Energy Efficient Buildings

Furnaces and Boilers

More than 85% of homes in the U.S. are heated with furnaces or hot
water boilers. Furnaces burn natural gas, propane (liquefied petroleum
gas), or fuel oil to heat air which is supplied to the house. Boilers burn
natural gas, propane (liquefied petroleum gas), or fuel oil to heat water
which is pumped through radiators or under the floor of the house.

Residential furnace
Source: www.nyserda.ny.gov

Atmospheric hot-water boiler

Furnace/Boiler Fuel
Most furnaces and boilers burn natural gas, fuel oil or liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) as fuel. Natural gas is composed of about 89%
methane, 8% ethane and 3% propane. Fuel oil is diesel fuel #2.
Liquefied petroleum gas is primarily propane. Properties of these fuels
are shown below.
Density
Lower Heating
Value
Higher Heating
Value

Natural Gas
0.042 lb/ft3
21,500 Btu/lb

Fuel Oil
53 lb/ft3
18,500 Btu/lb

Propane (LPG)
4.2 lb/gal
84,300 Btu/gal

23,900 Btu/lb

19,700 Btu/lb

91,600 Btu/gal

During the combustion process, fuel molecules combine with oxygen

and reform as water and carbon dioxide. The heat of reaction is the
heat transferred from the combustion chamber during the combustion
reaction. The heat of reaction depends on phase of water in the
products of combustion.
If the H2O in the combustion gasses leaves as vapor, it carries latent
energy with it. In this case, the energy transferred from the fuel is
lower, and is given by the Lower Heating Value (LHV).
If the H2O in the combustion gasses leaves as a liquid, then the latent
energy in the H20 was removed from the combustion chamber. In this
case, the energy transferred from the fuel is higher, and is given by the
Higher Heating Value (HHV).
The dew-point temperature of H2O vapor in the products of natural gas
combustion is about 140F. Thus, if exhaust temperature is greater
than 140F, exhaust leaves as vapor and heat of reaction is the LHV. If
exhaust temperature is less than 140F, H2O condenses to liquid giving
up heat, and heat of reaction is the HHV. For this reason, high
efficiency furnaces and boilers use large heat exchangers to reduce the
temperature of the exhaust below 140 F to utilize the entire HHV of the
fuel. This step change from LHV to HHV increases the efficiency of
these devices.

Combustion Efficiency
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which energy is released when
oxygen reacts with fuel molecules to produce carbon dioxide and
water. Understanding combustion is important for understanding how
to maximize the efficiency of fuel burning furnaces and boilers.
Excess Air
Assuming that natural gas is made up of 100% methane, the equation
for combustion of natural gas with atmospheric air is:
CH4 + 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2 H2O +7.52 N2
In this equation, just enough oxygen is supplied to break apart the fuel
molecules (CH4) and create CO2 and H20. The nitrogen in air does not
react. The minimum amount of air required for complete combustion is
called the stoichiometric air. In this equation, stoichiometric air is
achieved when 2 moles of atmospheric air combine with one mole of
methane. Combining 3 moles of atmospheric air with one mole of
methane would result in excess air.
2

The ratio of the mass of air required to completely combust a given

mass of fuel is called the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, AFs. AFs can
be calculated for the combustion equation shown above using the
molecular weights of the fuel and air.
AFs = mass air / mass fuel = [ 2 (16 x 2 + 3.76 x 14 x 2) ] / [ 12 + 1 x
4 ] = 17.2
Thus, for combustion of methane (natural gas), AFs is about 17.2 lbair/lb-ng.
The quantity of air supplied in excess of stoichiometric air is called
excess combustion air, EA. The fraction of excess combustion air can
be written in terms of the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, AFs, the
combustion air mass flow rate, m ca, and natural gas mass flow rate,
mng.
EA = [(mca / mng) / AFs] 1
Excess combustion air dilutes the combustion gasses and lowers the
temperature of the gasses, which results in decreased efficiency.
However, insufficient combustion air is even more problematic since
insufficient combustion air results in unburned hydrocarbons escaping
in the exhaust. Unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust waste fuel
energy, are a safety hazard, and result in smog formation. Thus, it is
much better to error on the side of excess air than insufficient air. The
recommended quantity of excess combustion air for furnaces and
boilers is 10%. This ensures sufficient combustion air so that all
hydrocarbon molecules are combusted, while minimizing the reduction
in combustion efficiency.
Temperature of Combustion
The temperature of combustion (Tc) is the temperature of the products
of combustion if all energy from the reaction enters the products. An
energy balance on the combustion of natural gas gives:
mca hca + mng hng mp hp = 0
(mca Cpa Tca) + mng (Cp,ng Tng + hr,ng) mp Cpp Tc = 0
where m is mass, h is enthalpy, Cp is specific heat, T is temperature,
the subscript ca is combustion air, the subscript ng is natural gas, and
the subscript p is product. The specific heats of air, natural gas,
carbon dioxide and water are about:

Cpa Cpng Cpp .26 (Btu/lb F) = Cpp

After substituting Cpp, the temperature of combustion can be
approximated as:
Tc = (mca Cpp Tca + mng Cpp Tng + mng hrrng) / (mp Cpp)
Further, Tca = Tng and mca + mng = mp. Substituting these relations
gives:
Tc = Tca [(mca + mng) / mp] + [(mng hRng) / (mp Cpp)]
Tc = Tca + hR,NG / [ {1 + (mca/mng)} Cpp ]
Tc = Tca + LHV / [ (1 + (1 + EA) AFs) Cpp ]
Thus, the temperature of combustion, Tc, can be approximated from
inlet combustion air temperature, Tca, lower heating value, LHV, excess
combustion air, EA, stoichiometric air fuel ratio, AFs, and specific heat
of combustion gasses, and Cpp (~ 0.30 Btu/lbm-F).
Example
Calculate the effective temperature of combustion, Tc, for combustion
of natural gas if the temperature of the combustion air, Tca, is 72F and
10% excess combustion air is supplied to the burner.
Tc = Tca + LHV / [ (1 + (1 + EA) AFs) Cpp ]
Tc = 72 F + 21,500 Btu/lb / [ (1 + (1 + .10) (17.2)) (0.30) Btu/lb-F ] =
3,670 F
Combustion Efficiency
The combustion efficiency, is the ratio of useful energy extracted
from the combustion gasses, Qu, to the total fuel energy supplied, Qfuel.
= (Qu / Qfuel)
When the exhaust temperature, Tex, is greater than 140 F, the water
formed during combustion equation remains in the vapor state. Thus,
the energy extracted from combustion gasses as the temperature
drops from Tc to Tex is sensible energy. The change in sensible energy
is the product of the specific heat and the temperature change. In this
case, combustion efficiency can be written as:

= [mp Cpp (Tc-Tex)] / mng HHVng

= [(mca + mng) Cpp (Tc-Tex)] / mng HHVng
= [ 1 + (mca/mng) ] [Cpp(Tc-Tex) / HHVng]
= [ 1+ (1+EA) AFs ] Cpp (Tc-Tex)/ HHVng
= [ 1+ (1+EA) AFs ] Cpp (Tc-Tex)/ HHVng
When the exhaust temperature, Tex, falls below 140 F, the water
formed during combustion condenses from vapor to liquid and releases
heat in the process. The heat released during phase change is called
latent heat. The latent heat released is:
Qlat = 0
(when Tex > 140 F)
(when Tex < 140 F)

Qlat

HHV

LHV

This formulation of Qlat assumes a step change from liquid to vapor at

precisely 140 F. In practice, the temperatures of individual water
molecules vary and the measured temperature of the gas is the
average of the individual molecules.
Thus, when the average
temperature of the gas is 140 F, the temperatures of some molecules
are greater than 140 F and the water will be in the vapor state;
similarly, the temperatures of some molecules are less than 140 F and
the water will be in the liquid state. Thus, the latent energy is released
over a range of about 10 F, and the formulation above is a step-change
simplification of a continuous process. Using this definition of latent
heat, a more general equation for combustion efficiency is:
= [ {1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp (Tc Tex) + Qlat ] / HHV
In summary, the three required input values for computing combustion
efficiency are:

entering combustion air temperature Tca

exhaust gas temperature, Tex
excess combustion air, EA

These three values are easily measured by a combustion analyzer.

Example
Calculate the combustion efficiency of natural gas furnace if the
temperature of the combustion air, Tca, is 72F, the temperature of the
exhaust, Tex, is 350 F, and 10% excess combustion air is supplied to
the burner.
From previous example:
Tc = Tca + LHV / [ (1 + (1 + EA) AFs) Cpp ]
Tc = 72 F + 21,500 Btu/lb / [ (1 + (1 + .10) (17.2)) (0.30) Btu/lb-F ] =
3,670 F
Qlat = 0 (since Tex > 140 F)
= [ {1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp (Tc Tex) + Qlat ] / HHV
= [ {1+ (1+0.5) (17.2)} 0.30 Btu/lb-F (3,670 - 350) F + 0 ] / 23,900
(Btu/lb) = 83.0 %

Example
Calculate the combustion efficiency of natural gas furnace if the
temperature of the combustion air, Tca, is 72F, the temperature of the
exhaust, Tex, is 120 F, and 10% excess combustion air is supplied to
the burner.
Tc = Tca + LHV / [ (1 + (1 + EA) AFs) Cpp ]
Tc = 72 F + 21,500 Btu/lb / [ (1 + (1 + .10) (17.2)) (0.30) Btu/lb-F ] =
3,670 F
Qlat = HHV LHV = (23,900 21,500) Btu/lb = 2,400 Btu/lb (since Tex
< 140 F)
= [ {1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp (Tc Tex) + Qlat ] / HHV
= [ {1+ (1+0.5) (17.2)} 0.30 Btu/lb-F (3,670 - 120) F + 2,400 Btu/lb ]
/ 23,900 (Btu/lb)
= 98.8 %

Efficiency Improvement from Reducing Excess Combustion Air

As discussed earlier, the minimum amount of air required for complete
combustion is called the stoichiometric air. Combustion efficiency is
maximized when stoichiometric air is supplied to the fuel. Supplying
less than stoichiometric air causes some fuel to be exhausted without
combusting, which increases fuel use, air pollution and the danger of
uncontrolled combustion in the exhaust stack. Supplying more than
stoichiometric air dilutes the combustion gasses, lowers combustion
temperature and reduces combustion efficiency. Thus, best practice is
to supply only slightly more oxygen (combustion air) than the
stoichiometric minimum, so that unburned fuel is avoided and the
efficiency penalty from excess combustion air is minimized. The
common target of excess combustion air to guarantee complete
combustion is about 10%.
The quantity of excess air in the combustion gasses is sometimes
expressed as fraction oxygen.
For methane (natural gas) the
conversion between fraction oxygen, FO 2, and excess combustion air,
ECA, are:
FO2 = 2 ECA / (10.52 + 9.52 ECA)

ECA = 10.52 FO2 / (2 9.52 FO2)

Thus, 10% excess air produces combustion gasses with about 1.7% O2
content.
Example
A household furnace burns 50,000 Btu/hr of natural gas. Combustion
air enters the burner at 70 F. A combustion analysis of exhaust gasses
shows that the flue temperature is 350 F and the quantity of excess air
is 50%. Calculate the current combustion efficiency, the combustion
efficiency if the excess air were reduced to 10%, and the resulting fuel
savings.
Tc1 = Tca + LHV / [{1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp]
Tc1 = 70 F + 21,500 Btu/lb / [{1 + (1 + .50) 17.2} 0.30 Btu/lb-F] =
2,744 F
Qlat = 0 since Tex > 140 F
= [{1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp (Tc Tex) + Qlat] / HHV
= [ {1 + (1 + .50) 17.2} 0.30 Btu/lb-F (2,744 350 F) + 0 ] / 23,900
Btu/lbm
= 80.5%

The heat delivered to the system, Qout, would be:

Qout = Qf1 = 50,000 Btu/hr x 80.5% = 40,269 Btu/hr
If excess air were reduced to 10%, the combustion efficiency would
increase to:
Tc2 = Tca + LHV / [{1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpp]
Tc2 = 70 F + 21,500 Btu/lb / [{1 + (1 + 0.10) 17.2} 0.30 Btu/lb-F] =
3,668 F
= [{1 + (1 + ECA) AFs} Cpg (Tc Tex) + Qlat] / HHV
= [{1 + (1 + 0.10) 17.2} 0.30 Btu/lb-F (3,668 350 F) + 0] / 23,900
Btu/lbm
= 83.0%
The fuel energy input, Qf2, would be:
Qf2 = Qout / = 40.269 Btu/hr / 83.0% = 48,543 Btu/hr
The fuel energy savings, Es, from reducing excess combustion air would
be:
Es = Qf1 Qf2 = 50,000 Btu/hr 48,543 Btu/hr = 1,457 Btu/hr
Thus, this measure would reduce fuel use by 2.9%

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness

Combustion efficiency is determined by the amount of heat extracted

from the combustion gasses by the heat exchanger. Thus, an
understanding of heat exchanger effectiveness increases
understanding of furnace and boiler efficiency.
Heat exchangers transfer heat from a hot stream with entering and
exiting temperatures of Th1 and Th2 to a cold stream with entering
and exiting temperatures of Tc1 and Tc2. The product of the mass flow
rate and specific heat of the hot and cold streams are called the mass
capacitances, mcph and mcpc. A schematic of a counterflow heat
exchanger with these temperatures is shown below.

Th1

Tc2

Qact

Th2

Tc1

Heat exchanger effectiveness, e, is the ratio of the actual heat transfer,

Qact, to maximum heat transfer, Qmax.
e = Qact / Qmax
The actual heat transfer is the product of the mass capacitance and
the temperature rise of either the hot or cold stream. The mass
capacitance, mcp, is the product of the mass flow rate, m, and the
specific heat, cp.
Qact = mcph (Th1 Th2) = mcpc (Tc2 Tc1)
In an infinitely long heat exchanger, the exit temperature of the hot
stream would reach the entering temperature of the cold stream.
Similarly, the exit temperature of the cold stream would reach the
entering temperature of the hot stream. The maximum heat transfer
would be limited only by the capacity of the each stream to absorb the
heat. Thus, the maximum heat transfer would be:
Qmax = mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
Thus, the heat exchanger effectiveness, e, is:
e = Qact / Qmax = Qact / mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
If the heat exchanger effectiveness, mass capacitances and entering
temperatures are known, this equation can be solved to determine the
actual heat transfer, Qact, and exit temperatures of each stream.
Qact = e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
Tc2 = Tc1 + e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1) / mcpc
Th2 = Th1 - e mcp,min (Th1 Tc1) / mcph

Example
Calculate the heat exchanger effectiveness for a furnace in which the
combustion gasses enter the heat exchanger at Th1 = 3,100 F and
leave at Th2 = 300 F, and the room air enters the heat exchanger at
Tc1 = 70 F and leaves at Tc2 = 140 F.
e = Qact / Qmax = mch,h (Th1 Th2) / mcp,min (Th1 Tc1)
The temperature of the combustion gasses falls by 2,800 F while the
temperature of the room air rises by only 70 F. This means that the
mass capacitance of the room air is 40 times larger than the mass
capacitance of the combustion gasses. Hence, mcp,min = mcp,h and
e = (Th1 Th2) / (Th1 Tc1) = (3,100 300) / (3,100 70) = 92.4%
Heat exchanger effectiveness is a function of heat exchanger
configuration, surface area, material and the flow rate and specific
heat of the fluids. The most effective configuration is counter flow,
followed by cross flow, followed by parallel flow. With improved heat
transfer effectiveness, the same quantity of heat can be transferred
with smaller flow rates or smaller temperature differences. Alternately,
with improved heat transfer effectiveness more heat can be
transferred without increasing flow rates or incoming temperature
differences. Equations for heat exchanger effectiveness are:
Parallel flow: e = [1-exp( -NTU (1+Cr) )] / (1+Cr)
Counter flow:
e = [1 - exp(-NTU (1-Cr))] / [1 Cr*exp(-NTU (1 Cr))] (use Cr = 0.999 when Cr = 1.0)
Cross flow:
e = 1-exp[(1/Cr)*(NTU0.22)*{exp((-Cr)*(NTU0.78))-1}]
where:
Ch = mh * cph
Cc = mc * cpc
Cmin = min(Ch, Cc)
Cmax = max(Ch, Cc)
Cr = Cmin / Cmax
NTU = UA/Cmin
These equations indicate that heat exchanger effectiveness increases:
in counter-flow configurations
as heat transfer surface area increases
as the minimum mass capacitance decreases

10

as the maximum mass capacitance increases

Older furnaces utilized parallel flow heat exchange, while modern high
efficiency furnaces use employ counter flow heat exchange.
Example
Consider a furnace burning 88,000 Btu/hr of fuel with 10% excess air
and supplying 1,200 cfm of warm air to a house. The supply and
combustion air enter the furnace at 70 F. The heat exchanger is
comprised of four 2 ft x 4 ft plates with combustion gas flowing
downward through channels in the plate and room supply air flowing
upward between the plates. Thermal resistance is dominated by the
convection coefficients (1.719 Btu/hr-ft2-F) on each side of the plates.
The density and specific heat of room air are 0.075 lb/ft2 and 0.26
Btu/lb-F. Using the heat exchanger effectiveness method, determine
the heat supplied to the house and the combustion efficiency of the
furnace. Compare your result with the combustion efficiency
calculated using the combustion method.
The temperature of combustion, Tc, is:

The mass flow rate of the combustion gasses is:

11

The conductance of the heat exchanger is:

U = 1 / (1/h1 + 1/h2) = 1 / (1/1.719 Btu/hr-ft2-F + 1/1.719 Btu/hr-ft2-F)
U = 0.8596 Btu/hr-ft2-F
The area of the heat exchanger is:
A = 8 sides x (2 ft x 4 ft)/side = 64 ft2
The rate of heat transfer is:

12

The combustion efficiency calculated using the heat exchanger

effectiveness method is:

The heat exchanger method predicted that the temperature of the

combustion exhaust would be 373 F. Using, this value, the combustion
efficiency calculated using the combustion method is:

13

Cycling Losses
When furnaces cycle on and off to meet the load, part of the energy
supplied by the natural gas remains in the heat exchanger. Thus,
cycling reduces the energy supplied to the conditioned space and
average efficiency. Consider the diagram below. When room air
temperature falls to the thermostat setpoint temperature, the
combustion begins and the heat exchanger begins to warm. After the
heat exchanger is sufficiently warm, the supply air fan starts running
and heat is delivered to the room. When the room air temperature
warms to the upper setpoint temperature, combustion ends. The
supply air fan continues to run for a few seconds; however, the supply
air fan stops before the heat exchanger temperature falls to about 100
F. The heat exchanger continues to cool; however, this heat is lost to
the room with the furnace. If this room is not in the conditioned space,
then this energy is lost.

14

Source: Energy Engineering, John Mitchell, Wiley Interscience, 1983.

Example
Calculate heat storage losses due to cycling for a furnace controlled by
thermostat with on/off control. The total heat supplied to the house by
the furnace, Qf, is 100 x 106 Btu/ 5 month heating season. The furnace
is rated at Qr = 100,000 Btu/hr. Average on time during each cycle is 5
minutes. The heat exchanger weights 100 lb. The temperature of the
heat exchanger is 72 F at the start of each cycle and 100 F when the
supply air fan turns off.
Run time hours= Qf / Qr = 100 x 106 Btu/season / 100,000 Btu/hr =
1,000 hrs/season
Heating season hours = 5 months x 30 days/month x 24 hours/day =
3,600 hrs/season
Fraction furnace on time = 1,000 / 3,600 = 28% of time
Number Cycles = Run time hours / Run time per cycle
Number Cycles = 1,000 hours / (5/60) hours/cycle = 12,000 cycles
Qcycling loss = Number Cycles x mhx x cphx x Thx
Qstorage = 12,000 x 100 (lb) x 0.11 (Btu/F-lbm) (100-72) F = 3.70 x
106 Btu = 3.70%
15

Pilot Light Losses

Natural gas consumption by pilot lights is about 1 ft3/hour.
Example
Calculate pilot light gas use for the furnace in the previous example.
If furnace is on 28% of time, it is off 72% of the time. Thus, pilot
energy use is:
Qpilot light = .72 (3,600) (hours/season) x 1 ft3/hr x 1,000 Btu/ft3 = 2.6 x
106 Btu/season
Qpilot light = 2.6% loss during winter
If it is also on during summer then
Qpilot light = [(.72)3600 + (8,760-3,600)] x 1 (ft3/hr) x 1000 Btu/ft3 = 7.8 x
106 Btu/year
Qpilot light = 7.8% loss

Furnace Efficiency
The preceding sections discuss energy losses in the exhaust gasses
and from cycling and continuous pilot lights. Combustion efficiency
only takes into account the energy lost in exhaust gasses during
steady-state operation. To account for other losses, the efficiency of
residential-size furnaces is characterized using Annual Fuel Utilization
Efficiency, AFUE. AFUE is always less than the steady-state
combustion efficiency.
The Path to Energy Efficiency
Over the years, the efficiency of furnaces has improved dramatically.
Schematics of mid-efficiency and high-efficiency furnaces are shown
below.

16

Traditional Furnace

Condensing Furnace

Furnaces from 1970s had AFUEs between 68%72%. These low

efficiency furnaces were typically constructed with:
Natural draft configurations that increased excess air above 10%
and enabled a continuous draft of air to be drawn through the
exhaust flue, increasing infiltration into the house.
Continuous pilot lights
Heavy heat exchangers that increased cycling losses
In the 1980s, mid-efficiency furnaces became available with 80%83%
AFUE. Mid-efficiency furnaces are typically constructed with:
Induced combustion air fans that reduced excess air and
eliminated the continuous draft of air through the exhaust pipe.
Electronic ignition (no pilot light)
Lighter heat exchangers to reduce cycling losses
In the 1990s, high-efficiency furnaces became available with 90%97%
AFUE. High-efficiency furnaces typically have:
Counter-flow heat exchangers
A second heat exchanger for condensing flue gases
Sealed combustion using outdoor air to reduce corrosion due to
bleach and other fumes from indoor air.
A highly efficient Electronically Commutated Motor (ECM) blower
motor

17

These changes have been so effective that the exhaust temperature of

high-efficiency furnaces is typically less than 140 F and water is
condensed from the combustion gasses. To accommodate the
condensation, condensing furnaces have a condensate drain to remove
the condensate, and aluminum or steel secondary heat exchangers
and pvc exhaust piping to avoid corrosion. In addition, most highefficiency furnaces use outside air for combustion to reduce corrosion
from indoor air contaminants and eliminate combustion-driven
infiltration.
The increased heat exchanger area and the addition of a combustion
air supply duct increases friction losses on both sides of the heat
exchanger. Thus, high-efficiency furnaces have bigger blowers and
bigger induced draft fans than standard-efficiency furnaces. A study of
high-efficiency furnaces in Madison Wisconsin found that furnace
electricity use increased by about 400 kWh per heating season due to
these larger fans.
Recent developments include multi-speed and variable-speed burner
fans and blowers. In these furnaces, the amount and temperature of
the air delivered to the house is varied according to the load. At low
loads, the decreased air flow through the heat exchangers increases
heat exchanger effectiveness and efficiency. Multi-speed blower
motors use about the same power at all speeds. However, variablespeed blower motors substantially reduce fan power at low loads. For
example, a fan drawing 400 W at full speed may draw as little as 65 W
at low speed.

Furnace Efficiency Standards

In the 2005 National Energy Security Act, the minimum allowed AFUE
rating for a non-condensing fossil-fueled, warm-air furnace was set at
78%.
The US EPA gives Energy Star ratings to products in top 15% of
energy efficiency. Gas Furnaces with 90% AFUE* or greater and oil
furnaces with 85% AFUE or greater currently qualify for Energy Star
designation.
In 2009 and 2010, the federal government offers up to $1,500 in tax
credits for energy efficiency equipment. To qualify, furnaces must have
AFUE >= 95% and biomass stoves must have thermal efficiency >=
75% using lower heating value.

18

Hot Water Boilers

Residential and small commercial hot-water boilers heat water that is
supplied to the house for heating. As with furnaces, combustion
efficiency is a function of combustion air supply temperature, exhaust
gas temperature and excess air. However, other energy using
characteristics of boilers are somewhat different.
Schematics of typical atmospheric and forced air boilers are shown
below. In both types of boiler, hot combustion gasses transfer heat to
the water as they move upward then out the exhaust flue. In
on/burner control, the burner fires whenever the water temperature
drops to the low-temperature set point and turns off when the water
temperature rises to the high-temperature set point.

Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems and Equipment.

The first difference between the energy-using characteristics of
furnaces and boilers is that because boilers hold hot water, heat loss
through the boiler shell must be included in the overall or total
efficiency of the boiler.
In addition, when open atmospheric boilers are not firing, air is drawn
upward through the interior of the boiler as it warms and becomes
more boyant. This air pulls heat out of the water and reduces the
overall efficiency of the boiler. This chimney effect is exaggerated
when the outlet of the exhaust flue is higher than the inlet to the base
of the boiler. To reduce this loss, the exhaust flue can be equipped
with a stack damper that closes when the burners are not firing. To be
completely effective, the stack damper must be located below the
exhaust flue hood. Closed forced-draft boilers minimize this effect by
sealing the combustion area with a fan that stops inlet air flow when

19

the burner is not firing. However, to the extent that these losses still
occur, they reduce the overall or total efficiency of the boiler.
As in furnaces, burner on/off cycling in forced-draft boilers reduces
average efficiency. In the case of forced-draft boilers, the loss occurs
because the combustion air fan is powered on a few seconds before
the fuel is ignited to purge the boiler of residual gas which might
explode upon combustion. These purge gasses carry heat out of the
boiler. Thus, average boiler efficiency declines as cycling increases.
Cycling losses can be minimized by the use of modulating burners in
stead of on/off burners. Modulating burners control boiler water
temperature by modulating the burner firing rate rather than cycling
on and off. As the firing rate decreases, heat transfer effectiveness
increases due to increased contact time between the hot exhaust
gasses and the boiler walls. This reduces exhaust temperature and
increases combustion efficiency. The chart below shows how exhaust
temperature decreases and efficiency increases at low-loads in boilers
with modulation control.

Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems and Equipment.

High-temperature boiler systems operate at about 180 F. Lowtemperature systems operate at about 120 F. Low-temperature
systems are more fuel efficient because the temperature difference
between the water and hot combustion gasses is greater, which results
in greater heat transfer and lower exhaust gas temperature. As with
furnaces, efficiency increases significantly when water vapor
condenses out of the exhaust gasses. To condense water vapor, the
temperature of water returning from the building and entering the
boiler must be 125 F or less. This requires that the hot water radiators,
fan coil unit and/or the radiant flooring system be sized and designed
20

to handle these low supply and return water temperatures. The graph
below shows, how combustion efficiency increases with decreasing
inlet water temperature.

Source: 2008 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems and Equipment.

Thus, high-efficiency boilers use many of the same mechanisms as
furnaces to achieve high efficiency including:

Electric ignition that eliminates pilot lights

Sealed combustion that uses outside air to deliver better
combustion air control and reduce draft
Condensing heat exchangers

Hot Water Boiler Efficiency Ratings

Residential Boilers
Residential hot-water boilers are rated using annual fuel utilization
efficiency (AFUE). In the 2005 National Energy Security Act, the
minimum allowed AFUE rating for a fossil-fueled boiler was set at 80%.
The US EPA gives Energy Star ratings to products in top 15% of
energy efficiency. ENERGY STAR qualified boilers have an AFUE rating
of 85% or greater.
The Federal government offers tax credits for energy efficiency
equipment. Qualifying hot water boilers must have AFUE of 90% or
greater.

21

Small Commercial Boilers

Small commercial hot-water boilers are not rated using AFUE. Instead,
they simply report a single efficiency number. In most cases, the
reported number is the steady state combustion efficiency. According
to rating standards, the reported efficiency value is measured with
inlet water temperature of 80 F. The low inlet water temperature
inflates the efficiency rating, since nearly all non-condensing furnaces
come with a warning that operation with inlet water temperature below
140 F will void the warranty. Thus, the actual combustion efficiency of
non-condensing furnaces is typically about 10% less than reported.
Some manufacturers report thermal efficiency, which is typically
combustion efficiency less shell losses. In most cases, thermal
efficiency is 1% to 2% less than combustion efficiency.
The actual operating efficiency of a boiler should include the
aforementioned losses. In addition, open atmospheric boiler efficiency
is also reduced by draft losses. If the boiler uses on/off control, the
average efficiency will be further reduced by purge cycling losses.
Alternately, if the boiler uses modulation control, and is sized to
minimize cycling, the combustion efficiency will increase at part load,
and be higher than the reported combustion efficiency at full load.

Small Commercial Hot Water Boiler Systems

A typical small commercial hot water heating system is shown below.
Hot water boilers typically operate at about 180 F and the hot water is
returned from the space at about 160 F. The supply water reset control
valve can be used to reduce the hot water supply temperature during
warm weather.

22

Retrofitting a typical system to a low-temperature system with

condensing boilers and variable speed pumping typically results in
significant savings. These retrofits usually require replacing the heat
exchangers in the fan-coil units with larger heat exchangers to
accommodate the lower water temperatures. Note that unless the
system controls and heat exchangers are modified to use lower water
temperatures, replacing standard boilers with condensing boilers will
not improve system efficiency. The table below shows measured
savings from replacing traditional boiler systems with condensing
boilers in 20 schools. Fuel use was reduced by about half or more.

Source: "Boiler System Efficiency", Thomas Durkin, ASHRAE Journal,

Vol. 48, July 2006.

23