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Rachel M. Rose
Professor Wallace
World Cultures III
14 Oct. 2013
Self-Meaning in Rembrandt and Kant
In reading Immanuel Kants What Is Enlightenment and comparing it with proposed
theories on the background of Rembrandt Van Rijn as written in Rembrandts Biblical Roles
by H. Perry Chapman, one may see that though one may be philosopher, and the other a
painter, they held similar ideas regarding self-understanding.
The opening line of Kants essay in the English translation states, Enlightenment is
mans release from his self-incurred tutelage (53). This means that enlightenment causes a
person to free himself from the chains of an overseer or ruler. As powerful as this may be, let
us examine it again in the original German. Aufklrung ist der Ausgang des Menschen aus
seiner selbstverschuldeten Unmndigkeit. Literally, enlightenment is the exit of the people
from their self-inflicted period of immaturity. This differs somewhat from the English
translation in that it is saying that unenlightened people believe themselves to be incapable or
lacking the maturity to rule over their own minds. They think that they do not have the
sagacity to do so, and thus, leave it up to others to do the ruling over them, however just or
unjust those overlords may be. Kant is challenging the reader to take grasp of that
knowledge, and in doing so, reach a point of maturity great enough for him to think and do
for himself.
The life of Rembrandt Van Rijn parallels this exhortation. Rather than conforming to
a specific sect of Christianity, Rembrandt chose to define his own faith, and therefore, his
self-understanding through personal readings and determinations of the scripture,
communicated through his artwork. Chapman states that at the time of Rembrandt, it was
most popular to paint biblical scenes containing large numbers of important biblical
characters. However, most of Rembrandts paintings contain only one or two figures. In this

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way, he is able to focus on the facial features of the characters, giving them expressions of
greater depth. This is being said particularly in examining Self-Portrait as the Apostle Paul.
Chapman nearly summarizes the entirety of the Enlightenment movement in describing this
picture, saying that the eyes, forehead, and eyebrows depict a thoughtful, questioning mind
(42) as the mouth shows a certain degree of uncertainty. Much like so many people during
the Age of Enlightenment, Rembrandt wanted to know and to think for himself, yet he
betrays that he has some doubts if he may be able to do it. Kant describes these emotions,
saying, Whoever throws [the fetters of an everlasting tutelage] off makes only an uncertain
leap over the narrowest ditch because he is not accustomed to that kind of free motion (53).
In other words, although it is not actually that difficult, beginning to think for oneself appears
terribly difficult because one has never before done it.
A key element facilitating the enlightened thoughts of both Kant and Rembrandt was
tolerant government. Unlike many other philosophers of his day, Kant champions the
enlightened absolute monarch, referring specifically to Frederick the Great, Emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire, and King of Prussia. He refers to him several times in his essay,
equating the Age of Enlightenment with the Century of Frederick (Kant 55) and saying,
Only one prince in the world says, Argue as much as you will, but obey! (53). Having
lived under a strong government that allowed freedom to express ones own opinion, Kant
wrote that this was the best sort of government and that too much freedom led men to
stupidity. This is an echo of Platos Republic in which Socrates gives a very poor opinion of
democracy, saying that too much freedom leads men to become freedom hungry and unjustly
revolutionary toward the government.
Similarly, in the Netherlands, Rembrandt experienced a similarly enlightened
government which allowed a large degree of religious tolerance. This may be seen easily in
the variety of people who were the subjects of Rembrandts portraits, including Mennonites,
Calvinists, Catholics, and even a Jewish Rabbi. Although Rembrandt has documented

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connections with the Reformed Church, many historians believe him to have been a
freethinking non-church-goer or libertine (Chapman 41).
Chapman also noted in his essay that the people of the seventeenth century
Netherlands cared less about the artists religious affiliation than about his talent and fame
(41). Such being the general state of affairs is reflected in many of Rembrandts paintings on
religious scenes. Try as historians may, they have been relatively unsuccessful at deducing
Rembrandts specific denomination of religious faith by examination of his paintings other
than classifying them as consistent with the beliefs of mainstream Dutch Protestantism
(Chapman 42).
Likewise, Kant encourages his readers not to allow the Church to be their sole guide
in all matters. Rather, to discern truth for themselves. He says of religion, If I have a book
which understands for me, a pastor who has a conscience for meI need not trouble myself
(Kant 53). He is warning against blindly following religion and of those who would pervert
religion to lead man down a dark and unperceiving path. He also warns of religious societies
and conferences which would obligate [themselves] by oath to a certain unchangeable
symbol in order to enjoy an unceasing guardianship over each of its members and thereby
over the people as a whole (Kant 54). There are many examples of this in religious
organizations in modern society as with the Roman Catholic Church banning the use of birth
control or the Southern Baptist Associations stance against gay marriage.
Kant wrote his essay in 1784, stating that society had yet to reach its enlightened age,
but was moving slowly toward it. Many would like to think that by 2013, human society may
have reached that goal, but it is strikingly apparent that we are not even close. However,
perhaps it may be the case that man will never reach the Enlightened Age, but will instead
tread an asymptotic path, coming ever nearer to Enlightenment but never actually touching it.
As may be seen through Rembrandts extraordinary life, coming to enlightenment is a
slow and tedious process requiring much effort and discernment of self. Rembrandt found
his realization of this in the over seventy-five self-portraits he created of himself, trying on

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the both literal and metaphorical hats of important personas of his day. It did not matter that
he may not have looked even remotely like the original subject; what really mattered was if
he could find elements of himself in the different, depicted personas. Most particularly, he
found himself in the Apostle Paul, a near religious celebrity in Dutch Protestantism of the
time. Through personal reading and interpretation of the scripture, Rembrandt likened Pauls
journey from violent sinner to theologian to his own lifes journey.
Although Kant does not describe his personal faith in his essay, he does have a good
deal to say about the nature of religion. Like Rembrandt, he encourages self-interpretation
and reading of not only the Scriptures, but all books. He saw the importance of not allowing
petty quarrels of man manifested in religion to hinder personal and societal progress.
Both Rembrandt and Kant envisioned a world uninhibited by governmental and
religious censorship, in which a man may think and learn what he wishes, even be who he
wishes, becoming the better for it. Kant appears to this reader to have discovered his selfidentity a little before the rest of his generation and hoped to pass along his knowledge so that
all may find themselves. It took Rembrandt the process of a lifetime to discover who he was
through his work and we will never know if that process was ever even completed. What we
do know is that self-understand is the key to personal enlightenment and growth. It is the key
to reaching an internal maturity few of us will ever fully grasp. It is the force which causes
us to create our own paths, trudging ever nearer to enlightenment.