hungarian leader who
called for: re-establishing
communist control and remaining
in the Warsaw Pact.

14.) The Berlin Crisis & U2 Incident 1958-1961


Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

In Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued an


Khrushchev was

ultimatum giving Western Powers six months

deeply concerned

to withdraw from Berlin. Eisenhower was

by the growing

unsure how to respond but agreed to hold

refugee problem.

talks on the issue.

Between 1949 and


1961, 2.7 million
East Germans
USSR led

escaped to West

by Nikita

Germany through

Khrushchev

Berlin. Many were

USA led by

highly skilled.

President

Khrushchev also

Truman

believed that West

and Dwight

Berlin was being

D.

used by the West

Eisenhower

as a base for

from 1953

spying and
sabotage.
The post-war
recovery of West
Berlin seemed to
remind people of

from escaping to the West,


ending the refugee crisis. Allowed
the communists to consolidate
their hold over East Germany.

Further talks are held in Geneva (May


1959) and at Camp David (Sep 1959) but
both talks fail to achieve anything. Further
talks are scheduled for 1960.
On 1st May 1960, an American U2 spy
plane is shot down over USSR. Khrushchev
used this to expose the USAs spying
programme at the UN.
The Paris Summit on 16th May 1960 breaks
down as Khrushchev walks out. Eisenhower
refuses to punish the leaders of the U2
programme.
At the Vienna Conference on 4

The wall stopped East Germans

Allowed Khrushchev to avoid war


with USA whilst appearing strong.
Was propaganda victory for the
USA as USSR had to wall people in
to make sure they didnt run away
from communism. Kennedy took
advantage of this by touring West
Berlin in 1963, saying in a speech:
All free men, wherever they live,
are citizens of Berlin and
therefore as a free man, I take
pride in the words Ich bin ein
Berliner.

th

June 1961,

Khrushchev challenges Kennedy to withdraw


US troops from Berlin within 6 months or
to declare war. Kennedy refuses.

the benefits of

On morning of 13th Aug 1961, Berliners

capitalism. This

awake to find that a fence had been

worried Khrushchev.

erected around the whole of West Berlin. It


was eventually reinforced.

86 Germans would die over the


next 30 years in trying to cross the
wall.
Led to a period of calm in Europe
as both sides accepted there was
no immediate prospect of change so
tension went down.

15.) The Cuban Missile Crisis October 1962


Who?

Causes

What happened?

Consequences

In August 1961, Khrushchev agreed to defend


Long-term
The continuing arms race
forced both sides to find

Cuba by stationing Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba.


On 25th September 1962, Khrushchev sent 114
ships to Cuba carrying nuclear warheads and long
range missiles.

ways in which to gain


military supremacy. The

14th Oct American U2 spy plane spots a nuclear

launch of Sputnik 1 in

site under construction in Cuba.

1957 had intensified the


arms race. In early 1962,
the US placed nuclear

16th Oct Kennedy was shown the photographs


proving the missiles were on Cuba. The ExComm
committee is established and he spends 6 days

missiles in Turkey. The

secretly discussing how to respond.

USSR decided to retaliate


by placing missiles in Cuba.
This would allow the USSR
to undermine American

20th Oct Kennedy ignores pressure from hawks and


decides to impose a naval blockade around Cuba to
prevent further missiles reaching Cuba.

nuclear superiority without


having to develop
expensive inter-continental
USA led by
President
Kennedy
USSR led
by Nikita
Krushchev
Cuba led by
Fidel
Castro

ballistic missiles.

22

pro-US Batista

Khrushchev to recall his ships on route to Cuba. He


promised to destroy any ships that passed the
quarantine line.
23rd Oct Khrushchev states that Soviet ships will
break though the blockade.

government in Cuba with


a communist government
led by Fidel Castro in
1959 intensified fears of

24th Oct Khrushchev issues a statement saying the


USSR is prepared to respond with nuclear weapons if
the USA goes to war.

communist expansion in
Latin America. Cuba was
only 90 miles from Florida.
Castro nationalised US

Kennedy gives a public address officially

declaring the blockade with 100 ships and calls on

Short-term
The overthrow of the

nd

25

th

Oct Kennedy writes a letter to Khrushchev

asking him to withdraw missiles from Cuba. Both


armies told to prepare for war. Tension at highest
point.

property in Cuba and the


USA banned the import

26 Oct Khrushchevs first offer: he ignores calls

of Cuban sugar their

for a nuclear war and responds, saying in a letter he

main export. This forced

will withdraw the missiles in return for a US

Cuba to turn to the USSR

guarantee not to invade Cuba.

for help. The USSR now


gave economic aid to Cuba.

th

27th Oct Khrushchevs second offer: he sends a


second letter now demanding that the US withdraws

The failed Bay of Pigs

its missiles from Turkey in return for the removal

invasion of Cuba in April

of Cuban missiles. Kennedy ignores this letter but

1961 by the CIA left

agrees to the first letter. Robert Kennedy then

Castro fearing another US

meets with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. He

invasion. He asked

agrees to Russian demands to withdraw missiles from

Khrushchev for military

Turkey but insists the deal must be kept secret.

help.

28th Oct Khrushchev agrees to the secret deal


and orders all cargoes to return to the USSR.

Short-Term
Kennedy and the USA appeared
victorious as Khrushchev was seen
by the world as the one to
publically back down. This
propaganda defeat contributed to
Khrushchev resigning in 1964.
Kennedy had agreed to pull US
missiles out of Turkey. In reality,
the event did end in compromise.
European allies of the US were
shocked at how little they were
consulted throughout the crisis.
French leader Charles de Gaulle
pulls France out of NATO in
response. NATO is weakened.
The Chinese were not impressed
with the performance of the
USSR so began to pursue a more
independent foreign policy. World
communism was also weakened.
This led to the creation of a
hotline in June 1963 between
Washington and Moscow in order
to avoid future
misunderstandings.
The Limited Test Ban Treaty
was agreed in August 1963. Both
sides agreed to ban nuclear
testing in space, in the sea and
above ground.
Long-term
Both sides recognised the dangers
of direct conflict. The USA and
USSR began to search for
meaningful peaceful co-existence
as they realised how close they
came to nuclear war. This led to a
policy called dtente a
relaxing of tension in the Cold
War which dominated superpower
relations in the 1970s.

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