Chapter 1 Review of Mathematics Prior to studying this introductory physics course, a student should have completed high schoo! courses in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Students should have as a minimum been studying calculus concurrently. By the second half of the course students should understand the basics of integral calculus. Most difficulties encountered in studying physics result from inadequate preparation in mathematics, so students should review this chapter if they have a weak background. Lay SYMBOLS, SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES It is important that you learn to use symbols, rather than numerical values, in doing calculations. Letters near the end of the alphabet, such as bmeans ais greater than b, and a > b means ais greater than or equal to b. a > b means a is much greater than b. @ is used here because it corresponds to the letter S, which stands for “sum.” Very large and very small numbers are most conveniently expressed in scientific notation, as illustrated by the following examples:2 REVIEW OF MATHEMATICS {CHAP 1 10° = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 108 = 100,000 2 1 a 10? = Fy = 0.01 10 00,005 = 9.00001 275, 000 = 2.75 x 100,000 = 2.75 x 105 0.0032 = 3.2 x 0.001 = 3.2 x 10-8 ‘When powers of 10 are multiplied, the exponents are added, and when they are divided, the exponents are subtracted. 0" 10” x 10" = 10" and iow aD Thus (2.75 x 105)(2 x 102) = (2.75 x 2)(105 x 102) = 5.50 x 107 (4.02 x 10)(3.00 x 10-7) = 12.06 x 10-4 (1.206 x 10!)(10~4) = 1.206 x 10-3 Any number raised to the zero power is equal to one; that is, x° = 1. When a number x is first raised to the n" power, and then is raised to the power, the result is (x)"" =x", — Thus, (22)° = 43 = 64 = 26. When quantities are measured, there is usually some error involved. The number of digits whose values are known with certainty is the number of significant figures. For example, if the length of a room is measured to be 4.13 meters, this means there can be uncertainty in the third decimal place; that is, the exact length may be 4.134 m, 4.133 m, 4.131 m, etc. Thus I say that 4.13 contains three significant figures. If a zero is given as the last digit to the right of the decimal point, it is significant. Thus 4.130 m contains four significant figures. When no decimal point is given, some confusion can arise. ‘Thus 400 contains only one significant figure. The number 4040 contains three significant figures. The number of significant figures is made clear by using scientific notation. ‘Thus 4,00 x 10 contains three significant figures. Do not confuse significant figures with decimal places. For example, consider measurements yielding 2.46 seconds, 24.6 seconds, and 0.00246 second, These have two, one, and five decimal places, but all have three significant figures. If a number is written with no decimal point, assume infinite accuracy; for example, 12 means 12.000 ---. When two or more numbers are used in a calculation, the number of signifi- cant figures in the final answer is limited by the number of significant figures in the original data. For example, if the dimensions of a plot of ground are measured to be 40.2 m x 18.9m, the area of the plot is, using your calculator, (40.2 m\(18.9 m) = 759.78 m2. But since the dimensions are known to only three significant figures, the area cannot be known to more than three figures (not the fiveCHAP. 1] REVIEW OF MATHEMATICS 3 indicated by 759.78). Thus we must round the answer off to three significant figures, that is, 760 m?. In general, when numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of significant figures in the answer equals the smallest number of significant figures in any of the original factors. Similar considerations apply when adding or subtracting numbers. The answer cannot be more accurate than any of the individual numbers added. Thus 12.0-+ 1.665 1 2.0211 yields 15.6861. But 12.0 is known only to three significant figures, so the answer is not accurate to more than three significant figures, and we round it to 15.7. When numbers are added or subtracted, the last significant figure in the answer is in the last column containing a number that results from a combination of numbers that are all significant. EXERCISES: Verify the following using your calculator and scientific notation: LL (2600)(0.00120)(5.11 x 10-°) = 1.59 x 10% 1 4 7 in '3 12 a + Be — wg = 257x 10 13 [16 + (246) | = 3.16 3.75 x 10-* + 0.00017 2 4 375X107" + 0.00017 . 14 “Toor + axa 41 10 1s (3.28 x 10-?)(4.66 x 10%) _ = Wy V3 _ 1.6 Go AOS x 10) HOTS 60 10r = 87x10 1.7 [16 + (246)")"? = 3.16 (4)(36) — (9.3)? = s STBxo-® = 20% 10 12 ALGEBRA It will be necessary to solve equations in order to obtain an explicit expression for an unknown quantity we wish to know. The guiding principle is this: Whatever is done on one side of an equation must be done on the other side as well. Thus we may take the square root of both sides, or raise both sides to a power, or add or subtract the same quantity to each side, or multiply or divide each side by the same quantity. WARNING: t0. This process is not defined. For example, suppose we want to solve — +1/2 at’ for t. First subtract upt from both sides. Then 1/2 at? = x — ut. Next multiply both sides by 2: at® = 2x — 2upt Next divide both sides by a: = 2 — 2eut @ Next take the square root of each side to obtain the final answer: ¢ = (2£ — 2ust )'?