First Wave: Correspondence /

Independent Study

1) Larger Context (economics/ politics/ societal values and

pressures/ government policies/ technological advances)
A shift in industry demanded higher academic preparation for work that
moved indoors (Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2010).
Urbanization led to a more farm-based society based on "workers and
entrepreneurs" (Peters, 2010, p.11).
According to Haughey (2010), the two world wars and their disruptive
effects ushered in modern distance education (p. 48). Correspondence
schools were established to meet the needs of individuals who were
displaced and lacked the opportunity to attend school during the war
years (Haughey, 2010).
Moore (2010) explained how Anna Ticknow helped to move Distance
Education forward through Correspondence when she "established a
society that gave educational opportunities to women to study at home".
She was able to provide education to over 10,000 women over two
decades, who would have otherwise not have had the opportunity to
attend traditional schooling.
Haughey (2010) cites that pre-1970's distance education was more a form

2) Theories/ Ways of Understanding

Charles Wedemeyer, a distance education theorist, noted that
relation between autonomous instruction and the socially
underserved (Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2010).
Otto Peters believed that Distance Education was not "created
by pedagogues" (Peters, 12) but by those who favored industrial
progress. He also felt that Distance Education could not have
existed prior to this Industrial Revolution as all of its advances
(economical, technical
and societal) lead to its development
(Peters, 2010, p.12)

3) Institutional and Organizational Developments/

System
Before the industrial revolution, entrepreneurs saw a
profitable advantage within the demand for education
(Peters, 2005).
Industrialization led to the desire for a better future for self
and family. Thus, the need for higher education. (Peters,
2010, p. 11)
According to Holmberg (2005), early correspondence
schools were mostly commercial ventures. Some early
correspondence schools formed strategic alliances with
other correspondence schools to work together on the
design of courses and marketing (Holmberg, 2005).

In 1960, Holmberg first proposed the empathy approach for

distance education which advocates a less formal,
Dr. Garrison and Dr. Cleveland-Innes (2010) explain that
conversational approach in communication between student and "industrial distance education is focused on organizational
teacher (Holmberg, 2004).
economies of scale" and "served the long-standing goal
of distance education to increase access, especially for
Holmberg's theory of empathy in distance education was
the educational disadvantaged" (p. 14). Correspondence
implemented by many educators. One such implementation was courses allowed for individuals who were unable to attend

4) Teaching/ Learning Methodologies (role of

teacher/role of learner)
Pre-Industrial Era: The teacher was the sole provider of
written course work, and the student recieved the reading
and assignments at the pace set by the teacher
(Haughey, 2010).

5) Predominant Technologies
Railways and Postal Services were used to send
materials to the student and back to the teacher
(Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2010). Haughey (2010)
offers that prior to 1970 distance education "was based
on independent study using books, and materials
delivered and returned by mail" (p. 48).

Correspondence Education - Previously, majority of

teaching was done orally. Now, there is a move to use of
the written word as a teaching tool. (Peters, 2010, p. 21) Correspondence Education - Previously, majority of
teaching was done orally. Now, there is a move to use of
Early correspondence education typically involved the
the written word as a teaching tool. (Peters, 2010, p. 21)
student completing a sequence of exercises with very
limited support from the school. Feedback and additional Assembly Lines (Peters, 2010, p. 14)
course materials were provided after the student
submitted his completed materials (Haughey, 2010).
One of the original forms of correspondence teachings
involved letter writing from scholars. Peters (2001)
Haughey (2010) points out that the tone of the work was describes how scholars such as Plato and Paul spread
neutral or passive and the materials were essentially a
their ideas among groups of people through hand written,
series of exercises with little or not psychological or
personal letters, before the invention of the printing
motivational support for the student (p. 48). There was
press. This spread of scientific knowledge through the
little to no engagement between the teacher and learner exchange of letters was a priori and became a matter of

6) Key Authors
Anna Eliot Ticknor started one of the first correspondence courses for
women (Moore & Kearsley, 2012).
Otto Peters (2004) writes specifically about Distance Education in
transition i.e. - how has Distance Education and the quick access to
knowledge changed the way that we learn and instructors teach. He
states that there has been a "great effect on education processes of this
previously unknown abundance of information and the rapid access to it."
(Peters, 158)
Dr. Cleveland-Innes (2010) described Charles Wedemeyer as a "pioneer
in the theoretical development of distance education" and he "focused on
the characteristic of independent study that provided access to socially
disadvantaged individuals" (p. 14). He believed "the independent study
method is not, in its basic concepts, different from other teacher-learning
methods" (p. 8). This was a different view from many other scholars at the
time regarding correspondence and independent study.
Charles Wedemeyer
Keith Harry, Borje Holmberg, Otto Peters, Charles Wedemeyer

Second Wave: Systems Approach to Education / Distance Teaching

Institutions

26-45). New York & London: Routledge.

Entries in BLACK; Emery Link

1) Larger Context (economics/ politics/ societal values and

pressures/ government policies/ technological advances)
The United States was becoming more industrialized. Citizens were no
longer exploring west, but rather settling in the cities. (Miller, 2010, p.26)
The government worried that they would begin losing farmers (and their

2) Theories/ Ways of Understanding

Three main theories during the second wave of Distance
Education:
-andragogy

3) Institutional and Organizational Developments/

System
The second wave of DE saw the emergence of the
following institutional forms:

4) Teaching/ Learning Methodologies (role of

teacher/role of learner)
* Andragogical approach relevant to distance education
course design especially for those learners who prefer a
more self-directed

5) Predominant Technologies

Miller (2010) states that technology affected how

institutions organized the distance education function
over time. (p.26).

6) Key Authors
1. Malcolm Knowles: Andragogy concept.
2. Michael Moore: Transactional distance & distance education is a
system

3rd Wave: Internet, Web-based

1) Larger Context (economics/ politics/

societal values and pressures/
Advancement of the Internet, Web 2.0,
virtually mediated discussions (Swan 2010)
Society begins to embrace
"communications technology." (Garrison,
2009)
"Computer-mediated communication
(CMC)" becomes increasing popular in
higher education. (Garrison, Anderson &
Archer, 2000).
The dramatic growth of the internet led to
unprecedented levels of access to
information and knowledge. With the
growth of the internet, the amount of digital
media readily available online increased
dramatically. The low-cost and abundance
of new internet tools and platforms made it
easy to access, create and share content
in a virtual environment. (Swan, 2010)
economic reform and capitalism continued
to spread, politically peace talks continued
in the Mideast
Social values changed with more countries
emphasizing education for women and the
underprivileged, government policies and
regulations couldnt stop companies from
moving jobs overseas nor multinationals
from outsourcing and offshore services,
advances in technology dramatically push
the demand for, growth of and quality of e-

2) Theories/ Ways of Understanding

3) Institutional and Organizational

Developments/ System
According to Swan (2010 ) constructivism ~Many universities now offer the same
is "a philosophy of learning based on the
face-to-face degrees in an online format.
axiom that individuals construct meaning They are able to do this because of the
and understanding as they experience and new technologies such as software
engage the world. Learning is seen as a
programs that allow for hands-on learning
process of creating and adjusting mental
activities.
models to accommodate new experiences"
(p. 127). One implication of constructivist The Open University integrated new
theory has been a shift in emphasis from technologies into their programs of study.
teaching or the transmission of knowledge Networking allowed students the ability to
to learning or the construction of
communicate and learn by engagement -knowledge. Constructivist ideas have
computer to computer. Emailing and
influenced instructional design methods by posting to digital bulletin boards also
placing greater focus on creating learner- provided opportunities for students to learn
centered environments that initiate and
from each other. Lastly, computer
support active learning. (Swan, 2010)
conferencing became another mode of
instruction incorporating virtual learning.
The Interaction Equivalency Theorem by
Terry Anderson (2003) states that "if any
With Cloud Networks, Learning
one of student-student, student-teacher or Management Systems and many other
student-content interaction is of a high
institutional and systems applications.
quality, the other two can be reduced or
Many other countries started relying on
even eliminated without impairing the
diverse development systems to conduct
learning experiencethus creating means DE.
of developing and delivering education that
is cost affordable for all." (Anderson &
Miyazo, 2003).
Community of Inquiry (Col) Theory of
Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000),
sets forth that learning takes place within a
community and that real learning is
achieved only through the interaction

4) Teaching/ Learning Methodologies

(role of teacher/role of learner)
Connectivism: Teacher guides students,
students do not memorize but develop
analytic skills to facilitate learning
(Anderson & Dron, 2011)

5) Predominant Technologies

Peters (2010) states "new opportunities

arise from the addition and integration of
the three electronic technologies:
computer, multimedia and network
technology. These technologies are
Online learning began with self-directed
themselves based on special technologies
learning but students who did not have the for communication, transmission, display,
motivation or drive would not do well.
search, access, analysis, storage, virtual
Therefore, there came a greater role of a reality and management" (p. 121).
bigger presence of the instruction by way
of moderation and facilitation of these
Per Otto Peters, there are four distinct
courses (Garrison, 2009).
models on online learning programs
(2010).
Higher education begins to reconsider the 1) The "one-alone method" based on the
basic pedagogical teaching methods in
internet.
online learning in lieu of more interactive
2) The "one-to-one method" based on einstruction that engages its learners
mail correspondence
(Garrison, 2009)
3) The "one-to-many method" - based on
communication via online bulletin boards
The collaborate learning process became 4) The "many-to-many method" - based on
better defined, and online interactions
computer conferencing (2010)
became more structured and integrated in
a more coherent way (Garrison, 2009)
A variety of Web 2.0 technologies have
been employed in learning environments to
Constructivist and connectivist pedagogies stimulate collaboration and knowledge
were common during the third wave of
generation. (Swan, 2010)
distance education. Connectivist theory
emerged out of a constructivist framework A host of competing platforms,
and its emphasis on a learner-centered
repositories, and other learning functions,
environment. It suggests that learning is a exemplied by, among others: DigitalThink,
process of constructing networks of
Harvard ManageMentor, Mindleaders,
information, resources and contacts.
SkillSoft, Thomson, ThinQ.Deliver (course
Student-content interaction is prized. The management tools): Blackboard/WebCT,

6) Key Authors
Terry Anderson - 3 variations of
interaction: Student to student, student to
content, student to teacher (2011).
George Siemens and Stephen Downes are
key authors of the Connectivist Theory.
(Anderson & Dron, 2011)
Curran,C. (2008) Online learning and the
university
Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T., & Archer,
W.(2000) Critical Inquiry.
Peters (2010) Distance education in
transition.Developments and issues .

1) Larger Context (economics/ politics/ 2) Theories/ Ways of Understanding

societal
values and
pressures/
~
Developments
in new
technologies allow ~Heutagogy - self-determined learning
for instructors to teach in a differnt manner, (learner is in control of their own learning,

3) Institutional and Organizational

4) Teaching/ Learning Methodologies
Developments/
System
(role
teacher/role
of learner)
~Anderson
suggests
we remain open to the ~
Theof
Pedagogy
of Nearness
- "relates to
how emerging technologies may provide
the capacity of learning to flow seamlessly

5) Predominant Technologies
- internet
~MOOCs

6) Key Authors
~Mejias (argues for a new pedagogy of
nearness)

References
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