HowDifferentCulturesUnderstand

Time
RICHARDLEWIS,RICHARDLEWISCOMMUNICATIONS
JUN.1,2014,8:35PM

TimeisseeninaparticularlydifferentlightbyEasternandWesterncultures,andevenwithinthese
groupingsassumesquitedissimilaraspectsfromcountrytocountry.IntheWesternHemisphere,the
UnitedStatesandMexicoemploytimeinsuchdiametricallyopposingmannersthatitcausesintense
frictionbetweenthetwopeoples.InWesternEurope,theSwissattitudetotimebearslittlerelationto
thatofneighboringItaly.ThaisdonotevaluatethepassingoftimeinthesamewaythattheJapanese
do.InBritainthefuturestretchesoutinfrontofyou.InMadagascaritflowsintothebackofyour
headfrombehind.

LinearTime
LetusbeginwiththeAmericanconceptoftime,fortheirsisthemostexpensive,asanyonewho
hashadtodealwithAmericandoctors,dentistsorlawyerswilltellyou.
ForanAmerican,timeistrulymoney.Inaprofitorientedsociety,timeisaprecious,even
scarce,commodity.Itflowsfast,likeamountainriverinthespring,andifyouwanttobenefit
fromitspassing,youhavetomovefastwithit.Americansarepeopleofactiontheycannotbear
tobeidle.Thepastisover,butthepresentyoucanseize,parcelandpackageandmakeitwork
foryouintheimmediatefuture.Figure4.1illustrateshowAmericansviewtime,andFigure4.2
showshowtheyuseit.

RichardLewis

Figure4.1:Americanflowoftime.

RichardLewis

Figure4.2:CarvingupAmericantime.
IntheU.S.youhavetomakemoney,otherwiseyouarenobody.Ifyouhave40yearsofearning
capacityandyouwanttomake$4million,thatmeans$100,000perannum.Ifyoucanachieve
thisin250workingdays,thatcomesto$400adayor$50anhour.Withthisorientation
Americanscansaythattheirtimecosts$50anhour.Americansalsotalkaboutwasting,
spending,budgetingandsavingtime.
Thisseemslogicalenough,untilonebeginstoapplytheideatoothercultures.Hasthe
Portuguesefisherman,whofailedtohookafishintwohours,wastedhistime?HastheSicilian
priest,failingtomakeaconvertonThursday,lostground?HavetheGermancomposer,the
Frenchpoet,theSpanishpainter,devoidofideaslastweek,missedopportunitiesthatcanbe
qualifiedinmonetaryterms?
TheAmericansarenottheonlyoneswhosanctifytimekeeping,foritispracticallyareligionin
SwitzerlandandGermany,too.Thesecountries,alongwithBritain,theAngloSaxonworldin
general,theNetherlands,AustriaandScandinavia,havealinearvisionoftimeandaction.They
suspect,liketheAmericans,thattimeispassing(beingwasted)withoutdecisionsbeingmadeor
actionsbeingperformed.
Thesegroupsarealsomonochronicthatis,theyprefertodoonlyonethingatatime,to
concentrateonitanddoitwithinafixedschedule.Theythinkthatinthiswaytheygetmore
thingsdoneandmoreefficiently.Furthermore,beingimbuedwiththeProtestantworkethic,
theyequateworkingtimewithsuccess:theharderyouworkthemorehours,thatisthe
moresuccessfulyouwillbeandthemoremoneyyouwillmake.Thisideamakesperfectsenseto
Americanears,wouldcarrylessweightinclassconsciousBritain,andwouldbeviewedas
entirelyunrealisticinSouthernEuropeancountries,whereauthority,privilegeandbirthright
negatethetheoryateveryturn.InasocietysuchasexistedintheSovietUnion,onecould
postulatethatthosewhoachievedsubstantialremunerationbyworkinglittle(ornotatall)were
themostsuccessfulofall.

MultiActiveTime
SouthernEuropeansaremultiactive,ratherthanlinearactive[readLewis'sanalysisofcultures
asmultiactive,linearactive,andreactive].Themorethingstheycandoatthesametime,the
happierandthemorefulfilledtheyfeel.Theyorganizetheirtime(andlives)inanentirely
differentwayfromAmericans,GermansandtheSwiss.Multiactivepeoplesarenotvery
interestedinschedulesorpunctuality.Theypretendtoobservethem,especiallyifalinearactive
partnerorcolleagueinsistsonit,buttheyconsiderthepresentrealitytobemoreimportantthan
appointments.Intheirorderingofthings,priorityisgiventotherelativethrillorsignificanceof
eachmeeting.
Spaniards,ItaliansandArabswillignorethepassingoftimeifitmeansthatconversationswill
beleftunfinished.Forthem,completingahumantransactionisthebestwaytheycaninvest
theirtime.ForanItalian,timeconsiderationswillusuallybesubjectedtohumanfeelings.Why
areyousoangrybecauseIcameat9:30?heaskshisGermancolleague.Becauseitsays9:00in
mydiary,saystheGerman.Thenwhydontyouwrite9:30andthenwellbothbehappy?isa
logicalItalianresponse.Thebusinesswehavetodoandourcloserelationsaresoimportantthat
itisirrelevantatwhattimewemeet.Themeetingiswhatcounts.GermansandSwisscannot
swallowthis,asitoffendstheirsenseoforder,oftidiness,ofplanning.
ASpaniardwouldtakethesideoftheItalian.ThereisareasonfortheSpaniardslaxadherence
topunctuality.TheGermanbelievesinasimpletruthscientifictruth.TheSpaniard,in
contrast,isalwaysconsciousofthedoubletruththatofimmediaterealityaswellasthatofthe
poeticwhole.TheGermanthinkstheyseeeyetoeye,asinFigure4.3,whiletheSpaniard,with
theconsciousnessofdoubletruth,seesitasinFigure4.4.

RichardLewis

Figure4.3:WhatGermansandSpaniardsthinktheysee.
Asfarasmeetingsareconcerned,itisbetternottoturnupstrictlyontimeforSpanish
appointments.InSpain,punctualitymessesupschedules,asillustratedinFigure4.5.

RichardLewis

Figure4.4:HowtheSpaniardactuallysees.

RichardLewis

Figure4.5:Spanishschedules:Intheory,inreality.
FewNorthernEuropeansorNorthAmericanscanreconcilethemselvestothemultiactiveuseoftime.
GermansandSwiss,unlesstheyreachanunderstandingoftheunderlyingpsychology,willbedrivento

distraction.Germansseecompartmentalizationofprograms,schedules,proceduresandproductionas
thesurestroutetoefficiency.TheSwiss,evenmoretimeandregulationdominated,havemade
precisionanationalsymbol.Thisappliestotheirwatchindustry,theiropticalinstruments,their
pharmaceuticalproducts,theirbanking.Planes,busesandtrainsleaveonthedot.Accordingly,
everythingcanbeexactlycalculatedandpredicted.
Incountriesinhabitedbylinearactivepeople,timeisclockandcalendarrelated,segmentedinan
abstractmannerforourconvenience,measurement,anddisposal.Inmultiactivecultureslikethe
ArabandLatinspheres,timeiseventorpersonalityrelated,asubjectivecommoditywhichcanbe
manipulated,molded,stretched,ordispensedwith,irrespectiveofwhattheclocksays.

Ihavetorush,saystheAmerican,mytimeisup.TheSpaniardorArab,scornfulofthis
submissiveattitudetoschedules,wouldonlyusethisexpressionifdeathwereimminent.

CyclicTime
BoththelinearactivenorthernerandthemultiactiveLatinthinkthattheymanagetimeinthe
bestwaypossible.InsomeEasterncultures,however,theadaptationofhumanstotimeisseen
asaviablealternative.Inthesecultures,timeisviewedneitheraslinearnoreventrelationship
related,butascyclic.Eachdaythesunrisesandsets,theseasonsfollowoneanother,the
heavenlybodiesrevolvearoundus,peoplegrowoldanddie,buttheirchildrenreconstitutethe
process.Weknowthiscyclehasgoneonfor100,000yearsandmore.Cyclicaltimeisnota
scarcecommodity.Thereseemsalwaystobeanunlimitedsupplyofitjustaroundthenextbend.
AstheysayintheEast,whenGodmadetime,Hemadeplentyofit.
Itsnotsurprising,then,thatbusinessdecisionsarearrivedatinadifferentwayfrominthe
West.WesternersoftenexpectanAsiantomakeaquickdecisionortotreatacurrentdealonits
presentmerits,irrespectiveofwhathashappenedinthepast.Asianscannotdothis.Thepast
formulatesthecontextualbackgroundtothepresentdecision,aboutwhichinanycase,as
Asians,theymustthinklongtermtheirhandsaretiedinmanyways.Americansseetime
passingwithoutdecisionsbeingmadeoractionsperformedashavingbeenwasted.Asiansdo
notseetimeasracingawayunutilizedinalinearfuture,butcomingaroundagaininacircle,
wherethesameopportunities,risksanddangerswillrepresentthemselveswhenpeopleareso
manydays,weeksormonthswiser.Asproofoftheveracityofthecyclicalnatureoftime,how
oftendowe(intheWest)say,IfIhadknownthenwhatIknownow,Iwouldneverhavedone
whatIdid?
Figure4.6comparesthespeedofWesternactionchainswithAsianreflection.TheAmerican,
GermanandSwissgohomesatisfiedthatalltaskshavebeencompleted.TheFrenchorItalian
mightleavesomemoppingupforthefollowingday.JohnPaulFieg,authorofACommon
Core:ThaisandAmericans,describingtheThaiattitudetowardtime,sawitasapoolonecould
graduallywalkaround.ThismetaphorappliestomostAsians,who,insteadoftacklingproblems
immediatelyinsequentialfashion,circlearoundthemforafewdaysorweeksbeforecommitting
themselves.Afterasuitableperiodofreflection,tasksA,DandFmayindeedseemworthyof
pursuing(refertoFigure4.6).TasksB,CandEmaybequietlydropped.Contemplationofthe
wholescenehasindicated,however,thattaskG,perhapsnotevenenvisagedatallearlieron,
mightbethemostsignificantofall.
InaBuddhistculture(e.g.,Thailand,Tibet),notonlytimebutalsolifeitselfgoesaroundina
circle.Whateverweplan,howeverweorganizeourparticularworld,generationfollows
generationgovernmentsandrulerswillsucceedeachothercropswillbeharvestedmonsoons,
earthquakesandothercatastropheswillrecurtaxeswillbepaidthesunandmoonwillriseand
setstocksandshareswillriseandfall.EventheAmericanswillnotchangesuchevents,
certainlynotbyrushingthings.

RichardLewis

Figure4.6:Westernactionchains/Asianreflection.

Chinese
TheChinese,likemostAsians,walkaroundthepoolinordertomakewellconsidered
decisions,buttheyalsohaveakeensenseofthevalueoftime.Thiscanbenoticedespeciallyin
theirattitudetowardtakingupotherpeoplestime,forwhichtheyfrequentlyapologize.Atthe
endofameetinginChina,itiscustomarytothanktheparticipantsforcontributingtheir
valuabletime.Punctualityonarrivalisalsoconsideredimportantmoresothaninmanyother
Asian
countries.Indeed,whenmeetingsarescheduledbetweentwopeople,itisnotunusualfora
Chinesetoarrive15to30minutesearlyinordertofinishthebusinessbeforethetime
appointedforitsdiscussion,sonotstealinganyoftheotherpersonstime!Itisalsoconsidered
politeinChinatoannounce,10or15minutesafterameetinghasbegun,thatonewillsoonhave
tobegoing.Again,theworthyaiminvolvedistoeconomizeontheiruseofyourtime.The
Chinesewillnotgo,ofcourse,untilthetransactionhasbeencompleted,butthepointhasbeen
made.
Thisisindeedadoublestandard.TheChinesepenchantforhumilitydemandsthattheother
personstimebeseenaspreciousontheotherhand,theChineseexpectaliberalamountoftime
tobeallocatedforrepeatedconsiderationofthedetailsofatransactionandtothecareful
nurturingofpersonalrelationshipssurroundingthedeal.Theyfrequentlycomplainthat
Americans,inChinatodobusiness,oftenhavetocatchtheirplanebacktotheU.S.inthe
middleofthediscussion.TheAmericanseesthefactsashavingbeenadequatelydiscussed
theChinesefeelthattheyhavenotyetattainedthatdegreeofclosenessthatsatisfyingsenseof
commontrustandintentthatisfortheChinesethebedrockofthedealandofother
transactionsinthefuture.

Japanese
TheJapanesehaveakeensenseoftheunfoldingorunwrappingoftimethisiswelldescribed
byJoyHendryinherbookWrappingCulture.PeoplefamiliarwithJapanarewellawareofthe
contrastbetweenthebreakneckpacemaintainedbytheJapanesefactoryworkerontheone
hand,andtheunhurriedcontemplationtobeobservedinJapanesegardensortheagonizingly
slowtempoofaNohplayontheother.WhatHendryemphasizes,however,isthemeticulous,

resolutemannerinwhichtheJapanesesegmenttime.Thissegmentationdoesnotfollowthe
AmericanorGermanpattern,wheretasksareassignedinalogicalsequenceaimedatmaximum
efficiencyandspeedinimplementation.TheJapanesearemoreconcernednotwithhowlong
somethingtakestohappen,butwithhowtimeisdividedupintheinterestsofproperness,
courtesyandtradition.
Forinstance,inmostJapanesesocialgatherings,therearevariousphasesandlayersmarked
beginningsandendingsforretirementparties,weddings,parentteacherassociation
meetingsandsoon.
InJapansconformistandcarefullyregulatedsociety,peopleliketoknowatalltimeswherethey
standandwheretheyareat:thisappliesbothtosocialandbusinesssituations.Themandatory,
twominuteexchangeofbusinesscardsbetweenexecutivesmeetingeachotherforthefirsttime
isoneoftheclearestexamplesofatimeactivitysegmentbeingusedtomarkthebeginningofa
relationship.AnotherexampleisthestartandfinishofalltypesofclassesinJapan,wherethe
lessoncannotbeginwithoutbeingprecededbyaformalrequestonthepartofthestudentsfor
theteachertostart.Similarly,theymustofferaritualisticexpressionofappreciationattheend
oftheclass.
Othereventsthatrequirenotonlyclearlydefinedbeginningsandendingsbutalsounambiguous
phaseswitchingsignalsaretheteaceremony,NewYearroutines,annualcleaningofthehouse,
cherryblossomviewing,springoffensives(strikes),midsummerfestivities,giftgiving
routines,companypicnics,sakedrinkingsessions,eventheperipheralritualssurroundingjudo,
karateandkendosessions.AJapanesepersoncannotenteranyoftheaboveactivitiesinthe
casual,directmanneraWesternermightadopt.TheAmericanorNorthernEuropeanhasa
naturaltendencytomakeaquickapproachtotheheartofthings.TheJapanese,indirect
contrast,mustexperienceanunfoldingorunwrappingofthesignificantphasesoftheevent.It
hastodowithAsianindirectness,butinJapanitalsoinvolvesloveofcompartmentalizationof
procedure,oftradition,ofthebeautyofritual.
Tosummarize,whendealingwiththeJapanese,youcanassumethattheywillbegenerousin
theirallocationoftimetoyouoryourparticulartransaction.Inreturn,youareadvisedtotryto
dotherightthingattherighttime.InJapan,formandsymbolsaremoreimportantthan
content.

BacktotheFuture
Inthelinearactive,industrializedWesternculturestimeisseenasaroadalongwhichwe
proceed.Lifeissometimesreferredtoasajourneydeathisoftenreferredtoastheendofthe
road.Weimagineourselvesashavingtraveledalongthepartoftheroadthatisbehindus(the
past)andweseetheuntroddenpathofthefuturestretchingoutinfrontofus.
Linearorientedpeopledonotregardthefutureasentirelyunknowablefortheyhavealready
nudgeditalongcertainchannelsbymeticulousplanning.Americanexecutives,withtheir
quarterlyforecasts,willtellyouhowmuchmoneytheyaregoingtomakeinthenextthree
months.TheSwissstationmasterwillassureyou,withoutanyhesitation,thatthetrainfrom
ZurichtoLuzernwillleaveat9:03tomorrowmorningandarriveatexactly10:05.Heisprobably
right,too.Watches,calendarsandcomputersaredevicesthatnotonlyencouragepunctuality
butalsogetusintothehabitofworkingtowardtargetsanddeadlines.Inasense,weare
makingthefuturehappen.Wecannotknoweverything(itwouldbedisastrousforhorseracing
anddetectivestories),butweeliminatefutureunknownstothebestofourability.Ourpersonal
programmingtellsusthatoverthenextyearwearegoingtogetupatcertaintimes,workso
manyhours,takevacationsfordesignatedperiods,playtennisonSaturdaymorningsandpay
ourtaxesonfixeddates.
Cyclictimeisnotseenasastraightroadleadingfromourfeettothehorizon,butasacurvedone
whichinoneyearstimewillleadusthroughsceneryandconditionsverysimilartowhatwe
experienceatthepresentmoment.Observersofcyclictimearelessdisciplinedintheirplanning
ofthefuture,sincetheybelievethatitcannotbemanagedandthathumansmakelifeeasierfor
themselvesbyharmonizingwiththelawsandcycliceventsofnature.Yetinsuchculturesa
generalformofplanningisstillpossible,formanythingsarefairlyregularandwellunderstood.
Culturesobservingbothlinearandcyclicconceptsoftimeseethepastassomethingwehaveput

behindusandthefutureassomethingthatliesbeforeus.InMadagascar,theoppositeisthe
case(seeFigure4.7).TheMalagasyimaginethefutureasflowingintothebackoftheirheads,or
passingthemfrombehind,thenbecomingthepastasitstretchesoutinfrontofthem.Thepast
isinfrontoftheireyesbecauseitisvisible,knownandinfluential.Theycanlookatit,enjoyit,
learnfromit,evenplaywithit.TheMalagasypeoplespendaninordinateamountoftime
consultingtheirancestors,exhumingtheirbones,evenpartyingwiththem.
Bycontrast,theMalagasyconsiderthefutureunknowable.Itisbehindtheirheadwheretheydo
nothaveeyes.Theirplansforthisunknownareawillbefarfrommeticulous,forwhatcanthey
bebasedon?BusesinMadagascarleave,not
accordingtoapredeterminedtimetable,butwhenthebusisfull.Thesituationtriggersthe
event.Notonlydoesthismakeeconomicsense,butitisalsothetimethatmostpassengershave
chosentoleave.Consequently,inMadagascarstocksarenotreplenisheduntilshelvesareempty,
fillingstationsordergasonlywhentheyrundry,andhordesofwouldbepassengersatthe
airportfindthat,inspiteoftheirtickets,inrealityeverybodyiswaitlisted.Theactual
assignationofseatstakesplacebetweentheopeningofthecheckindeskandthe(eventual)
departureoftheplane.

RichardLewis

Figure4.7:Malagasyconceptoftime.

ValidityofTimeConcepts
TheMalagasy,Thais,Japanese,Spaniardsandmanyotherswillcontinuetousetimeinways
thatwillconflictwithlinearorientedculturesinsocialandbusinessspheres.
Theobjectiveviewoftimeanditssequentialeffectsis,however,favorabletohistoricityandto
everythingconnectedwithindustrializedorganization.Justasweconceiveofourobjectified
timeasextendinginthefutureinthesamewaythatitextendsinthepast,wemirrorourrecords
ofthepastinourestimates,budgets,andschedules.Webuildupacommercialstructurebased
ontimeproratavalues:timewages,rent,credit,interest,depreciationcharges,andinsurance
premiums.
Ingeneralweareconfident(inNorthAmericaandNorthernEurope)thatwehaveapproached

theoptimummanagementoftime.Manycultures(includingpowerfuleconomiesofthefuture,
suchasChina,JapanandSoutheastAsia)willonlyallowthelinearorientedconceptoftimeto
dictatetheirbehaviortoalimitedextent.Industrialorganizationdemandsacertaindegreeof
synchronizationofschedulesandtargets,buttheunderlyingphilosophiesconcerningthebest
andmostefficientuseoftimeandthemannerinwhichitshouldbespentmayremain
radicallydifferent.
ThisanecdotewasprovidedbylinguistandcrossculturestudiesexpertRichardLewis.Read
hisworkindetailin"WhenCulturesCollide"andcheckouthisservicesforbusinessesand
individualsatRichardLewisCommunications.

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