Force-Commutated

Inverters

The Single-Phase Full-Bridge (H-bridge) Inverter

It consists of a dc source, four forced-commutated switches, and a

load.

It is the basic building block of the multilevel inverters with

independent dc sources.

S1

S3
vo

Vdc

S4

S2

Figure 1. The single-phase H-bridge inverter

2

The required ac output waveform is synthesised from a dc input by

closing and opening the switches in an appropriate sequence.
(i) S1 and S2 closed

(ii) S3 and S4 closed

S3

S1
vo

vo
Vdc

Vdc

S2

S4

vo = - Vdc

vo = Vdc

(b)

(a)
Figure 2

(iii) S1 and S3 closed

(iv) S2 and S4 closed

S3

S1
vo
Vdc

vo
Vdc

S2

S4

vo = 0

vo = 0
(d)

(c)
Figure 2

Summary

Switches Closed

Output Voltage vo

S1 and S2

+ Vdc

S3 and S4

- Vdc

S1 and S3

S2 and S4

Based on the waveform synthesis method employed, two

types of inverters can be identified.
i.

Square-wave inverters

ii.

Pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverters

The following discussion focuses on the square-wave inverter. The

PWM inverter will be discussed separately elsewhere.
5

The Square-Wave Inverter

It uses the simplest switching scheme for the full-bridge

converter to produce a square wave output voltage.

The switches connect the load to + Vdc when S1 and S2 are

closed to Vdc when S3 and S4 are closed.

The periodic switching of the load voltage between +Vdc

and Vdc produces a square wave voltage across the load.
Output voltage, vo
S1 and S2 are closed
Vdc

0
Time
S3 and S4 are closed
- Vdc

Figure 3

Notes
i. Although this alternating output is non-sinusoidal. It may be an
adequate ac waveform for some applications.
ii.

The current waveform in the load depends on the load

components. For the resistive load, the current waveform
matches the shape of the output voltage.

iii.

An inductive load will have a current that has more of a

sinusoidal quality than the voltage because of the filtering
property of the inductance.

iv.

An inductive load presents some considerations in designing the

switches in the full-bridge circuit because the switch currents
must be bidirectional.

Figure 4 shows the full-bridge inverter with switches implemented

as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) with feedback diodes.
Operation:

When IGBTs Q1 and Q2

are turned off, the load
current must be
continuous and will
transfer to diodes D3 and
D4, making the output
voltage Vdc, effectively
turning on the switch
paths 3 and 4 before Q3
and Q4 are turned on.
IGBTs Q3 and Q4 must
be turned on before the
load current decays to
zero.

D1

D3
Q1

Q3

vo

Vdc

D2

D4
Q4

Q2

Figure 4

The Half-Bridge Inverter

Vdc
2
vo

In this circuit, the number of

switches is reduced to 2 by
dividing the dc source voltage
into two parts with the capacitors
C1 and C2.

C1 and C2 are large and equal in

value.

Each capacitor will have voltage

Vdc/2 across it.

S1

Vdc
Vdc
2
S2

Figure 5. A half-bridge inverter using IGBTs.

Circuit Operation
Vdc
2

Each capacitor will be the same value and

will have voltage Vdc/2 across it.

When S1 is closed, the load voltage is

vo
Vdc

Vdc
2

-Vdc/2.
(a)

Vdc
2
vo

When S2 is closed, the load voltage is

Vdc/2.

Output voltage vo is square wave.

The voltage across an open switch is twice

the load voltage vo.

Blanking time for the switch is required to

prevent a short-circuit across the source.

Vdc

Vdc
2

The feedback diodes are required to

(b)
provide a continuity of current for inductive
loads.
Figure 6 Half-bridge equivalent circuit
when (a) S is closed, (b) S is closed.

10

The output voltage is a rectangular ac waveform of frequency

rad/s
T
Where T is the switching period of the IGBTs. Frequency of the inverter
output voltage can be changed by controlling T.
The output waveform feeds the load which may in general comprise RLC
components.

11

Three-Phase Step-Wave Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)

T1

VDC

T4

T3

T5

T6

Figure 7

T2

R
N

Bridge configuration is most commonly used for generating polyphase

output because the transformer required in this case is not as complicated
as in the case of other inverter circuits.

For high power applications use fast-switching thyristors (inverter-grade)

which are available in high voltage and current ratings.

For low- and medium power applications use IGBTs

12

Basically, two different modes of operation can be obtained from this circuit;
i.

180o-mode

ii.

120o-mode

13

180o-mode
In this particular mode of operation, three thyristors will be conducting at
any time, e.g. say thyristors T1, T5 and T6 are conducting. After a period
of 60o, T1, T2, and T6 will be conducting.
Switching
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6
Time

Figure 8

14

T1, T5, T6 On; Others Off

VDC

VAB = VDC

VCA = 0

VBC = - VDC
R

R
N

Figure 9

15

T1, T5, T6 On; Others Off

VAN

R

1
2
VDC VDC
R
3
R
2

R
N

VDC

1
VCN VAN VDC
3

VBN
B

2
VDC VDC
R
3
R
2

Figure 10
16

T1, T2, T6 On; Others Off

VAB = VDC
VDC

VBC = 0

VCA = - VDC
R

R
N

Figure 11

17

T1, T2, T6 On; Others Off

VNB

1
VBN VCN VNB VDC
3

VDC
R

R

1
2
VDC VDC
R
3
R
2

V AN
B

2
VDC VDC
R
3
R
2

Figure 12
18

T1, T2, T3 On; Others Off

VDC

VAB = 0

VBC = VDC

VCA = - VDC
R

R
N

Figure 13

19

T1, T2, T3 On; Others Off

VBN

R

1
2
VDC VDC
R
3
R
2

1
V AN VBN VDC
3

VDC
N
R

VCN
C

R
R

VDC VDC
R
3

Figure 14
20

Figure 15. Complete line current waveforms for a three-phase bridge inverter
with 180o conduction and a resistive load.

21

Figure 16. Complete switch current waveforms for a three-phase bridge

inverter with 180o conduction and a resistive load.

22

Figure 17. Complete phase voltage waveforms.

23

Figure 18. Complete Line-to-line voltage waveforms

24

Triggering frequency of the thyristors decides the output voltage

waves frequency.

The output voltage amplitude may be varied by changing the dc

input voltage.

25

Worked Example 1
A three-phase IGBT bridge inverter has a wye-connected resistive load
R = 2 . If the inverter frequency is 50 Hz and the DC input voltage is
Vs = 220 V, find the average, RMS, and peak currents flowing through
the IGBT.

220 V

T1

T3

T5

Figure 19
T4

T6

T2

2
N

26

Solution
Here R = 2 , f = 50 Hz, Vs = 220 V, T = 1/f = 0.02 sec. The rms line-toline voltage is

1
VLL

2 / 3

2
Vs d (t )
0

2
VS
3

The phase voltage is

VP

VLL
2
1.414

VS
x 220 V 103.69 V
3
3
3

The line current is

IL

VP 103.69

51.85 A
R
2

The load power is

PO 3VP I P 3 x 103.69 x 51.85 16129.45 W

27

The average supply current is

IS

PO
73.316 A
220

Average transistor current is

iT ( av )

I S 73.316

24.44 A
3
3

Because the line current is shared by two IGBTs, the RMS IGBT
current is
iT ( rms )

I L 51.85

36.67 A
2
2

Peak IGBT current is

iT ( peak ) 2 x I rms 36.67 x 2 51.85 A

28

Worked Example 2
A three-phase bridge inverter operating in the 180o mode is fed from a
dc source of 200 V. If the load is star-connected of 10 /phase pure
resistance, determine the rms load current, the rms current rating of the
thyristors, and the load power.

VDC = 200 V

T1

T3

T5

Figure 20
T4

10

T6

T2

iA

iB

10

iC

10
N

29

Solution
For 180o mode of operation,
peak load current

i L ( peak )

2 200
13.33 A
3 10

RMS load
i L (rms )

6.66 2 13.33 2 6.66 2

9.43 A
3

Thyristor rms current

Load power

6.66 2 13.332 6.66 2

iT (rms )
6.67 A
6

PL 9.34 2 10 3 2667 W

30

120o-Mode
In this particular mode of operation, two thyristors will be conducting at
any time, e.g., thyristors T1 and T6 will conduct for 60o and then for the
next 60o, T1 and T2 will conduct. For the next cycle of 60o, T2 and T3 will
conduct.
Switching
T1

T2

T3

Figure 21
T4

T5

T6
Time

31

This mode of operation has the advantage that there is no possibility of a

short circuit across the dc input as the period of 60o elapses between the
end of conduction of one thyristor and the beginning of conduction of the
other thyristor of the same branch.

32

T1, T6 On; Others Off

VDC

VAB = VDC

VBC =

VCA = -VDC
R

R
N

Figure 22

33

T1, T6 On; Others Off

VAN
R

VDC

VBN

VCN

Figure 23
34

Figure 24. Complete phase voltage waveforms for 120o conduction.

35

Figure 25. Complete line-to-line voltage waveforms for 120o conduction.

36

Figure 26. Complete current waveforms of a three-phase bridge

inverter with 120o conduction and resistive load.
37

Example 3
A three-phase bridge inverter operating in the 120o mode is fed from a
dc source of 200 V. If the load is star-connected of 10 /phase pure
resistance, determine the rms load current, the rms current rating of
the thyristors, and the load power.

VDC = 200 V

T1

T3

T5

Figure 27
T4

10

T6

T2

iA

iB

10

iC

10
N

38

Solution
For 120o mode of operation,
peak load and thyristor current

i L ( peak )

200
10 A
2 10

RMS load current

10 2 10 2 0 2
i L (rms )
8.16 A
3
RMS thyristor current

iT (rms ) 10 3 5.8 A
Load power

PL 8.16 2 10 3 2000 W

39

Multilevel Inverters

The H-bridge and the half-bridge inverters can be classified as twolevel inverters.

Recently, multilevel voltage inverters have excited widespread

interest.

Multilevel inverters offer better performance than two-level inverters,

but they are more complex and costly and are employed primarily in
high-voltage applications.

40

Multilevel Inverters with Independent DC Sources

synthesizes a desired voltage from several independent

sources of dc voltages, which may be obtained from either
batteries, fuel cells, or solar cells.

This inverter topology can avoid extra clamping diodes or

voltage-balancing capacitors.

A 7-level cascaded-inverters based inverter, for example, will

have three independent DC sources and three full-bridge
cells.

Minimum harmonic distortion can be obtained by controlling

the conducting angles at different inverter level.

A single-phase m-level configuration of such an inverter is shown in

Fig 28
41

Figure 28. Single-phase structure of a multilevel cascaded inverter.

42

For a three-phase system, the output voltage of the three cascaded

inverters can be connected in either wye or delta configuration.

Figure 29. A general three-phase wye-configuration multilevel cascadedinverter.

43

Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverters

S1

V1

A multilevel inverter circuit that has the

advantage of using a single dc source
rather than multiple sources is the
diode-clamped multilevel inverter.
Figure 30 illustrate the basic idea for
realising a single-phase diodeclamped multilevel inverter,
specifically a five-level inverter.

Vdc

S2

V2
Vdc

S3

V3

Vdc

Vdc

S4
V4

Vdc

vo

4
V5

S5

Figure 30. Generic five-level inverter.

44
80%

S1

V1

Circuit design

Vdc

The four capacitors C1 through C4 make

up a voltage divider,

S2

V2

The centre node of the divider and one

terminal of the load are grounded.
Node voltages created are V1 through
V5, with centre node voltage V3 = 0.
Only one of the five switches S1 through
S5 are closed at any one time
Instantaneous load voltage is equal to
the corresponding node voltage of the
closed switch.

Vdc

S3

V3

Vdc

Vdc

S4
V4

Vdc

vo

4
V5

S5

Figure 31
45

For the same number of node voltage levels, the number of voltagedivider capacitors in the diode-clamped topology can be reduced by
half using a bridge structure, as shown in Figure 32.
Circuit operation

The dc voltage source is

connected to a pair of series
capacitors

Each capacitor charged to

Vdc/2

vo
Vdc

The output voltage has five

levels, namely, Vdc, Vdc/2, 0,
-Vdc/2, and Vdc.

Figure 32

46

Analysis for one-half of circuit for vA = Vdc

With S1 and S2 closed and S3

and S4 open, vA = Vdc.

The diodes are off for this

condition.

S1

S2

Vdc

S3

vA = Vdc

S4

Figure 33

47

Analysis for one-half of circuit for vA = 0

S1

With S1 and S2 open and S3

and S4 closed, vA = 0.

The diodes are also off for this

condition.

S2

Vdc

S3

vA = 0

S4

Figure 34
48

Analysis for one-half of circuit for vA = Vdc/2.

To produce voltage of Vdc/2, S2

and S3 are closed, and S1 and
S4 are open.

The diodes are on for this

condition.

The voltage vA is that of the

lower capacitor, at Vdc/2,
connected through the antiparallel diode path that can carry
load current in either direction.

S1

S2

Vdc

S3

vA = Vdc
2

S4

Figure 35

49

Using a similar analysis, the right half of the bridge can also produce
the voltages Vdc, 0 , and Vdc/2.

The output voltage is the difference of the voltages between each

half bridge, resulting in the five levels,

1
1

vo Vdc , Vdc , 0, - Vdc , - Vdc

2
2

More output voltage levels are achieved with additional capacitors and
switches.

50

Three-Phase Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverters

1.

Like the single-phase full-bridge circuit, the half-bridge single-phase

inverters can be expanded to three-phase applications.

2.

Figure 36 shows a three-phase diode-clamped multilevel inverter

circuit.

3.

This circuit can be operated to have a stepped-level output similar

to the six-step converter, or, as is most often the case, it can be
operated to have a pulse-width-modulated output.

51

Vdc

Figure 36. A three-phase diode-clampled multilevel

inverter.
80%

52

Summary
1. In high power system, the multilevel inverters can appropriately
replace the exist system that use traditional multi-pulse
converters without the need for transformers.
2. All three multilevel inverters can be used in reactive power
compensation without having the voltage unbalance problem.
3. In back-to-back intertie application, however, it is not possible to
use multilevel inverter using cascaded-inverters with separate DC
sources because a short circuit will be introduced when two backto-back inverter are not switching synchronously.
4. On the other hand, the structure of separated dc sources is well
suited for various renewable energy sources such as fuel cell,
photovoltaic, biomass, etc.
5. This structure is, therefore, suited for an ac power supply in
vehicle system utilities.
6. In the adjustable speed drive application, the multilevel inverters
can be used for a utility compatible adjustable speed drive (ASD)
with the input from the utility constant frequency ac source and
the output to the variable frequency ac load.

53

Table 1.4 compares the power component requirements per

phase leg among the three multilevel voltage source inverter
mentioned above.
2. Table 1.4 shows that the number of main switches and main
diodes, needed by the inverters to achieve the same number
of voltage levels, is the same.
3. Clamping diodes do not need in flying-capacitor and cascadedinverter configuration, while balancing capacitors do not need
in diode clamp and cascaded-inverter configuration.
4. Implicitly, the multilevel converter using cascaded-inverters
requires the least number of components.
1.

Another advantage of cascaded-inverter is circuit layout

flexibility. Modularized circuit layout and packaging is possible
because each level has the same structure, and there are no
extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitor. The
number of output voltage levels can be easily adjusted by
adding or removing the full-bridge cells.
54

Table 2. Comparison of power component

requirements per phase leg between the separate
DC sources- and diode-clamped multilevel
inverters.

55