Chemistry
The branch of science which deals with the composition and properties
of matter, changes in matter and the laws or principles which govern
these changes is called Chemistry.
Q1: Define Chemistry also define the branches of chemistry?
Ans: Chemistry:-The branch of science which deals with the
composition and properties of matter, changes in matter and the laws or
principles which govern these changes is called Chemistry.
The five branches of chemistry are as follows:
1: Organic chemistry:-Organic chemistry is the study of carbon
containing substances and the synthesis of such material. many
consumer products are organic in nature.
2: Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the chemistry of element
and their compounds except those of carbon-hydrogen compounds and
their derivatives.
3: Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry
which deals with the forces and principles involved in the combination
of atoms and molecules.
4: Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is the study of method and
techniques used to determined the kind and quantity of various
component in a given substance.
5: Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the chemistry of living organisms such
as plants and animals.
Q2: Define mass?
Ans : Mass:-The quantity of matter contained in a body is called its
mass.
its SI unit is kilogram and its symbol is m.
There are four laws of chemical combinations these laws explained the
general feature of chemical change. These laws are:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
2. Law of Definite Proportions
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
4. Law Reciprocal Proportions
Antoine Lavoiser has rejected the worn out ideas about the changes that
take place during a chemical reaction. He made careful quantitative
measurements in chemical reactions and established that mass is neither
created nor nor destroyed in a chemical change.
Law of Conservation of Mass
Statement
It is presented by Lavoiser. It is defined as:
Mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction but it
only changes from one form to another form.
In a chemical reaction, reactants are converted to products. But the total
mass of the reactants and products remains the same. The following
experiment easily proves law of conservation of mass.
Practical Verification (Landolt Experiment)
German chemist H. Landolt, studied about fifteen different chemical
reactions with a great skill, to test the validity of the law of conservation
of mass.
For this, he took H.shaped tube and filled the two limbs A and B, with
silver nitrate (AgNO3) in limb A and Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) in limb
B. The tube was sealed so that material could not escape outside. The
tube was weighed initially in a vertical position so that the solution
should not intermix with each other. The reactant were mixed by
inverting and shaking the tube. The tube was weighed after mixing (on
unreactive.All the noble gases except radon are normally present in the
atmosphere. They are mostly obtained from air by liquefaction process.
Q2) What are transition element write four properties of them?
Ans: Transition element: Element of group IB, IIB, through VIIB are
known as transition element. They include the element scandium,
yttrium, thanum and actinium and the two rare-earth series of element
the lanthanide and actinide series.
properties:
(1) These element have incomplete inner electron shell.
(2) All transition element are metal.
(3) The bond between the atom are very strong and they have melting
points.
(4) These compound are formed by coordinate covalent bond.
Q3)Define and explain Mendeleyvs Period Table and Periodic Law also
discuss the Defects in Mendeleyvs Periodic Table
Ans: Mendeleyvs Period Table and Periodic Law
Russian Chemist, Mendeleyvs (186) who was working separately from
Lother Mayer published a table of elements.
According to Mendeleyvs when the element were arranged in order of
their increasing atomic masses, the elements with similar properties
were repeated after regular interval and were placed one above the other.
A table obtained in this manner is called Periodic Table. Mendeleyvs
stated this periodicity in the form of Periodic Law.
Important Features of Mendeleyvs Periodic Table
The important features of Mendeleyvs Periodic table are:
Periods and Groups
The horizontal rows which run from left to right in Periodic Table are
called Periods and they are twelve in number.
The vertical rows which run from top to bottom in periodic table are
called groups and they are eight in number.
Vacant Spaces
Mendeleyvs left many vacant spaces for the still unknown elements.
For example, next to Calcium (40) should be Titanium (48) but it
resembled silicon (28) instead of Aluminum (27). He left vacant space
for element with atomic mass 44.
Discovery of New Element
Mendeleyvs discovered new elements and also guessed their atomic
mass and properties.
Atomic Mass Correction
Mendeleyvs corrected the atomic masses of certain elements on basis of
their properties and provided proper place to them in the periodic table.
Defects in Mendeleyvs Periodic Table
The Mendeleyvs Period Table has following defects:
Irregular Position of Some Elements
According to Mendeleyvs Periodic Law Potassium (39) should be
placed before Argon (40) but he placed Argon (40) before Potassium
(39) which goes against his law.
Position of Isotopes
Mendeleyvs periodic table gives no indication about the position of
isotopes.
Structure of Atom
Mendeleyvs Periodic table gives no idea about structure of atoms.
Position of Lanthanides and Actinides
Lanthanides and Actinides have not been given proper place in Periodic
Table.
Coinage and Alkali Metals
Alkali metals and coinage metals with different properties are placed in
the same group. This defect has been replaced by placing them into two
sub groups.
Q4)Define the following with its unit,factors,tends or variation in groups
and periods.
Atomic Radius
Definition
One half of the distance between the nucleus of two identical atoms
when these are in close contact with each other is called Atomic Radius.
Unit
It is measured in angstrom unit A.
Trend in Period
The atomic radii decreases from left to right within a period in the
periodic table. This is because nuclear charge increases with the increase
of atomic number. But the number of shells remains same within a
period.
Trend in Group
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a group. This is because,
although nuclear charge increases from top to bottom but at the same
time on new shell is also added for each successive element down the
group.
Ionization Energy (I.E) or Ionization Potential (I.P)
Definition
The minimum energy needed to remove an electron from an isolated,
gaseous atom in its ground state is called Ionization Energy.
Unit
It is expressed in electron volts or kilo-joules per mole.
1 ev = 96.49kj
Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
The ionization energy of elements depends upon the following factors:
1. Effect of Nuclear Charge on I.E
The greater the nuclear charge the higher is the ionization energy.
2. Effect of Atomic Size
The larger the size of atom the lower is the ionization energy.
Trend of I.E in Period
Ionization energy increases from left to right in a period due to increase
in nuclear change and decrease in atomic size.
Trend of I.E in Group
I.E decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic
size.
Electro negativity
Definition
The tendency of each atom in a covalent molecule to attract a shared pair
of electrons towards itself is known as its electro negativity.
Factors Affecting Electro negativity
Electro negativity depends upon the following factors:
Atomic size
Atomic Number
Electron Affinity
Ionization Energy
Trend or Variation in the Period
Electro negativity increases from left to right within a period due to
increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic size.
Trend or Variation in the Group
3) Atom of a particular element are identical in size shape mass and all
other properties & differ from atom of other element in these properties.
4) Chemical combination takes place between small whole number of
atom.
According to the latest research on the structure of atom &matter neutral
particle following defeat are observed in Dalton atomic model.
Drawbacks of dalton atomic theory:1) Atom consist of charged particle called proton and electron & neutral
particle called neutron.
2) The atom of the same element may differ in their atomic mass and
such atom of an element are called isotopes.
3) The ratio between atom of various element in many molecules of the
organic compound is not simple.
4) Matter can be converted into energy by Einstein equation E=mc2
Q2) How was electron discovered? describe in detail the experiment
performed for the discovery of electron?
Ans: Discovery of electron:-Electron is the smallest particle of atom. the
most convising evidence for the existence of electron came from the
experiment performed by crooker, faraday, and JJ Thomson. A high
voltage electric current was pass through gases at a very low
pressure(1mm of hg) in a dis charge tube. When high voltage is applied
across the two metallic electrode sealed in a discharge tube the rays
begin ti originate from cathode which are called cathode ray. These rays
travel in straight line towards the anode. If an electric field is applied ,
these rays bend towards the positive pole which show their negative
nature.
Properties of cathode rays:1) Cathode rays travel in straight line away from the cathode.
2) Cathode rays are negatively charged as they bend towards the positive
pole of the magnetic field.
3) The rays upon striking glass or certain other material cause these
material to glow.
4) The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of those particle was found equal to
that of electron.
A=Z+N
Isotopes
The atoms of same elements which have same atomic number but
different mass number are called Isotopes. The number of protons
present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same but number of
neutrons may differ.
Isotopes of Different Elements
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes:
1. Ordinary Hydrogen or Protium, H.
2. Heavy Hydrogen or Deuterium, D.
3. Radioactive Hydrogen or Tritium, T.
Protium
Ordinary naturally occurring hydrogen contains the largest percentage of
protium. It is denoted by symbol H. It has one proton in its nucleus and
one electron revolve around the nucleus.
Number of Protons = 1
Number of Electrons = 1
Number of Neutrons = 0
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 1
Deuterium
Deuterium is called heavy hydrogen. The percentage of deuterium in
naturally occurring hydrogen is about 0.0015%. It has one proton and
one neutron in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving around its
nucleus. It is denoted by symbol D.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutrons = 1
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 2
Tritium
Radioactive hydrogen is called tritium. It is denoted by symbol T. The
number of tritium isotope is one in ten millions. It has one proton and 2
neutrons in its nucleus. It has one electron revolving around its nucleus.
Number of Proton = 1
Number of Electron = 1
Number of Neutron = 2
Atomic Number = 1
Mass Number = 3
CHAPTER 7- CHEMICAL BONDING
Q1) Explain ionic bond and covalent bound with any one example?
Ans: Ionic bond:- It is a bond formed by the complete transfer of
electrons from one atom to the other atom.
the atom which lose electron acquire positive charge and the one which
again which acquire negative charge. for example 1
Consider the formation of NaCl:- In formation of NaCL molecules one
electron is transferred from an atom to CL atom their by the octet of
each atom is completed.
Covalent bond :-It is the bond formed by the mutal sharing of electron
between the tow bonded atoms. example.
Formation of molecule:-Considered two hydrogen atoms. each has one
electron in its outer most shell. thus the two atoms contribute there two
electron to form a shared pair electron. the pair of shared electron is
known as covalent bond. it is donated by H-H.
Q2) Describe the types of covalent bond?
Ans: Types of covalent bonds
Single covalent bond:-A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of
one electron pair is called a covalent and is denoted by single short
straight line.
When the compound undergoes chemical reaction the bond b/w the
atoms are rearranged.
CHAPTER 8 HYDROGEN AND THE ACTIVE METAL
Q:1) How hydrogen is prepared commercially and give its properties?
Ans) Commercial hydrogen is relatively less pure and can be prepared
by following methods.
1) Passing steam over red hot coke:- By passing steam over red hot coke
we get.
C+H2OCO+H2
carbon monoxide can be separate from the gaseous mixture by
liquefying at a temperature of -200c.
2) By the electrolysis of water:- The purest but expensive hydrogen is
obtained by the electrolysis of water in the presence of little acid.
2H2O2H2+O2
3) By thermal decomposition:- Hydrogen is prepared by thermal
decomposition of natural gas.
CH4C+2H2
4) Pure and relatively in expensive hydrogen is prepared by passing
steam aver red hot ion.
3Fe+4H2O Fe3O4+4H2
5) By heating a mixture of natural gas steam the presence of a suitable
catalyst nickel.
CH4+H2O3H2+CO
Properties of hydrogen:
a) Physical properties:1) Hydrogen has got three isotopic forms known as protium ,deuterium
and tritium.
2) At room temperature hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless and odorless
gas.
3) Molecular hydrogen is the lightest of all gases.
b) Chemical properties:1) Reducing agent: Hydrogen is a very reducing agent it can reduce
the slag floats as the molten iron and is run off which molten iron is seen
into sand moulds where it cools down to solid blocks called pig iron.
Q2) what is rusting?
ans) rusting of iron:- when an iron is exposed to air and moisture its
surface is gradually corroded and converted into a brown mass. this
brown mass is known as rust.
Q3)how is rusting controlled by the catholic protection and
electroplating?
ans)cathodic protection:-to protect theironobject from corrosion by this
method the object is connected to a block of metal such as gene or
aluminum which is comparatively more reaction than iron when
corrosion starts an electrochemical reaction takes place and only the
more reaction prevented from rusting.
electroplating:-electroplating is used to cover iron object chromium,
nickel or other less easily corroded metals. this process used to prevent
decorative as well as protective coatings.
alloying:-rusting is often prevented by converting the iron into an alloy
such as stainless steel.
painting:- paint is generally used for coating large object such as ship,
bridges and soon.
grease and oil:- grease and oil is used for coating the moving parts of
machinery.
Q4) how copper is extracted?
ans)extraction of copper:- the extraction of copper from its ore involved
concentration roasting,melting,reducing and electrical refining.
1) concentration:-the ore is concentrated by a process known as froth
floation.in froth floation the mixture of the mineral and impurities are
mixed with water and oil. pure oil or creosote oil are usually used. air is
blown into the mixture and the oil forms a froth which floats to the
surface. the ore particles tend to get coated with oil and are carried to the
surface with it. the froth along with the mineral particles is skim men off
from the top to get the concentrated.