Week 5, 6, & 7: Section 14.

2
Interactions Within Communities
Within a given ecosystem, populations of all species are constantly interacting in
what is called a community.
Biologists are constantly looking for patterns within communities. These patterns
will be further discussed in the study note.
Ecological Niches
An ecological niche is defined by an organisms biological characteristic,
including the use of and interaction with abiotic and biotic resources in its
environment.
These resources include what the organism eats, what eats it, the way it
reproduces, the temperature range it tolerates, its habitat, and several other factors.
A fundamental niche is the biological characteristics of the organism and the set
of resources individuals in the population are theoretically capable of using under
ideal conditions.
Interspecific competition occurs between species of different kinds competing
for a common resource that is limited in supply.
A realized niche is the characteristics of an organism and the resources
individuals in a population actually use under the current environmental conditions.
The interactions between species can be placed into three categories: competition,
predation, and symbiosis.
Each category will be further explained.
Interspecific Competition:
Interspecific completion occurs between individuals of different populations
competing for the same resource. Intra specific competition occurs between
populations of the same species over a resource.
Inter specific competition is designed to restrict population growth. Interspecific
competition can happen in two ways:
Interference competition: This is the first way interspecific competition occurs. It
is when species of different kinds aggressively fight over the same resources.
Exploitative competition: When the consumption of resources is shared by
individuals of different species, where consumption by one species may limit the
availability of resources to the other species.
The strongest competition occurs between populations of species that experience
niche overlap. One way the species occupying the same niche can avoid or reduce
competition is by resource partitioning. Resource Partitioning is the avoidance of,
or reduction in, competition for similar resources by individuals of different species
occupying different non overlapping ecological niches. Resource partitioning can be
observed am plants as well. Three plants each have different root lengths so they
can share resources without heavy competition.

Predation:
Predation is a type of interaction between species. It is beneficial to one species and
lethal to the other. It is an example of interspecific interaction in which the predator
increases its population while the second population density and numbers decrease.
As the predator population increases the prey populations decrease, however the
reduction in prey results in the reduction of predator population. This relationship
is usually displayed in a cyclical pattern. The two species tend to cycle slightly out
of synchronization with the predator patterns lagging behind the prey patterns.
Predator and prey interactions have resulted in diverse defense mechanisms that
animals and plants have evolved through several encounters with prey. In plants,
these defense features include thorns, hooks, needles, and chemical defenses.
There are passive and active defense systems. In a passive defense mechanism,
animals use tools such as hiding. An active defense system requires energy, so it
would include thing like fighting of prey, or running away.
Both predators and prey can also protect themselves through mimicry. The mimic
may gain an advanced by resembling a species that is distasteful to the predator.
Symbiosis:
Symbiosis refers to the relationship between different species that live in close,
usually physical, contact. At least one of the species benefits from the relationship.
The first type of symbiotic relations between animals is mutualism. In mutualism,
both organisms benefit form the relationship with no species being harmed. There is
a type of mutualism where both species rely on each other for basic survival, and
without the one the other could not live. This is called obligatory mutualism.
An example of mutualism can be found between through pollination. Many insects
and birds ingest the nectar from pollen flowers. The pollen from the flowers is then
attached to the insects and birds and as they fly away the pollen is spread so plants
can reproduce.
The next type of symbiosis in commensalism. Commensalism is a symbiotic
relationship in which one organism benefits from another organism, which remains
unaffected. An example of this type of relationship can be observed between remora
fish and sharks. Remora fish have suction disks on the back of their hands that allow
them to attach to sharks. The fish now need less energy to move around as the shark
is doing all the work. The fish do not harm the shark but the fish do benefit from the
shark.
The third type of symbiotic relationship is paratism. Parasitism is a relationship in
which one organism, (the parasite) benefits from another organisms expense (the
host) which is often harmed but not usually killed. Parasites live and feed on the
most nutritious environments on Earth, which is the bodies of other living

organisms, and cannot complete their life cycle in the absence of the hosts. They
always have a supply or nutrients from the host.

A parasite can be classified into four groups:

Micro parasite: A parasite that is to small to see with the naked eye. These include
plasmodia and trypanosomes.
Macro parasite: A parasite that is easily visible, such as a tape worm.
Endoparasite: A parasite that lives and feeds within the hosts body.
Ectoparasite: A parasite that lives and feeds on the outside of the hosts body, such
as lice.
Social Parasite: A parasite that completes their life cycle by manipulating the social
behavior of their hosts.

Case Study: The Struggle for Survival (pg. 678)

1) In the first experiment, the population of the paramecium population
densities slightly differed. The population density of P. Caudatum had an
exponential increase at first, then a linear increase, then, leveled of to a
stationary phase, when it was carrying capacity at a density of about 125.
The growth of the species demonstrated a logistic growth curve that was
studied in previous chapters. The density of P. Aurelia also displayed a
growth curve, but it reached carrying capacity at a higher density, of 160.
When these two species were grown in combination, The P. Aurelia
population thrived while the P. caudatum population plummeted to
extinction. The Aurelia species competed with the caudatum and the Aurelia
species thrived and grew at an exponential rate, while the caudatum
population first increased but then steadily decreased to extinction. The
graph shows the Aurelia population density increasing to 175, however, the
graph ends before we can see the Aurelia population hit a carrying capacity
phase. In the second experiment, the bursaria population has a steady linear
increase in population density until it reaches a capacity density of 30. When
the caudatum and the bursaria are in the same experiment, the growth of the
bursaria remains the same as it was when it was grown alone. However, the
density of the caudatum is smaller then it was when it was grown alone, and,
rather then it modeling a logistic curve, the density increases in a linear
pattern and slowly caps off at about 68.
2) When the P. caudatum was grown independently, its limit in population
density is about 125. When the P. Aurelia is grown independently, the limit is
160. When the P. caudatum and the P. Aurelia are grown together, the graph
displays the P. Aurelia density reached 175, while the caudatum population

when to 0. In the second test, the density of the P. bursaria reached a limit at
30. When the caudatum and bursaria were combined, the bursaria
maintained a limit of 30 while the caudatum limited at 70.
3) Recalling that exploitative competition is interspecific competition that
involves the consumption of shared resources, by individuals of different
species, where consumption by one species may limit the consumption and
availability of resources to the other. In terms of the interaction between P.
Aurelia, and P. caudatum, there is evidence from the graph that there was
exploitative competition between the two species. The P. Aurelia was the
species that thrived and limited the consumption of resources of the P.
caudatum. Although the density of the Aurelia grew slightly slower then
when it was alone, by the 24th day, it reached the same density as it would if
it was grown alone.
4) Both species were able to thrive and grow at a linear rate until they reached a
maximum density in which the habitat they were in would support. Potential
reasons why both species survived include that they have different resources
they need to survive. It could be that the caudatum and bursaria both have
different diets and both need different resources in order to stay alive, and so
there would not be a competition for resources, but more for space to live.
Another reason why they both survived could be because the two have a
symbiotic relationship. Perhaps they both benefit from one another in the
test tube. The only issue would be space, which is visible in the trend as the
caudatum population caps of at a smaller density then it did when it grew
alone.
5) Paramecium bursaria has a symbiotic relationship with algae. The algae live
inside the paramecium and provide the paramecium with movement and
protection. The algae provide the paramecium with food as well, while the
paramecium provides the algae with shelter. Paramecium bursaria has n
advantage over the other two parameciums because it gets its food supply
from within, and it also has a very vide oral groove which allows it to take
more food in from the outside. The fact that there are algae in the
paramecium explains why this paramecium is always growing constantly,
because there is always a food supply. Paramecium Aurelia has a different
type of advantage compared to the other two paramecium. They are
completely covered in cilia, which help them in movement and feeding. This
paramecium can move very quickly and can intake food rapidly. Paramecium
caudatum is also covered in cilia but not as much in abundance as
paramecium caudatum. Paramecium caudatum is the failing competitor
between paramecium Aurelia.

Lab Exercise 14.4.1:

Hypothesis: It is hypothesized that the white tailed deer population wil be directly
related to the wolf population. As the wolf population increases, the deer population
will decrease.

Deer Population (Top Line) and Wolf Population

(Bottom Line)

SINCE THIS GRAPH DOES NOT DO AN ACCURATE JOB OF REPRESENTING THE

WOLF POPULATION, SEPARATE GRAPHS WERE CREATED BELOW THIS GRAPH
TO SHOW THE POPULATION OF THE WOLF AND DEER MORE ACCURATLY

Population of the White Tailed Deer and the Wolves

over a 10 Year Period of Reducing Deer Population in a
Forest Reserve By Introducing a Wolf Population

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1988

1990

1992

Wolf Population over a

10 Year Period of
Reducing Deer
Population in a Forest
Reserve By Introducing
a Wolf Population

1994
Year

15
10

2500
2000
1500
1000
500

5
0
1985

2000

3000

Population

Population

20

1998

Deer Population over a 10

Year Period of Reducing
Deer Population in a Forest
Reserve By Introducing a
Wolf Population

30
25

1996

1990
1995
Year

2000

0
1985

1990
1995
Year

2000

Analysis:
b) Recal: a limiting factor is any essential resource that is in short supply, or
unavalable in a habitat. Wolf predation would be a limiting factor because in
the year 1997, the wolf populations dropped but deer populations continued
to descend instead of flourishing. In 1992, where there as an increase in wolf
population, there was an increase in deer population as well. There are many
reasons for this trend including that there is too much competition for
resources such as food, space, and water between the deer, and that because
they are two many of them, the food supply would be the limiting factor.
c) Besides the wolf being a predator, other factors that may limit deer
population include the abundance of resources available to the deer, the
reproductive success, or, other predators. Natural influences such as weather
play a role as well, lack of rain, or, too much rain. Humans can indirectly
impact deer population, or directly with hunting.
d) As the population of the deer increased in the first few years, the
population of the wolves suddenly shot up. However, since there were more
wolves now, the population of deer suddenly decreases. Now, there is a
problem for the wolves because there are to many of them and the deer
populations are suddenly decreasing. So, now the wolf populations are
suddenly decreasing as well because there is not enough deer not sustain the
wolf population. Towards the later years, the population of the deer level off
and so do the population of the wolves.
e) There are many ways marine biologist could study fish population and
there numbers. One could estimate the population for the co and compare it
to the population of the seals. These populations can be tracked over time
and would be analyzed. Also, make sure that there is a set number of fish
caught each year not to disturb fishing populations, such as only 1000
pounds a year not to alter data. You can also monitor breeding sights,
although it may be difficult and expensive, or, use devices to calculate the
number of fish in an area each year to see if it increase or decreases. After all
of this is done, compare the numbers of the fish to the numbers of the seal
population. If there is a reduction in seal population and an increase in cod
population, there will be some evidence that the two are related.

Explore an Issue:
The invasive species I have chosen to study is the Asian Long Horn Beetle. In the
following press release, I will highlight all of the components of this explore an
issue and condense it into the press release which will have all of the information
needed.
Press Release:
Ladies and gentle, I am here to you to talk to you about a very important
issue that the Canadian environment faces today. This issue, is the mountain pine
beetle. The Asian Long Horn beetle is an invasive species to Canadian territory and
has devastated forests and wildlife all across Canada. The long horn beetle was
accidently brought over to the west coast of Canada in the mid 1990s, however,
where it came from is uncertain. Analysts have determined that the beetle was first
brought to Canada from Asia in solid wood packaging material. Ever since it spread
into wildlife, it has devastated forests across western Canada. The beetles choose a
host tree, and when they do, they dig dens into the bark and trunks of tree, cutting of
supply systems within the tree, which eventually kills the tree. A swarm of Asian
long horn beetles have been done to kill a fully-grown broad leaf tree such as a
maple tree in less then a month. These beetles also infuse their larvae within a tree,
which decrease the wood quality of the tree. The beetles have had a huge impact on
forest across Canada, and because of this, it has affected other wild life and local
economies, which we will discuss about now. In the wildlife in the forests, the
beetles have devastated trees which shelter several types of species. With the loss of
home for certain species, it has made it easier for other animals who feed of the
animals that live in the maple trees to find their prey easier, so therefore, the beetle
has effected predation levels in a forest and has made them larger then usual. One
squirrel species in particular, the Sciurus carolinensis, only shelters in maples trees.
With the reduction of maple trees, particularly in Alberta, the squirrels have fewer
trees to shelter themselves in and so they have been an easier target by pray,
specifically red foxes. The beetle has also effected competition amongst various
animals in forested areas, specifically for hawks. A squirrel is the main source of
food for hawks that live in Alberta, and this is because the Hawks have the
advantage of picking squirrels out of trees rather then swooping down on the
ground. Because squirrels are now forced to leave trees due the beetles, other
predators that prey on squirrels have a better advantage of killing them then the
hawk which impacts the competition on the squirrels by the several different
animals that feed on them. In regards to the impact on the economy, the beetles
have devastated mainly maples trees. The larvae the beetle produce damage the
wood in maple trees and also affect maple syrup production. Trees that have been
invested with the beetles have been reported to produce little if no maple syrup
because the larvae damages the flow of syrup. Also, beetles dig dens into the trees
which weekend them and create holes in trees, so when a tree is chopped down to
be harvested for whatever reason, the wood quality is very weak and cannot be used
for anything besides for burning. The even larger issue is that the beetle has no
natural predator here in Canada. The beetle population is continually increasing and
every year it affects more and more trees. The easier way to reduce their numbers

with human intervention is to set fire to any tree they have infested, however, this
method is not very effective because the beetles are fond in heavily dense forests, so
lighting one tree on fire may have huge risks. Another solution may be to cut down
the trees they have infested, transport them somewhere clear of forests, and burn
them, but cut down process cant still allow for beetles to escape to knew host trees.
In conclusion, the Asian Long Horn beetle is a severe threat to the wild life here in
Canada. For years it has devastated wildlife and has impacted local economies all
across Canada with the destruction of leafed trees all across the nation.

Chapter 14.4 Questions: (1-7)

1) A: The argentine ants display exploitative competition because they are
depleting resources.
B: The plants display interference competition because they use the toxins as
aggression to keep away other plants
C: The mangabey monkeys are driving away the smaller blue monkeys
through aggression, hence it is interference competition.
D: The hawks and owls display exploitative competition because they are
sharing resources and competing for them at different times.
2) Studies have shown that there is competition between Balanus and
Chthamalus. The species Chthamalus could cover an entire rock on its own,
but when Balanus takes over the rock, Chthamalus is only restricted to a
small portion of the rock because A, it is smaller, and B, Balanus is more
aggressive. In terms of niches, the rock would be Chthamalus fundamental
niche if the balanus was not present, because it could cover the entire rock
under ideal conditions, but Chthamalus is then transitioned into its realized
niche, which is its realistic niche that is uses under the prevailing conditions,
this case being that Balanus takes over the rock and is forcing the
Chthamalus to a small section of it.
3) The star fish Pisaster includes mussels in its diet. When there are mussels in
the same area as the pisaster, the pisaster feeds on the mussels and so there
populations increase. The reason there would be more marine invertebrate,
such as crabs and lobsters, where muscle and pisaster lives is because that
the invertebrates include the starfish in their diet, so more mussels means
more starfish, which means more invertebrate are around to eat the starfish
which decrease the competition because there is more starfish available to
the invertebrates.
4) Character displacement is the circumstance between two species of the same
kind where when they inhabit that same geographical area, they have different
features, but when they are in different geological areas, they have similar features.
Character displacement can be seen between the two finches. When they are on the
same island, there beaks are different sizes. This may be that because the two
species of finches have different types of food they consume and different prey that
are local to that island they both live on. Or, that the one finch is more dominant

then the other so its beak size evolves to be larger to be able to hold more food in its
mouth. When they are separated, the completion goes away and so the beak sizes
become almost identical.
5) The tiger moth is using cryptic coloration, which is camouflage, to make
themselves undetectable against tree bark. The ladybug uses an active
defense system against the ants, which requires more energy then a passive
defense system.
6) Predation is an ecological interaction where a predator of one species
catches and kills a prey of another species. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic
relationship where one organism of one species, the parasite, benefits at the
expense of another species, which is the host. The host is often harmed and
the relationship can be fatal. Therefore, predation is a type of interaction
while parasitism is a type of relationship. Both are harmful and fatal.
7) The type of relationship between the termites and the zoomastigotes is a
symbiotic relationship because the two species live together. To be more
specific, since the termite is benefiting off the zoomastigotes, the relationship
can be categorized as commensalism, where one species benefits form
another species and the other organism, being the zoomastigote, is
unaffected.