Age 10701

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Introduction To Geology
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Geology
File Reference: AGE10701
For additional information on this subject, contact

J.L. McKissack on 874-2514
Geology
Introduction to Geology
CONTENTS
PAGES
GEOLOGY ............................................................................................................1
The Nature and Scope of Geology .............................................................1
Early Geology.............................................................................................1
Types of Geology .......................................................................................5
Formation of the Earth................................................................................5
PARTS OF THE EARTH ......................................................................................6
Atmosphere ................................................................................................6
Hydrosphere ...............................................................................................8
Biosphere....................................................................................................8
Lithosphere...............................................................................................10
Continental Masses...................................................................................13
The Mantle ...............................................................................................13
The Core...................................................................................................13
THE ROCK CYCLE............................................................................................19
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH........................................................................19
The Ocean Floor.......................................................................................19
Continental Drift/Continental Jigsaw Puzzle............................................21
Seafloor Spreading ...................................................................................23
Polar Movement .......................................................................................23
Geology
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES .............................................................................27

Erosion .....................................................................................................27
Tectonism .................................................................................................36
Volcanism.................................................................................................38
Earthquakes ..............................................................................................44
Effects Of Earth Movement......................................................................45
WORK AID #1 ....................................................................................................49
WORK AID #2 ....................................................................................................50
WORK AID #3 ....................................................................................................51
WORK AID #4 ....................................................................................................53
WORK AID #5 ....................................................................................................54
WORK AID #6 ....................................................................................................55
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................56
Geology
GEOLOGY
The Nature and Scope of Geology
The word geology is from the Greek. Geo means earth and logos means discourse. Geology
deals with the origin, structure and history of the earth recorded in the rocks. The challenge
to geologists is to learn more about the earth we live on. This is done by studying events of
millions of years ago in order to relate them to events of today.
The earth is important to everyone. Products from the soil feed the people. This soil is
formed through geological processes. Gasoline and oil run the cars. Oil and other products
are from prehistoric plants and animals. Modern industry could not have developed without
the products formed by geological processes.
Early Geology
Early geologists began the study of the earth. They examined all types of earth features such
as hills, mountains, valleys, rivers, rocks and fossils to determine the processes that formed
them and when it happened. This type of study separated the events of the past from the
events of today. Modern geology began when Nicolaus Steno used inductive reasoning in the
study of the earth. Steno showed that different earth features such as crystals, shells and some
rocks were different products of the same process of deposition of solid matter from fluid.
From this, Steno inferred that it should be possible to determine the order or sequence in
which the various parts of each solid substance came into being. The concept became known
as the law of sequence. This concept is an accepted generalization in geology today. The
concept or law states that "The record of an event or sequence of events surrounds, is
impressed upon the record of earlier events or sequence of events." Use of this generalization
makes it possible to establish a relative order of when specific earth features came into being.
Figure 1 is a diagram of how the law of sequence applies. Layer A is older than layer B.
Layer B is older than Layer C. This is a simplification since no other events have happened.
These events are slow events. They take many thousand or millions of years to occur. This
sequence could be overturned or upset by a geological event such as earthquake or volcanic
eruption. These geological events are just as important as those that take millions of years.
Geology
The law of sequence explains the order of events. It does not explain how and why. Modern
answers as to the origin of geological features is the work of James Hutton in the 1700's.
Hutton did much observation of rocks. He believed that the same geological processes of
today have been going on since the earth began. This conclusion has become known as the
principal of uniformity of process. This principal states that understanding today's processes
and their results helps to understand the earth's features produced in the past.
The processes are the same. The rate of the process may not be the same now as in the past.
Scientists believe that streams erode faster now because continents are higher above sea level.
The extent of change may be different. In the past, oceans dried up and left thousands of
miles of thick beds of salt. Now this happens in only a few places in desert areas. The
processes remain the same, but the rate and scale vary greatly over time.
Geology
A IS OLDER THAN B
B
IS OLDER THAN C
IS OLDER THAN E
IS OLDER THAN E
LIES ON TOP OF D AT VALLEY G
LAW OF SEQUENCE
FIGURE 1
Geology
Another significant development was the work done in Europe which stated that the crust of
Europe could be divided into four parts or sequences stacked on top of each other. Figure 2
illustrates a cross section of this rock crust. A is the oldest layer composed of igneous and
metamorphic rock. B is an over-laying thick dark layer of sedimentary rock with few fossils.
C is a flat, slightly deformed layer of sedimentary rock. D is the surface layer overspread by
loose and weak cemented sand, gravel and clay with many beautiful, well-preserved fossils.
The geologists concluded that since the crust of Europe was like this, the whole world could
be divided into four sequences. This led to the division of geological time into four parts.
Today, geologists examine rocks in the four parts very carefully.
In 1799, William Smith recognized that a layer could be distinguished from the layer above
and below by the type of fossils present in the layer. This was the key element in the
development of geological time. At the same time two French scientists were developing the
same information. These two studies lend to the development of fossil correlation charts as
shown in Figure 3. Certain fossils such as X,Y, and Z are index fossils because they occur in
different layers or strata. The clam at C is not a good index because it appears in all layers.
From these studies come stratographic column section maps. An example is the area studied
by Guvier in France shown in Figure 4.
Geological time and absolute time are not the same. Geological time is a relative period of
time. It is based on the time when certain fossils lived. This is called a period by a geologist.
It is relative. Very few absolute times can be established. Therefore, geologists say an event
happened during a certain period, not 500 million years ago, which is absolute.
Finally, geological events can be interrupted, as stated before. Any event imaginable could
happen in geological time . The time span is so long that any event that is physically possible
becomes likely to happen or has happened in the past. Storms of 31 inches of rain would be
almost impossible in our lifetime. Yet, it happened in 1969 in an eight hour rainstorm in the
U.S.A.
Animals and fossils have been found thousands of miles from where they should be. So in
the geological study of the earth, we must include catastrophic events that could have
happened. The only ones excluded are those that are physically impossible no matter how
much time is allowed. Examples of this would be like stating that "all rock was made through
precipitation of oceans" or that "some formations are caused by water that flows uphill."
These events are impossible and could not happen.
Geology
Types of Geology
There are two types of geology: physical geology and historical geology.
Historical geology studies the history of man by examining layers of the earth.
Physical geology studies the planet earth, the materials in the earth, and how the material of
the earth are changed by forces acting upon them.
This course will study physical geology.
Formation of the Earth
There are a number of theories to explain the formation of the earth. These theories are not
the focus of this module. Most scientists now accept the "big bang" theory that an explosion
occurred in space. This produced atoms forming different elements. Shock waves from the
explosion caused cold clouds of dust and gas to condense into dense, smaller clouds where
complete molecules were formed. Gravitational attraction produced the sun and planets.
Dust and debris kept growing into larger clumps. These clumps eventually formed the earth.
Compression caused by gravitation produced great internal heat and pressure. Gravity sorted
out the elements of the earth, as shown in Figure 5. Heavy elements were drawn to the
middle of the earth. Lighter elements and compounds collected near the surface. The lightest
element was an outer film of gases. The main constituents may have been water vapor and
carbon dioxide. A chemical reaction probably created free oxygen and nitrogen, and the
atmosphere was made. Lighter gases rose to the atmosphere during the cooling process. Rain
developed out of the warming of the gases, and moisture fell back to the earth.
Thus began the cycle of life. We exist because our earth gives us life. Our earth exists
because of these life forms.
Geology
PARTS OF THE EARTH

The earth is divided into four parts or spheres.
The four parts are:
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere
As the earth cooled and magnetic action separated the elements, the atmosphere was made. A
thin layer of gases and water vapor escaped into the air and formed oxygen. The oxygen in
our atmosphere allowed life to form. Rain fell causing plants to grow. Plants gave off more
oxygen and absorbed the carbon dioxide given off by animal life. Each sustained the other.
Gases continued to flow into the atmosphere until the present time. Nitrogen is absorbed by
the soil, which was formed by dead plants and animals. Nitrogen is used by the plants. Rain
helps the plants to grow and erodes the soil to make more soil. The life cycle of the earth
would be impossible without the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is the area above the earth, which contains the free gases. It goes hundreds of
miles up and extends around the entire earth. It is made of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide. The predominant gases are nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (20 percent).
These gases make life on earth possible. Figure 6 shows how the atmosphere forms as cover
for the earth This cover protects the earth from the heat of the sun. The atmosphere causes
meteors to burn before hitting the earth. Rain could not occur without the atmosphere around
the earth. The atmosphere causes weathering. Weathering is one of the processes of
geological change.
Geology
ATMOSPHERE
PARTS OF THE EARTH
FIGURE 6
Geology
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere started with the first drop of water vapor. At one time the planet earth was
a hot mass. As gases were released from the eruptions, water vapor was also released. This
process is known as outgassing. Most geologists believe the water released from the process
caused the seas. These vapors also produced rain. Rain contained chemicals which helped
weather the bedrock to form soil. Some water remained on the surface. Eventually small
plants and animals were able to live in the water. Later these plants and animals were able to
move to land as the soil grew, and the oxygen content of the atmosphere increased. The water
became a part of the geological process. As the continents rose higher, accumulated water
started running downhill to form rivers and streams, which caused further erosion and made
more soil.
The hydrosphere is shown at Figure 7. The hydrosphere includes all the waters of the earth.
The oceans, lakes, rivers, and ground water are all parts of the hydrosphere. Most of the
hydrosphere is in the oceans. The oceans cover about 70 percent of the earth's surface. The
oceans are an average of about 2 1/2 miles deep.
The hydrosphere is as important to the geological processes of today, as it was in the
beginning. Running water, ground water, and oceans causes physical and chemical changes
in the earth. These changes replenish the earth.
Biosphere
As the earth cooled and gases formed the atmosphere and hydrosphere, small plants and
animals began to grow in the water. These small plants and animals formed the original
biosphere. As more oxygen became available and the plant and animal life increased, they
moved to land. Life forms became more complete until finally the biosphere formed as we
know it today. Man appeared and became the dominant animal. Other animals and plants
disappeared for various reasons. These ancient life forms, buried in layers of earth, allow us
to study the past.
Elements of the biosphere are shown in Figure 8. The earth has millions of plants and
animals. The air and water mixture of the earth gives life to these plants and animals. All of
these living things (organic life) make up the biosphere. Dead plants and animals are called
organic material. Minerals that are not made of organic material are called inorganic.
Minerals, such as iron, are inorganic minerals.
Geology
HYDROSPHERE
Nile Delta
Dead Sea
Eu
ph
ra
te
s
The
Gulf
Nile River
Egypt
Saudi Arabia
ea
dS
Re
Indian Ocean
Ethiopia
HYDROSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
FIGURE 7
Geology
Lithosphere
The earth was mainly formed of molten material. The spinning motion of the earth created
compression and gravitational pull. As the earth continued to cool, heavier elements, such as
iron, were drawn to the center and lighter elements were redistributed to the surface in the
form of magma. This magma carried with it the light and volatile elements. This made it
possible for a crust to form on the earth. Heat from the lower mantle caused plates of crust to
move. As all of the elements interacted with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere, the
continents began to form.
The lithosphere is shown in Figure 9. The lithosphere is the solid part of the earth. Rocks
and minerals are parts of the lithosphere. These rocks and minerals form the continental lands
and the ocean basins. Changes in the structure of the land occur in the lithosphere. Figure 9
shows the various parts of the lithosphere where these changes occur. The parts are the crust,
mantle and core.
The Crust
The crust is the upper layer of the earth where most things grow. This layer is about 4 miles
thick under the ocean and about 40 miles thick under the mountains. The rock in this layer
weighs less than rock in the lower layers of the earth. Minerals, oil, and building material
come from this layer.
The crustal elements are shown in the pie chart in Figure 10. The elements are as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Oxygen
46.6%
Silicone
27.72%
Aluminum
8.13%
Iron
5.0%
Calcium
3.63%
Sodium
2.83%
Potassium
2.59%
Magnesium
2.09%
Other Elements 1.41%
The crust is further divided into two more parts:
Continental Masses
Ocean Basins
10
Geology
CORE
MANTLE
CRUST
LITHOSPHERE
EARTH
EARTH
FIGURE 9
11
Geology
B
A
C
D
G H
MAJOR ELEMENTS AND AMOUNTS
FIGURE 10
12
Geology
Continental Masses
The Continental masses are shown in Figure 11. The continents are rocky masses that cover
about 29 percent of the earth's surface. The continents are composed mostly of granite rock.
The average height is about three miles above the ocean floor. The continental masses are an
average height of 1/2 mile above sea level. The continental masses extend into the oceans.
This area under the ocean is divided into two parts. These parts are the continental shelf and
the continental slope.
Continental Shelf
The Continental shelf is the part of the crust that joins the land surface. Figure 12 shows the
continental shelf. It is mostly flat. It may be slightly sloped to about 0.1 degree. The shelf is
covered with water and extends to a depth of about 200 meters.
Continental Slope
The continental slope is a downward feature in the earth's crust. It is inclined about 3 to 6
degrees. This slope is found between the continental shelf and the deep part of the ocean.
The continental slope is shown in Figure 12.
The Mantle
The mantle of the earth is shown in Figures 13 and 14. It is the part of the earth that is
between the crust and the core. The mantle is composed of rock layers about 1,800 miles
thick. The rock in the mantle is much heavier than the rock in the crust. Parts of this layer
are partially melted. This melted rock may flow slowly from space to space. Melted rock in
the earth is known as magma rock. This magma rock sometimes finds a path through the
crust as lava from a volcano. This type of rock will be discussed later.
The Core
The area at the center of the earth, where gravity is centered, is called the core.
The core of the earth was formed from the heavy elements as the earth's spinning motion
caused gravity in the center of the earth's molten mass. These heavy elements magnetized in
the process and formed gravity in the earth. As the earth cooled and magnetic metals were
trapped in the center, it formed the earth's gravitational field. This gravitational field caused
water to collect in oceans and water to run downhill. Without gravity, there would be no
earth as we know it today.
The core of the earth is further divided into the outer and inner core.
13
Geology
CONTINENT
OCEAN BASIN
CONTINENTAL
SLOPE
CONTINENTAL
SHELF
SEA LEVEL
OCEAN
FIGURE 12
14
Geology
MANTLE
EARTH
FIGURE 13
15
Geology
CONTINENT
OCEAN BASIN
CONTINENTAL
SLOPE
CONTINENTAL
SHELF
SEA LEVEL
OCEAN
MANTLE
FIGURE 14
16
Geology
The Outer Core
The outer core is a layer of dense molten rock. The outer core is between the mantle and the
inner core, as shown in Figure 15. The outer core is about 1,400 miles thick. This core is
mostly iron and nickle, the heavy metals.
The Inner Core
The inner core is a solid ball about 1,540 miles across. The temperature of the core is 3,700
degrees centigrade. The pressure around the inner core keeps the core from melting.
Geologists disagree on this part of the lithosphere. Information is scarce because the inner
core is difficult to test. The inner core is shown an Figure 15.
17
Geology
INNER CORE
OUTER CORE
FIGURE 15
18
Geology
THE ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle describes the changes that rocks go through. There are three types of rocks:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. These types of rock will be covered in depth in a
later module. These rocks are part of the rock cycle. Any of these rocks can be changed from
one type to another in this cycle. This concept makes the rock cycle very important to the
earth's balance.
Figure 16 illustrates how the rock cycle works. Igneous rock are worn away by erosion and
deposited as sediment. This sediment later becomes sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock
may be changed, by forces, into metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock may undergo change
through heat and pressure within the earth and become molten. This molten material within
the earth is called magma. Igneous rock is formed when magma cools and hardens.
The cycle continues until interrupted by outside forces. The starting point of the cycle is
magma which is the most important part of the cycle. The geological processes that have
been covered are a part of the rock cycle. Erosion makes sediment. Tectonic movement
redistributes rocks into the earth. Magma is made from these rocks. Volcanism brings the
magma back to the surface to make igneous rock. The cycle keeps going in this manner.
MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH
Movements of the earth are an important part of the rock cycle. How do scientists know that
the earth is moving? Examination of the ocean floor, continental drift and polar movement
hold the key.
The Ocean Floor
The make-up of the ocean floor is important to our understanding of plate tectonics. Look at
the profile in Figure 17. Only the most important features are illustrated. The continental
shelf and the continental slope have already been discussed. Submarine canyons are deep
canyons that are cut by rivers flowing back to the sea.
Spreading ridges are submarine mountain chains.
Trenches are deep, steep-sided troughs running through the ocean's plains.
Abyssal plains are sediment-covered, deep sea plains about 1,500 feet below sea level.
Island arc is a curved row of volcanic islands usually on the continental side of the trench.
19
Geology
START
MAGMA
Me
ltin
g
RPH
AMO
MET OCKS
R
IGN
EO
ROC US
KS
N
IO
AT
Z
I
LL
TA
S
Y
CR
AMO
RPH
ISM
Weathering
IC
MET
n
sio on
Ero ortati
nsp
Tra
Y
AR
NT S
E
K
M
DI OC
SE R
SE
DI
ME
NT
S
Lithification
CYCLE MAY BE INTERRUPTED
ROCK CYCLE
FIGURE 16
20
Geology
The theory of tectonism relies on other concepts for its explanation. Two of these concepts
are seafloor spreading and continental drift. These concepts help to explain volcanos and
earthquakes. These concepts also help explain folds in the earth called mountain ranges.
Continental Drift/Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
Continental drift is evident. The continents have moved throughout time. Figure 18 shows
the continents when they were joined together. Figure 19 is a global view of how today's
continents would fit like a jigsaw puzzle. The continental shelf must be included for the parts
of the puzzle to fit. Figure 20 shows the current continents with continental shelves and
slopes shaded. Scientists cite this jigsaw puzzle effect as evidence of continental drift.
21
Geology
NORTH POLE
LAURASIA
EQUATOR
GONDWANALAND
SOUTH POLE
ANCIENT EARTH
FIGURE 18
22
Geology
Seafloor Spreading
Continental drift is also evident from the study of the bottom of the sea. Marine geologists
have found that submarine mountain chains give much information. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
is a 10,000 mile undersea mountain range. This range starts at the southern tip of Africa and
ends at Iceland.
This ridge illustrates how continents drift. The ocean floor near the drift moves. Figure 21
shows this concept. A deep rift or trench runs along the top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
rift causes volcanic activity beneath the ridge. Lava flows out of the central rift running down
the sides of the ridge. The volcanic eruptions cause pressure. The pressure of the flowing
lava pushes the sides of the trench farther apart. The lava is older at a point farther away from
the trench. The result is a series of lava bands. Each band is older than the band between it
and the trench. Many fractures and openings in the crust occur. The crust is soft and easily
deformed. This concept of the opening and widening of the seafloor is called seafloor
spreading. Many of the fractures are 90 to the main fracture. These fractures are called
transform faults. The lava flows, and transform faults are indications that the seafloor is
constantly changing. The continents are being pushed away from the ridge. The Pacific
Ocean basin is becoming smaller. Scientists believe that the extra rock material in the Pacific
is being forced downward through subduction zones. Figure 22 illustrates these subduction
zones.
Polar Movement
Scientific study indicates that the magnetic poles of the earth have changed locations over
time. The rocks in the earth have small pieces of magnetic iron. Magnetic iron in rock has
the same polarity as when it was formed. The rock keeps the same polarity throughout life.
Scientists have found that rocks along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have different magnetic pull or
polarity. The magnetic field of older rock points in a different direction than younger rock.
The directions may be different from the present position of the poles. Figure 23 illustrates
how the poles have moved. Figure 24 illustrates the different polarity of each layer of rock
formed along the ridge.
Scientists know from these observations that the earth's surface has been in motion over time
and is still moving.
23
Geology
SEA LEVEL
+
+ + + +
+
es
eas
r
c
n
or i
a flo
e
s
of
Age
Age
of
+ ++ + +
+ + +
sea
floor
incre
ases
ASTHENOSPHERE
RIFT IN MID - OCEAN RIDGE
FIGURE 21
24
Geology
PERU - CHILE
TRENCH
ANDES MOUNTAINS
PACIFIC OCEAN
CONTINENTAL
CRUST
OCEANIC
CR
US
T
MANTLE
BENIOFF
ZONE
EARTHQUAKES
SUBDUCTION ZONE
FIGURE 22
25
Geology
A. ROCKS AT1 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY
B. ROCKS AT 2 HAVE REVERSED POLARITY
C. ROCKS AT 3 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY AGAIN
POLARITY OF MATERIALS IN
SEAFLOOR SPREADING
FIGURE 24
26
Geology
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Changes in the geology of the earth have occurred throughout time. The Grand Canyon in the
United States is an example of this change. The Great Sahara Desert and the Arabian
Peninsula are examples of changes in the earth caused by geological processes. These
geological processes are:
Erosion
Tectonism
Volcanism
Erosion
The process of erosion includes several types of erosion such as erosion by water, wind, ice
movement, weathering and mass movements.
Water Erosion
Water erosion is caused by running water in streams and rivers. Erosion is also caused by
oceans, lakes and ground water. Running water is the most important of all types of erosion.
Streams and rivers gouge out the earth as they run downhill. This earth is eroded and moved
to new locations. This process replenishes the earth and is always remaking itself.
Due to gravity, streams and rivers start in the high areas and flow downhill. This process
moves huge amounts of material and deposits it in to lower areas. This keeps the valleys
fertile. Erosion can change mountains into hills and flat land into valleys. Rivers drain about
70 percent of the dry land. Rivers carry about 20 billion tons of material to the sea each year.
The rivers flow fast in the mountains. This fast running water cuts deep river valleys. Rivers
in the lower regions run slower and eat away at the soft banks causing them to widen.
Figure 25 shows the profile of a stream. Notice the valley profile at a, b and c.
Ground Water
Ground water circulates downward because of gravity. The ground has open spaces or pores
which fill from the bottom up. Chemicals made by natural reactions mix with this ground
water to corrode and erode the rock in the ground. This type of erosion ensures a steady
supply of mantle and crystal rock. Figure 26 illustrates ground water erosion.
27
Geology
Oceans Erosion
The ocean is constantly changing the shore line around it. The movement of the ocean erodes
the land. Some of the land is deposited on shore; some on the beach. Land is also taken far
out to sea. This land keeps the sea bottom replenished. Figure 27 illustrates ocean erosion.
28
Geology
SINKHOLE
CAVERN
GROUND WATER EROSION
FIGURE 26
29
Geology
COASTAL FIGURES DEVELOPED BY MARINE EROSION.

A - SEA CAVE DEVELOPED IN WAVE - CUT CLIFF
B - STACK
OCEAN EROSION
FIGURE 27
30
Geology
Wind Erosion
Wind erosion is continuous. The wind is always moving sand and rock particles around.
Sand drifts up in piles forming sand dunes. These dunes are constantly moving and changing.
The land is being eroded. The sand being moved abrades the land under it loosening more
particles. Land caught up in dust storms can travel hundreds of miles. Figure 28 shows
example of wind erosion.
Ice Movement
Glaciers are large slow moving land ice masses. In cold areas the snow will last all year. The
lowest latitude where snow lasts all year is called the snow line. Massive snow fields form
above the snow line. Snow fields are large masses where snow piles up. The snow freezes
and compacts. An over abundance of snow causes glaciers.
31
Geology
ROCK FORMED BY WIND
WIND EROSION
FIGURE 28
32
Geology
The frozen snow is covered by new snow. Ice is formed underneath. The new snow on top
compacts the ice even more. The entire underneath mass turns to glacier ice. Gravity causes
it to move downhill. Glaciers move very slowly. Glaciers erode the soil underneath and on
the sides of the valley in which it moves. The glacier transports material much like a river.
The process of movement of material is called glaciation.
Glaciers move at different rates. Some glaciers move one inch per day. Other glaciers move
100 feet per day. The rate of movement is determined by the thickness, slope and structure
of land, temperature and amount of unfrozen water in the glacier.
Glaciers move faster when big and thick. Glaciers move faster on steep slopes. High
temperature causes more movement in glaciers. A typical glacier is shown at Figure 29. The
lower part of the glacier is called the zone of flow. The upper part of the glacier is called the
zone of fracture. Deep cracks called crevasses appear in the zone of fracture.
Glacial erosion is so powerful few objects can stand in a glacier's path. Glaciers erode in
three ways. Glaciers pick up pieces of bedrock. These fragments of bedrock and other rock
debris abrade other rock over which the glacier passes. Loose material is pushed ahead of the
glacier. Some material pulls off the side of the valley onto the top of the glacier.
Weathering
Figure 30 shows three examples of weathering. Weathering erosion is a process where

chemical and physical changes take place naturally. These changes occur at or near the
surface. This process is one of the most important. Material for rock is formed this way. Soil
is also made this way. Types of weathering are mechanical and chemical. Mechanical
weathering is also known as disintegration. Mechanical weathering can be caused by
temperature changes. These changes make rock material contract and expand. This causes
rock to crack apart into smaller pieces. Another mechanical weathering process is frost
action. Water in the rock pores freeze and cause them to crack. There are two types of frost
action: frost wedging and frost heaving. Frost wedging breaks rocks apart by sideways
movement. Frost heaving is an upward movement. The second type can cause damage to
foundation and roads.
33
Geology
CREVASSES
ZON
ZON
E O
F
E O
F F
LOW
FRA
CTU
RE
SIDE VIEW
GLACIER PROFILE
FIGURE 29
34
Geology
The third type of mechanical weathering is caused by plants and animals. Tree and shrub
roots grow in cracks of rocks and break them. Animals walk across rocks and crush them.
Ants, rodents and worms bring materials to the surface to be exposed to weathering. Man
also does his share. Road building, mining and farming are just three ways man helps
disintegrate rock.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is also known as decomposition. Decomposition produce a chemical

breakdown of the rock. Chemical weathering produces rock material that is different from the
original rock. Four common types of chemical weathering are oxidation, hydration,
carbonation, and solution.
Oxidation - Oxidation occurs as oxygen and moist air come together. Oxygen and wet air act
on some mineral to form oxides. Rocks with iron decompose. Fast oxidation of iron causes
rust. Some iron compounds form acids which attack the rock. These acids speed the process
of decomposition.
Hydration - The chemical process that joins water with other material. Rocks and minerals in
this process may produce new products. Material in this process are expanded mechanically.
This produces cracks in the rocks which speeds up the physical breakdown.
Carbonation - Carbon dioxide, water and soil combine with certain rock to change the
minerals. Material produced this way is soluble and decomposes easily. Carbon dioxide and
water produce carbonic acid. Carbonic acid breaks down minerals in rock.
Solution - Solution is the process that dissolves minerals. They are chemically absorbed by
water. The process is greatly increased with carbonic acid. Solution is accomplished mostly
by ground water flowing downward through the earth.
Mass Movement
Erosion is caused by mass movement of earth. Mass movement includes all types of slides.
Mass movement is also known as mass-wasting. This process happens when earth material
moves downhill. Mass movements happen because of gravity and steep slopes. Mass
movements may be caused by water, freezing and thawing, undercutting, animals or shock
waves. Mass movements may be rapid or slow. Common types of rapid movement are
landslide, mudflows and earthflows. Examples of slow movements are soil creep and
solifluction.
35
Geology
Tectonism
Tectonism is the belief that all solid parts of the earth move. The theory is that parts of the
earth have moved throughout time. Part of this theory is that the continents are large floating
plates that were once tied together in one land mass, but have now drifted apart. Tectonic
comes from a Greek word meaning builder.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the study of the lithosphere moving laterally across the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is a dense layer of plastic material in the lower mantle. The plates move and
float across the plastic layer. Figure 31 illustrates the plates. Scientists believe that heat from
the core and lower mantle produces currents which move these plates.
The plates are sometimes called crustal plates and are made up of a slab of oceanic crust or
continental crust. A plate may be made of both in some cases. These crust slabs are anchored
to a rigid slab of upper mantle. All these plates together make up the lithosphere. These
plates join together. The places where plates join are called margins or boundaries.
Boundaries usually occur at mid-oceanic ridges, deep sea trenches, large faults or linear fold
mountains. There are four types of boundaries. These types of boundaries are divergent,
convergent, shear and triple junction. These boundaries are shown at Figure 32.
Divergent Boundaries - Divergent boundaries develop when two plates move away from each
other. Divergent boundaries are located along the mid-oceanic ridges. These ridges form
continuous submarine mountain ranges that divide the ocean basins. Figure 33 illustrates the
layout of the ocean floor. The ocean floor will be discussed in more detail later. The ridges
of the oceans are zones of tension in the lithosphere. This tension or force makes a fracture or
opening along the ridge. The two plates pull apart. This is called sea-floor spreading. New
crust is formed along the fracture as molten rock is pushed upward. Divergent boundaries are
also known as constructive margins. Constructive means they add to the land. These midoceanic ridges are also areas where volcanic and earthquake activities take place.
Convergent Boundaries - Convergent boundaries are also called destructive margins.
Convergent boundaries develop when two plates move toward each other. These collisions
may occur at an oceanic and continental crust, two sections of continental crust or two
sections of oceanic crust. One plate slides below the other plate. The plate that moves
downward is changed or deformed.
36
Geology
The destructive margin gets its name from this action. The thinner and more dense oceanic
plate is the downgoing plate when it collides with the continental plate. Continental rock is
lighter and will not sink. Continental rock overrides the oceanic rock. The zone where the
downgoing plate dips under the overriding plate is called the subduction zone. Convergent
boundaries and subduction zones are found along deep ocean trenches and volcanic island arc
systems. These areas are found along the western edge of the Pacific Ocean. As the
downgoing plate continues, earthquakes are produced. The formation of fold mountains is
another action when plates collide. These fold mountains form on the overriding plate as the
leading edge buckles and crumples.
Figure 34 shows the mountain building process when an island arc and a continent collide at
A. The island arc at c and the continent d move toward each other on two different plates.
Offshore sediment is located between the two at b. The collision shown at B squeezes the
sediment b between the island arc volcanos C and continent d producing a type of chain
called a cordilleron mountain chain. The Andes and Western North America are cordilleron
mountains. Old convergent boundaries being replaced by new ones are shown as C and D.
Figure 35 shows mountain building where two continents collide. In Figure 35A, the
continents move toward each other. In Figure 35B, the collision pushes up sediment and the
ocean gets smaller. In Figure 35C, the ocean crust between moves below the two continents
and they collide. The collision causes mountains like the Alps and the Himalayas.
During this type of action magma is produced when the downgoing plate melts. This molten
material may be recycled as lava.
Shear Boundaries - Shear boundary plates do not collide or separate. Figure 36 shows this type
of fault. Shear boundary plates slide past each other. These boundaries (transform faults) are
at right angles to the ridge system. The San Andreas fault in California is considered by some
scientists as a transform fault. Plates along these boundaries slip past each other without
being greatly deformed. Crustal material is neither added or subtracted.
Triple Junction - Three tectonic plates may meet at one point. This boundary is called a triple
junction. The three parts may involve three different plate margin features. Divergent,
convergent and shear boundaries may occur at triple junctions.
37
Geology
Volcanism
Volcanos cause another type of earth movement. This movement also helps build new earth
and rocks. Volcanos are vent openings in the earth's crust. Molten rock and lava pass
through these openings. The typical volcano is a cone-shaped mountain with a crater at the
top. (See Figure 37). This crater is connected with the underground magma chamber by the
vent. Steam, dust, ash, stone and molten rock are called lava. Lava flows from the crater
during eruption. The magma chamber is a container for hot molten rock material. Lava may
flow within the spaces in the crust of the earth or to the surface. Rock formed in this manner
will be covered in a later module. There are three types of volcanos named according to the
activity in them: active, dormant and extinct. Active volcanos are still producing eruptions.
Dormant volcanos are inactive at present, but have erupted in modern time. Extinct volcanos
have not erupted in modern time. An example of a dormant volcano was Mt. St. Helens until
it erupted in 1980. Figure 38 shows how Mount St. Helens may be connected to a subduction
zone. An example of a volcano thought to be extinct was Lassen Peak in California. Lassen
Peak erupted in 1914 after 200 years of dormancy.
38
Geology
MOUNT
ST. HELENS
JUAN DE FUCA
PLATE
NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE
CASCADE RANGE
PACIFIC OCEAN
CONTINENTAL
CRUST
OCEANIC C
RU
ST
MANTLE
MANTLE
PACIFIC SUBDUCTION ZONE
FIGURE 38
39
Geology
There are two types of eruptions: central and fissure eruption. Central eruption forces
material through one vent into the crater. Fissure eruption forces lava into many cracks in the
earth's crust.
Volcano Location
Volcanos occur in well-defined zones along plate boundaries. Exceptions are the Hawaiian
Islands which are caused by hot spots. Hot spots are pipe-like features in the earth that carry
heat and mantle material to the crust. The Pacific belt has most of the world's active volcanos.
Figure 39 illustrates the major areas of volcanic activity. Figure 40 shows the zones where
volcanos are most likely to erupt.
Volcanos make four main types of land forms: lava plains, volcanic mountains, volcanic
craters and calderas.
40
Geology
INDIA
THE DECCAN PLATEAU ( DARK ) FORMED FROM LAVA OUTFLOWS,

COVERS 250,000 SQUARE MILES.
FIGURE 39
41
Geology
Lava Plains
Lava plains are formed by fissure eruptions. Sheets of lava flood the earth's surface forming a
rock called basalt. The Deccan Plateau in India is covered with basalt 7,000 feet thick. The
lava covers 250,000 square miles. Figure 41 shows the size of the Decca flow. Another
example is the western United States where basalt covered 200,000 square miles. This flow
covers parts of Washington, Oregon, Nevada and Utah.
42
Geology
KATMAI
ALAID
FUJIYAMA
ST. HELENS
LASSEN
MAUNA LAO
PARICUTIN
TAAL
KILAUEA
PACIIFIC OCEAN
FUEGO
PELEE
COTOPAXI
KRAKATOA
NGAURUHOE
OSORNO
DOTS SHOW RECENT VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
VOLCANO AREAS
FIGURE 41
43
Geology
Volcanic Mountains
Volcanic mountains are made by central eruptions. Volcanic mountains are three types:
explosion cones, composite cones and lava domes.
Volcanic Craters
Volcanic craters are v-shaped holes in the top of volcanic mountains. Most craters are
produced by explosive eruptions.
Calderas
Calderas are round basins in the top of volcanos. Calderas are larger than craters. Crater
Lake in Oregon, U.S.A., is not a crater but a caldera. Crater Lake caldera was formed by the
collapse of an extinct volcano. The caldera is filled with a lake 22 square miles in area and
2,000 feet deep. Figure 42 illustrates how a caldera is formed.
Earthquakes
Although earthquakes are not considered a type of erosion in technical terms, they are related
to plate movement and volcanos. For that reason an overview of earthquakes is included
here.
Earthquakes are another type of earth's movements. An earthquake is a natural vibration in
the earth's crust. These vibrations cause the ground to shake. Rocks break along a fault. A
fault is a fracture in the earth's crust. Figure 43 shows land after an earthquake has occurred
Figure 44 illustrates the San Andreas fault in California. Earthquakes are evidence that the
earth is still moving Figure 45 shows how land may sink after earthquakes. Earthquakes, like
volcanos, occur along the margins of the continental plate. Shallow quakes occur where
margins are colliding and separating. Deep quakes seem to occur where plates collide. The
San Andreas fault is made up of two huge blocks which are sliding past each other. These
earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. Volcanic explosions may also cause
earthquakes. Figure 46 shows activity in the subduction zone.
Earthquake activity is studied with a delicate instrument called a seismograph. The records
produced by the seismograph are called seismograms.
Distribution of Earthquakes
Most earthquakes occur along plates as already stated. About 80 percent of the world's
earthquakes take place in the belt around the Pacific. The zone contains young mountains and
volcanos. Figure 47 shows the earthquake zone.
44
Geology
Effects Of Earth Movement

The Participant may be wondering why all this activity in the earth is important. These
processes and constant movements of the earth are responsible for our energy sources and
minerals.
Fossil Fuels
Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels. Fossil fuel was made as plant and animal life died in
past times. These fossils were buried in the ground through the processes and earth
movements that have been discussed in this module. Life probably started in the ocean. Life
forms are about three billion years old. Large numbers of life forms developed as time
advanced. The movements in the earth and the shift of the poles caused huge amounts of life
to be trapped and moved deep into the earth. Heat and pressure within the earth caused a
process which over time produced fossil fuels.
45
Geology
SAN FRANCISCO
LOS ANGELES
SAN ANDREAS
FAULT
LAND WEST OF
FAULT IS MOVING
NORTHWEST
SAN ANDREAS FAULT
FIGURE 44
46
Geology
TONGA TRENCH
SEA FLOOR
SEA LEVEL
TONGA
0
100
300
400
DEPTH ( km )
200
500
600
700
SLAB OF LITHOSPHERE
DESCENDING INTO MANTLE
SUBDUCTION ZONE
EACH DOT REPRESENTS A 1988
EARTHQUAKE I IN THE TONGA
BASIN
EARTHQUAKES
FIGURE 46
47
Geology
Coal
Coal is found mostly in sediment deposits. Coal is the carbonized remains of tropical plants.
These plants grew in great swamps and marshes. The swamps were lowlands and had warm,
wet climates.
Most coal is found in highlands now. This indicates that shifts in the earth have occurred.
Shifts in the earth are also indicated when fossilized topical plants are found in cold areas.
Most coal swamps were probably caused because of the movements of crustal plates. The
coal of the mountain regions was formed in sea basins. These basins were pushed up into
mountains when plates overrode each other.
Oil and Natural Gas
Oil and natural gas are found in sedimentary rock. Most oil and gas comes from ancient sea
beds. The marine sedimentary rock has openings in it. These openings are called pores. Oil
and gas are found in oil-bearing strata or layers of old sea basins. Scientists do not fully
understand the process which makes plants and animals into oil and gas. The oil-forming
process will be covered in a later module. Most of the world's oil is found in sedimentary
layers along continental shelfs. Sedimentary rock was formed from marine sediment before
the continents separated. This separation is called a rift. Oil formation may occur in such rift
areas. The rock is tilted because of the separation. Oil formed in this area will travel up the
slope of the sediment layers toward the continent. Oil may also be found in basins between
the continent and a subduction zone.
Environment
Earth movements are important to our environment. Buildings must be strongly built in
earthquake zones.
Sanitary land fills must be built differently depending on ground water, earthquakes, and land
features.
Wells are drilled and pumped with attention to the water table and the ground structure.
Pumping too much water from the ground can cause it to collapse making sink holes.
All Participants must consider the earth and our environment when planning a project or
inspecting a project.
Finally, earth movements can cause disasters killing thousands of people each year and
destroying billions of dollars worth of property.
48
Geology
WORK AID #1
FACTS SHEET
This Work Aid is to be used to identify the principal divisions of the earth.
EARTH - 4 Parts
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
(Air)
(Water)
(Living things)
(Solid part of earth)
Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Others
Hydrosphere
(78%)
(20%)
(2%)
(20% of earth surface)
Oceans
Streams and rivers
Lakes
Ground water
Biosphere
Plants
Animals
Microorganisms
Lithosphere
Soil
Rocks
Rock fragments
Sand
Magma (molten rock)
49
Geology
WORK AID #2
FACTS SHEET
This Work Aid is to be used to identify the physical features of the earth.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Crust
Continental masses
-
Ocean basins
Mantle
Core
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Outer core
Inner core
50
Geology
WORK AID #3
FACTS SHEET
This Work Aid is to be used to identify how the three geological processes affect the physical
features of the earth.
EROSION
Water
Rivers and streams

Ground water
Oceans
Wind
Ice
Weathering
Mechanical (disintegration)
-
Chemical
-
Temperature changes
Frost action
Plants and animals
Oxidation
Hydration
Carbonation
Solution
Mass Movements
Slides
Falls
Avalanches
Flows
51
Geology
Mass Movements
Slumps
Creep
Solifluction
VOLCANISM
Lava plains
Volcanic mountains
Volcanic craters
Calderas (basin)
TECTONICS (Earth Movements)
Divergent Boundaries (Constructive Margins)
Convergent Boundaries (Destructive Margins)
Shear Boundaries (Transform Margins)
Continental Drift
Seafloor Spreading
Polar Movement
Earthquakes
52
Geology
WORK AID #4
This Work Aid will be used to identify the physical features of the ocean floor.
OCEAN FLOOR
Submarine Canyons
Submarine Plateau
Abyssal Plain
Spreading Ridge
Trench
Island Arc
53
Geology
WORK AID #5
FACT SHEET
This Work Aid will be used to identify the parts of the rock cycle.
ROCK CYCLE
Magma (Molten Rock)
Igneous Rocks
Erosion
Transportation
Lithification
Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering
Sediment
Crystallization
Metamorphism
Metamorphic Rock
Melting
NOTE: Any kind of rock can melt, metamorphise or weather.
54
Geology
WORK AID #6
FACT SHEET
This Work Aid will be used to identify the parts of a volcano.
Volcano Parts
Magma (Molten Rock)

Magma Chamber
Pipe
Side Vent
Vent
Cone
Lava
Ash
Gas
Volcano Land Forms
Lava Plains
Volcanic Mountains
Volcanic Craters
Calderas (Basins)
55
Geology
GLOSSARY
asthenosphere
Plastic layer of the lower part of the earth on which the earth's
plates move.
atmosphere
The gases around the earth.
basin
A low area in the earth's surface.
bedrock
Solid rock under the soil.
biosphere
The area of the earth that contains living things and

that were once alive that are now dead.
carbonation
Natural mixing of carbon dioxide with water and soil.
carbon dioxide
A gas used by plants to live. A gas given off by animals when

they breathe.
continental shelf
That part of the earth's crust under the ocean near the shore.
continental slope
A downward feature of the land under the ocean between deep

water and the continental shelf.
convergent boundaries
Place where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other.
crevasse
A deep crack in a glacier.
crust
Upper layer of the earth; the earth's cover.
deflation
The process of wind blowing away loose rock and sand.
deflation basin (hollow)
A low area where the wind has blown away the rock and sand.
deposition
The process whereby nature places material in the earth.
depression
A low area in the earth's crust produced by sinking rock.
desert pavement
A hard surface of coarse rock where all the sand has been blown
away by the wind.
things
56
Geology
disintegration
The process of rock reduced to smaller rock without chemicals.

Also mechanical weathering.
divergent boundaries
Place where two tectonic plates are pulling away from each
other.
dormant
Not active at present.
englacial load
Material carried inside a glacier. Also intraglacial
evaporation
The process where a liquid changes to vapor.
explosion cone
Volcano core caused by a violent eruption.
extinct
Dead or no longer extant.
fault
A fracture in the earth's crust.
fossil
The remains of dead matter that was once alive.
fossil fuel
Organic remains used to produce heat and energy.
fracture
A break or opening.
geological process
Change in the earth over time.
glaciation
The process of erosion, transport and deposit by a glacier.
gradient
Incline angle or downhill.
ground water
Water that is contained in the earth's lower mantle rock.
hamada
Wind swept rock; (also, desert pavement.)
hooks
Spits that turn shoreward at the end.
hydration
Chemical mixing of material and water.
hydraulic action
Loosening and removing rock by water movement.
hydrosphere
All the water of the earth.
impaction
The process where rocks hit or collide with each other.
57
Geology
lava dome
A round shaped mountain of mostly solid lava.
leeward
The side of a sand dune opposite the wind direction.
lithosphere
The solid part of the earth which includes rock, minerals, land
and ocean basins.
loess (luss)
A deposit of wind blown silt.
magma
Melted rock in the earth.
magmatic water
Water deposited in magma or released from magma.
magma chamber
A reservoir underground that contains molten rock.
mechanical weathering
Physical breakdown of rock that does not include chemicals.
meteoric water
Ground water from rain.
organic
Living things.
outwash
Material sorted by water as a glacier melts.
oxidation
Oxygen and moist air combining to decompose or rot minerals.
porous
Having holes or void spaces that will hold water or other fluids.
porosity
The amount of open spaces in rock.
regolith
Small pieces of rock
rift
A trench or opening in the ocean or land.
sediment
Sand, rock, silt or mud suspended in water or recently deposited

from water.
sedimentary rock
Rock formed from loose sediment deposited in layers over time.
slip face
The straight side of a sand dune opposite the wind.
slope
A place in the earth that has a downward feature.
58
Geology
sphere
Area of influence.
spits
Long narrow land mass of sand and pebbles that extends into the
ocean.
spreading ridge
Sea-floor ridge that opens during sea-floor spreading and

provides much activity.
soluble
Readily dissolvable in water or other liquid.
solution
Chemicals absorbed by water
stalactites
Solid material hanging from cave's ceilings.
stalagmites
Solid material developed upward from cave floors.
subglacial load
Material carried along under the glacier.
subduction
One tectonic plate moving under another.
subduction zone
A long narrow area in which one tectonic plate moves under

another plate.
suboceanic
Below the ocean.
superglacial load
Material carried on top of the glacier.
strata
Layers of materials
stratification
Deposition of material in layers.
tectonics
The study of large scale movements of the earth.
tectonism
Belief that the earth is constantly moving.
tectonic plates
Large pieces of the earth that move.
till
Unsorted material laid down directly from glaciers
tied islands
Two or more islands connected by sand bars or tombolos.
59
Geology
tombolo
A sand bar connecting islands to land or islands to each other.
transform fault
An earthquake fault where two plates slip past each other.
turbulence
Violent mixing of water flow.
velocity
Speed of travel.
wind erosion
Wearing away of earth by wind.
60

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GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES .............................................................................27

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LIES ON TOP OF D AT VALLEY G

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PARTS OF THE EARTH

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PARTS OF THE EARTH

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The crust is further divided into two more parts:

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MAJOR ELEMENTS AND AMOUNTS

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The Outer Core

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THE ROCK CYCLE

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CYCLE MAY BE INTERRUPTED

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RIFT IN MID - OCEAN RIDGE

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A. ROCKS AT1 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY

B. ROCKS AT 2 HAVE REVERSED POLARITY

C. ROCKS AT 3 HAVE NORMAL POLARITY AGAIN

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GROUND WATER EROSION

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COASTAL FIGURES DEVELOPED BY MARINE EROSION.

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ROCK FORMED BY WIND

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Figure 30 shows three examples of weathering. Weathering erosion is a process where

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Chemical weathering is also known as decomposition. Decomposition produce a chemical

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PACIFIC SUBDUCTION ZONE

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THE DECCAN PLATEAU ( DARK ) FORMED FROM LAVA OUTFLOWS,