Chapter 1 LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH 4, Bending Moments, Shearing Forces, ‘Stresses, and Strains ‘The safe dimensions of any strength member may ho determined if the designer knows: AY the Joads it has to support; (2) the actual stresses and deflections due to the loads i1aposed (they ore doterminod by applying a certain method of stress anal- ysis); an (8) the values of allowable stresses and deflections. By Nirlue of progross in naval architecture, the Joads acting ona ship in a seaway may be ascertained with a faitly good degree of accuracy. When they are known, there is practically no diffi. culty in estimating the actual stressos. Tho ever stringont requirements of speed and scaworthiness that modern ships sre to moot ronder it nevessury 10, develop 4 method of doterminiag the dynamic loads coming on tho struc, uro under certain sorvico conditions, Also. tho widespread nso of welding in place of riveting calls for a moro comprehensive evaluation of the various actions a ship has to resist, especially fom the standpoint of local stross concentrations in limited areas of welded hull ship afloat, both in still water and among wavos, is subject fo a bending action and may bo likened, as pointed out in Lhe foregoing, to a hollow girder of variable cross section. Tho corte. sponding bending moments and sheering forces at ony eross section may bo resolved, dopending on thoie origin and uode of uolion with respect Lo time, into throv components which aro discussed bolow. (1) Still water bonding moments and shearing forcos hrought about by the particular conditions of loading and support. While the former correspond to the distribution of the weight of all particles in tho mass of a ship throughout hor lungti, the Latter dopond on the forces of wator pressure which act upwards (a bal- ance tho abovo weight and sorve to eonstilwte, if sumaned, 11 dis. placement tonnage. Unlike warships, in inorshant ships th> still wator bonding samont may vary approciably and. roach, igh values deponing os Ioading. ‘To reduce this component in tis magnitude, careful ballasting is required WI pas-age in light conditions. ‘The usual sola bending moment component is My.» @) Wave bonding moments and’ shearing (a honk comes inio play mainly due to a distribulioy of support throughout tho length of a ship differant | sti water. A vessel traversing waves iz subjoc: to pitehingy #Olllng, ail euving. In other words, her each ond is alternably MMM bid falling, she inclines from side to side and has a hodill notion: up and down. ‘The amplitude of tho throu modes of ostillatian ix influenced mainly by such factors as ratio of ship-to-wavo length, wave height, angle betwoen ship's course and direction of wave advance, and ship's speed. All the factors being anything but constant, the inertial forces of the hull and those ef the houndary layer, as well as the forees of resistance to the movement of a ship impose on the hull additional Joads. ‘These, one may believe, add to the loads due to the forces of water pressure and weight. Way back at tho close of the 19th century, Academician A. N. Krylov, a well-known Russian naval architect, has dovel- oped a general theory of oscillation of the ship and suggested a method for solving the equations af m " which permite cal culation of the bending moments due to additional loads. Further studies, howover, have shown that the maxiinutn values of bond: Ing moments caleulatod acevrding Wo Krylov do uot exceed Uso obiained on the assumption that the ship is undor static eondi= tions, i.c., disregarding her motion and oscillation. This is why. aul the strength calculations nowadays atv hased on static eons! dorations only. In other words, the waves aro considered to be stationary. It will be recalled, that in a vessel moving head on Unrough waves of her own length each of tho bending moinent components will he a maximum the instance either a crest ot a ivongh is amidships Whe te ship is on a crest, the forees of support increasw ainid- ships and docroaso at the encls, as comparod with tho still water conditions, and the vessel is hogging (Fig. 7). When the ship is ina trough, the forces of support inerease al the ends and decrease amidships. The vessel is said to be in sagging conditions, In inast, cases, the values of bending moments aud slicnting forces caleula: cd ina ship which either hogs or sags are much in excess of those. btainoil in still water. Wave hending moment components are denoted by Mwave. ‘Tho inagnitudo and sign of a wave ending moinont compo rent change daponding on tho porioi af pitehing, Which, in Lorn. is equal to dhe apparent wave putiad, Since tho Tatbee is muely inChapter LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH SS 4, Bonding Momients, Shearing Fores, Stresses, and Strains ‘The safe dimensions of any strength membor may ho determined if the designer knows: 14 tho Toads it has to support; (2) the actual stresses and deflections due to the loads ixaposed (they are determined by applying a certain method of stréss anal- ysis); and (3) the values of allowable stresses and deflections. By wirtue of progress in naval architecture, the loads acting on a ship in a seaway may bo asvortained with a fairly good dogros of accuracy. Whon thoy are known, there is practically no diliic culty in estimating tho aotual stresses. ‘The evor stringent requirements of speed and scaworthiness that modern ships are 10 moot ronder # uevessary to develop a mothod of determining the dynamic loads coming on the strie, Usro under cerlain sorviee conditions. Also tho widespread. Wo of wolding in placo of rivetting calls for a moro comprehensive evaluation of the various actions a ship has to resist, especially {rom the standpoint of local stress concenteatfons in Limited area of wolded hulls, A ship afloat, both in still water and among waves, is subject to a bending action and may be likened, as pointed out in the foregoing, to a hollow gitder of variable cross section. Tho eorre sponding bending moments and shearing forces at any cross section bo resolved, depending on their origin and mode of action With respoct to timo, into three components which aro discussed below (1) Still wator bending moments and sheasing forces brought about by the particular conditions of loading and support, While the former correspond to the distribution of the weight of all particles in tho mass of a ship theoughout her longus, tho latter fopend on tho forcas of water pressure which acl upwards to bal ance tho ahovo wight and sorve to constitute, if sumanod, ty placement tounage, Unlike warships, in merchant ships ths still water bonding moment may vary approciably and ronch. high values doponcing on Toading, To eoduco this component in tts Lonatudial Sienth Magnitude, careful ballesting is required whon some dl pas-age in lighs conditions. ‘The usual notation of the still bending momont component is M,.y (@) Wavo bonding moments and Shoarins forces. ‘Pie 60 ups tient comes into play mainly vue to a distailution of tio hn of support throughout the Iungth of a ship different to thot if water, A vossel travorsing waves is subject, lo pitching, rolling, and heaving. In other words, her each ond is alternately lifting aud falling, she inclines froin side to side and has a badily mation up and down. The amplitude of tho threw mades of essillavion is influenced mainly by such factors as ratio of ship-to-wave length, wave height, angle between ship's course and direction pf ‘wave advance, and ship's speed. All the factors being anything but constant, the inertial forces of the hull and those of the boundary layer, as well as the forces of resistance to the movement of a ship imposo on the hull additional loads. Those, one may believe, ada to the loads due to the forcos of water pressure and we ght. Way hack at the clese of the 49th century, Academician A. N. Krylov, a well-known Russian naval architect, has dovel- oped a general theory of oscillation of the ship and suggusted a method for solving the equations of motion which pormite cal culation of the bending moments due to additional loads. Further studies, however, have shown that the maximnm values of bend. ng moments caleulated according to Krylov do nol exceed Lo obtained on the assumption that the ship is under static condi. tions, i.c., disregarding her motion and oscillation. This is why all the strength calculations nowadays are basod on static const dorations only. In other words, the waves aro considered to be stationary. It will be recalled, that in a vessel moving heal on theough ‘waves of her own length each of the bending moinent components will be a maximuin the instance eller a erest oF 4 Waugh is amidships. Wiien the ship is oa a erest, the forces of support increas ainid- ships and docrease at the ends, as compared with the still water conditions, and the veseel is hogging (Fig. 7). When the ship is ina trough, the forces of support inerease at the ends and decreas ‘idships. Who vossel is said to be in sagging conditions. In most he values of bending moments and shenzing forces calcula cd in'a ship which either hogs or sags are much in excess of Ukose obtainod in still water. Wave bending momen components aro denoted by Moun ‘Tho magnitude and sign of a wave bending moment compognk change doponding on tho poriod of pilehinie, whieh, in MMPI, Bi equal Wy the apparent wave period. Since the litter i Anneh UEGseillation period of the hull, the effect ending moment component on the hull is assumed o bo a statical, or, to be precise, a statically variable one Tie moans that the wave hending moment component and the sili water bending moment component may be treated as a single Rholo, (as is usually the case. Their sum is referred to as tao bending moment static component Matos = Mew. + Mecase While for a givon condition of loading Maw, is consiant, Moore varies between the two maximums of opposite sign depend, ing’on whether the ship is on the crest of a wavo or in'ihe touch D Fig. 7. Ship in rough seas: |= on the crest of a wert; In the trough of « wave SLomavave, som this, it appears reasonable that the bending moment static component, as an algebraic sum of Mac ant Macey will have two peak values denoted as Mvisi and Misi, respectively. 3) Bonding moments and shearing forces intermittently aris: ing duo to pounding, i.e., when the ship is coming down heavily yt the bow upon waves while moving head on at high spood. This bonding momont component is called the impact or dyramis Component Man. While in general its inagnitunte is Iniuemad by such fattors as ship's speed, draught, trim, speed-o-longth ratio, and conditions of sea, it is the amplitude of heaving ead Ditching, as well as tho ship's lines in tho fore ond, whotler {ull or fine, that really snatter. AL resonance, thn amplitude of oseilla, Hions is a maximum, and 80 is Myya. Tn merchant shiys, whother latlen or in ballast, the impact of pounding is most pronounced abaut the forward fifth of ti ship's length, and those with full bows are especially susceytible to its effects when making passages in ballast Most masters, even those of high-speed vessels, ary very enutions not to exceed the spoed beyond a minimum snfficient. to give steorage way while head on in strong seales, for otherwise heavy blows may oceur detrimental to the intogrity of ship strusture and operation of machinery. As exporivtive goes to” show, no inetease over this minimum more than hy 4.5 104.8 knots in bsllast and 2 to 2.5 knots ladon can be practically achieved. IL is only inv an emergency thal tho ship is permitted 10 speed in rough sock in order to provent an accident. ‘The bending moment dynamic component run being about eithor hogging ot sagging. By analogy with the static components. the dynamic components are denoted as iMij%> and Mist, respoc- tively. The resultant bending moment acting at any cross section may bo obtained from the relationship M= Mio + Mae + Mayn= Men + Maya Depending on whether the ship is on the crest of a wave or in the trough of a wave, the above equation takes tho farm Mew = Midi + Might! and Me. w= Maat’ + Mii 5, Principal Steps in Calculation ‘The intensity of acticns which bend the ship longitudinally and have to be resisted by her structure is influenced by such factors as the magnitude and distribution of the woights compris. ing the displacement tonnage throughout the length. Also the ship's length, draught, speed, conditions of sea at their worst, and ship's lines are all-important in this respect. Since in any particular ship the hending moments and shesring forces may vary appreciably dopending on the magnitude of var able weights and the way they are distributed throughout the Jength, the actions the ship strueture has to resist should be deter. mined Jor the most unfavourable conditions of toading. ‘These, usually outlined in certain instructions, ure ay follows: (a) ship with full cargo load and consumable stores aboard; (b) ship with full cargo load and 10 por cent. of consumable stores aboard; (c) ship in ballast and with cousmuable stares aboard the latter being distrifnted as badly as the ballastsliable to produce stresses in To construct the weight curve, the hast: lino is divided into conditions of loading i 5 of loading given in items (a) twenty equal parts, each corresponding to the frame spacing, [t is ‘excess of those lus to the condition: r to 0) agsumed for simplicity that oach tndividval wight 15 uniformly i Tho styles of loading most favourable as well as those which Gistributed between the neatest frame lines. Thus the ordinates are inadmissiblo aro specified in loading insiructions. ean bo easily plotted as roctangulars. The sent of gravity of Ute In warship design, bending moments and sheating forces aro area olitainod: and that of the ship should ubyiously apport tn dotermined for light conditions of loading and for conditions which the same vertical correspond to a normal displacement and full-load displacement Th each of the cases, the distribution of stores (fuel, water, lubrl. cants) should he exactly the samo as this is the practies unves aetual eervice conditions. As far as warship design abzoad is eo Gerned, it is assumed that the most severo con ditious of straining i Will take place when a ship on a wave crost carries ammunition Dew EWS oe eT but no water and fuel uboard, or when she is in a wave trough ' and fully loaded ' 1, Caleulation of the Statie Component i Il is standard practice in the USSR to determine first the still wator bending moments and shearing forces and then add to them the wave bending moments and shearing forces. But in some : instances the xesul:ant bending.moments and shearing forces may ae be dotormined directly, which is common practice in ship design Fig. 8. Weight carve abroad Whilo tho still water bending snomonts and. shwaring fares ng the Lotal weight, a merelan| vary In magnitude depending én tho ship's length and the way tho _purposo of ealoulating the total weight, divided into the following weight groups: loading and support aro distributed throughout it; the wave bond, vessel ' ing moments ond shearing forces, both in sagging and hogging, (1) hn i owo their origin mainly to a redistribution af support, The manrer @) machinery; “oe in which tis occurs is alfected by ship's lines, Wave huight fk mad = @) ship stores, crew, provisions; (4) cargo; foo ater, Iubricants; (6) reserve -uayane: Bel title groups to eubaivded lala subgroups, By way of illustration, the hull weight group consists of: (a) not steel; (h) carpenter work; (0) and (@) bull onginoering; (0) equipment; (0 clectrical machinery; (2) wireless and navigational facilities. wave longth 2, as well as the direction of wave advance To calevlate the bending moments and shearing forces in a ship i subject to longitudinal bending, first the conditions of loading as represented by a wolght curve, and those of support, depicted by a buoyancy curvo, should be determined. Working from the above curves, a strength curve or a curve of loads is constructed showing tho difference of the Torses of weight and buoyancy at all points in the length. Finally, by integrating the curve of loads Wo obtain the curve of shearing forces, which by a socond integra. i scat... the enrve of bending momonis, (A) The Weight Curve. Sinco it shows the way in whiel the : o 1 in turn, is further subdivided into hoadings. : various individual woights of a ship arv disteibuted. Uroughout "Each subgroup, in turn, is fu ' the Jengih, its ordinates, if laid down to a cortain scale, depiel ‘Thoso relating to the net-steel group arv: i‘ tho weights per unit length of the ship (Tig. 8) (i) shell platin, (11) nner deei) inner bottom; ete. ‘The weights included into a typical summary are classed as fixed woights (the hull, hull engineering, machinery, hull flings, fauipment, permanent ballast, etc.) and variable Weights (cargo uel, water, lubricants, water ballast, erew, passengers, pros sions, ship’ stores, reserve buoyancy). piPending on the distribution of the individual weights, thoy fall into thres categories: (1) uniformly distributed weights (side, deck aud inner bottom plating, ote.); Fig, 9. Construction of a hull weight curve: 9 for ship with ong middle body 6 — for ahip with short midato ty 2) non-uniformly distributed. woights,-i.e., covering a distance in excess of 1/50th of the ship's length (superstructures, dec houses, platforms, shafting, machicory and its auxiliaries, appli- anges, ete.); (3) concentrated weights which cover a very small distance foro and aft (transverse bulkheads, masts, somo items of equipment, propellers, anchors, ota.) ‘Thoro aro several methods of drawing the weight curve. Tho most tedious oporntion involved is the construction of the hull woighl curvo, for it takes into account the weight of such items ‘8 heat insulation, hull engineoring and fittings, ete. With all tho ways londing to the samo result, il is advisable (0 tako tho one loss stronuows, yet, offering a good accurnoy. Hy, therefore, to make a ruonsse to one of the oxisting approximate methods of constructing the hull weight carve, discussed below, provided the total Inull weight and the longitudinal centre of gravity are given. The first method. The stepped hull weight curve may bo druwn on the assumption that in a fall-formed ship with a parallel middle body the weights are uniformly distributed over a length of eight frame line spacings about amidships (Fig. 1a). As fat as a fne- formed ship with a shorter middle bady is concerned, the sume assumption is true of a distance of six frame line spacings about unidships (Fig. 90). i ‘Tho woight g por frame line spacing amidships and the weights fy and gy at the ends are found from the following relations| ips whore G = ull seoight > &' Bera lambsaey 2m Myy and my = coetfcionts. f ‘According ta Kurdumey, tho coefficient m =~ 1.18 (it varies from ship to ship). Thon tha wo other enelfeients inay bo de er for tho curve in Fig. 9e Mg 0.667 - 0.3658), m, = 0.667 — 0.3658), for tho curve in Fig. 95 mq = 0.730-+ 0.3338, pistes ‘my = 0.730— 0.333%, where & = i Jande bote Ioered ee Mebsie 2, = distance of the centre of gravity from true midship AL = frame line spacing. sara For middle body cight tram fine spacings, eng (Fig. Sia), Une values Ay and Ay are obtained from ihe ejuations amy ow 5 owlo Hrame Tine spacings long (Fig. 90), the above equations take the form ‘Tho moment of the triangle / about x calculate equation 7 elt j shifts Uho contro of gravity of the area P, for a distance m7 yt a Pe dye {igond method. Applicable to ships with a parallel middle ody. ike sho foragoing’ mothed, this one is Waele enna | Honeo in ahip design abroad. ‘The hull ‘weight curve 1s deme oe ‘the oe 4 assumption that the weight is represented by 2 rectangle about 2 I amidships and two trapezoids in the ends. The ship's length Z iH In order to shift the centre of gravity of the aren P, towards | ttue midship so that it would be conlaiied in tho latiec, ‘1 Fi Fig. 10, ConsinicLou of « bull weight carve, ship vith i patafet mile body fh hall weight curve, mile hoy | Fig. 14, Construction of i ship without paral is obvions that the following relativuship should hold true is divided into threo aqua! portions and at the lucattons obtained © ordinates of tho numerics) values given in Fig. 10 ae ocd | es Dee f amidships and at the ends. ‘The area of tho figure shown ta Siena j will he given thon by pee ie ‘The ond ordinates have to be equal in this case and are fourd i from GB Y 0.06 - Bole P= 8) 41.1954 S28) og ! (0.653— 0.048) When the ordinates amidships and at the ends are of the value given. the position of the contre of gravity of area Py and. ee | suuently, of tho hull will he located at a distance ay = O.0cher | att of tue midship IF the contre of gravity of tho area ropresenting the hull weight Appears fo ho wot in the same vertical with tho contre of gravity : sive the end urdinates should be adjusted correspondingly, ‘he third method. Widely used abroad for ships with no parallo} ilddle body, this method involves the construction of a parnbo:a sueve the Feetangle (Tig. 11), the area under each ropresonting one-half of tho total hull weight G. The ordinate for the rectangre his is accomplished by transferring from one trapetold tein lr portion is 3%; the maximum ordinate for the parabolic. {iiher a certain woight represented by a triangle (shawn by doteca Hines in Pig. 10). The point of application of the centro of graviay ' portion is K Both ordinates are, of carso, to an appre= of tho triangle / =) y %, whero y is the base of tho triangle, priate scale. i The combined area P, = 525 4 2927, .. G has its omteg 1 Will be consequently shifted a distance x = 77, - bh tho required contey of of gravity at true midship. If, howeverel he bow or the stern, the necessary Porreetion niny be introdueod on the lines similar to those em- ployed in the foregoing method of drawing the hull weight curve. Mere this is achieved by “swinging” the base line, as shown in Fig. 11, to obtain the two (wiangles partly drawn in dotted lines. With the centres of gravity of hoth triangles spaced 27 apart, Gai provid) (he area of ol ecg wa ee tor roman iu tos ironafreihg'k alght rom ana endo: 1h6 ciber aay bo Uelerinined from the equation Wh me fa The desived shift of the centro of gravity of the total area is Ee Micro G Hence Gm Mera IF tho distance 2» of Uhe'hall’s contre of gravity from true mitl- ship is kaown from the weight summary, there is no much dit fieulty in obtaining from Uke above equation the buse x of the Iriangle transferred in order Ln place the centre of gravity of the ave anid Hu of the hull int the same vertical. The original value of tho area remains thus unaltered, while its ordinates are cor- reeleul The geometrical diagram obtained by employing either the weroud ar the third method of cousirnetion is Lrausformed eves luaily inte a stepped diagram af an equivalent area and with an eynivatent position of the contre of gravity. Tho total weight curve is formnd on the assumption that. all Hho othor scvights are uniformity aisheilwted within a frame tine spacing. They aro cansequontly added as ordinates Lo the stepped weighh curve. ‘This motitod gives approximate moments, bul Lhe overall accuracy is 98 per cent, A shear plan showing 1) disivilution of the weights and positions of their contro: ravily Hhronghout ship's length, and (hb) frame finns foelitatos Une construction of the stayped weight curve which is Jail ont on this plan (8) The Ruoyaney Curve.This one shows how the vertical com ponent af the watoe prasairo changes wilh, the distibyition af vol Gime of displacement Uuroughout the ship's lougtlt. The way U ( volume of displacomont is distributed may bo determined, in turn, on the basis of Bonjean’s curves and the position of water- Jines. Tho procedure employed in constructing tho buoyancy curvo is especially simple in still water, when it is represented by a curve of areas multiplied by the density of water y (to trans- Inte volumes into forces). The ordinates of the buoyaney curve are plotted to a tm scale. i (J) Vessel in still water. First, the waterline in use is drawn in its posi-ion between the points corresponding to the respective 2 © 0 3 3 Fig, 42. Curve ot areas (1) en buoyancy eurve (2), sip in sen ‘vase siraught readings on the forward and after draught scales. On com: pleting this, the areas of the immersed portions, as represented hy ordinates of a curve of areas al each of Lhe Lwenty one frame lines. are determined using Bonjean's curves. By multiplying the ordinates of the curve of areas by y and drawing a smootit curve through the new ordinates thus obtained we get the buoyan- cy curve (Fig. 12). To simplify furthor calculations, this cut¥s is thon transformed into a stepped one (Fig. 13) of an equivalent ares anil with tho contro of gravity positioned so that it is in the Saine vertical with that of the original geometrical diagram. Assuming that the buoyancy is uniformly distributed within a frame line spacing AL, its mean value por frame space will be deh PO Any where o, and ops; = areas of immersed portions at two adjacent frame lines ¢ and i +4. (2) Vessel among waves. When the vessel is assumed to be sup- ported on a wave, the buoyancy curvo should bo predicted with due rogaed to the wave form at watorline, While the wave contour al a waterline of a ship in rough sens is changing persistently duo to pitehing, rolling, and heaving, each of tho three motions is also alfected by sueh factors as the angle between tho ship's course and the direetion of wave travel, wave length and height, 8 well as the ship's speed. The mast unfavourable in point of longitudinal strength are the conditions ”‘When the ship is either hogging or sagging at right angles to the ives of the same length as her own (Fig. 17), On the other hand, phew the ship is poisod on waves of length botween reste weety Keser tan her own, Uke support will be redistributed ina way Fig. 13. Siopped heyaney eur dierent bul Tittle from the support in still water (Pig. 14a) Five saune will oesur when the crests are spaced wide apart and the waves are conseynently sloping gently. This means thal in hoth Wave form at waterline latter cases thy wave bending momonts will differ but slightly from the still water ones, To determine the wavo bending moment component. under the Most unfavourable conditions, the buoyaney curve is constructed ‘on The assumpLion that wave longth 2 bolweon erests ix tho sano ais ship's length J, ou the summer loadline, this being true Hath of hoggeing and sagging coud tins. Wave length 4. has @ diroct bearing on wave height which may he dotermined from the formula Basod on many years’ studies into the behaviour of the sea surface, this formula relates wave length and wave height. with a fairly good dogroo of accuracy. For coasting vessels, the wave parameters should be determined by observations in a given locality. Fig. 15, Trochoidal wave prolile construction Apart. frow wave longth and wave height, the wave form is auothee faclor fundamental in drawing Uke. buoyancy eurve, Tt is xouerally accepted that. the wave form is of (rochoidal geometry Wave profile construction. A trochoid is a curve which may be rogariled as a generalization of the cycloid, and therefore is some. Unies referred to as a prolate eyeloid ‘The trochoidal wave form may bo construeted geometrically, assuming thal circle £ of radius 2 is rolling along track AB of a lengih equal to the wave length from erost to erest (Fig. 15). A joint on concentric generating circle J7 of radius 7 equal to mid hoight of wave h/2 will then describe in the course of one revolu- Linn a full troehoid Since the crest-to-crest length of a trochoidal wave is equal to the ship’s Iength, the radius of cirele J is 1 ar he mothod of drawing a trochoidal wave surface employed in naval architecture is as follows. The line of circle-contros whieh, is as long ay L and Uhe eircunference of generating circle 77 are divided hy twonty oquidistantly spacod points (if thore aro twenty. frame Lines aly). Krom each location Uhus obtained in the lingChapter 1 LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH 4, Bending Moments, Shearing Forces, ‘Stresses, and Strains ‘The safe dimensions of any strength member may ho determined if the designer knows: AY the Joads it has to support; (2) the actual stresses and deflections due to the loads i1aposed (they ore doterminod by applying a certain method of stress anal- ysis); an (8) the values of allowable stresses and deflections. By Nirlue of progross in naval architecture, the Joads acting ona ship in a seaway may be ascertained with a faitly good degree of accuracy. When they are known, there is practically no diffi. culty in estimating the actual stressos. Tho ever stringont requirements of speed and scaworthiness that modern ships sre to moot ronder it nevessury 10, develop 4 method of doterminiag the dynamic loads coming on tho struc, uro under certain sorvico conditions, Also. tho widespread nso of welding in place of riveting calls for a moro comprehensive evaluation of the various actions a ship has to resist, especially fom the standpoint of local stross concentrations in limited areas of welded hull ship afloat, both in still water and among wavos, is subject fo a bending action and may bo likened, as pointed out in Lhe foregoing, to a hollow girder of variable cross section. Tho corte. sponding bending moments and sheering forces at ony eross section may bo resolved, dopending on thoie origin and uode of uolion with respect Lo time, into throv components which aro discussed bolow. (1) Still water bonding moments and shearing forcos hrought about by the particular conditions of loading and support. While the former correspond to the distribution of the weight of all particles in tho mass of a ship throughout hor lungti, the Latter dopond on the forces of wator pressure which act upwards (a bal- ance tho abovo weight and sorve to eonstilwte, if sumaned, 11 dis. placement tonnage. Unlike warships, in inorshant ships th> still wator bonding samont may vary approciably and. roach, igh values deponing os Ioading. ‘To reduce this component in tis magnitude, careful ballasting is required WI pas-age in light conditions. ‘The usual sola bending moment component is My.» @) Wave bonding moments and’ shearing (a honk comes inio play mainly due to a distribulioy of support throughout tho length of a ship differant | sti water. A vessel traversing waves iz subjoc: to pitehingy #Olllng, ail euving. In other words, her each ond is alternably MMM bid falling, she inclines from side to side and has a hodill notion: up and down. ‘The amplitude of tho throu modes of ostillatian ix influenced mainly by such factors as ratio of ship-to-wavo length, wave height, angle betwoen ship's course and direction of wave advance, and ship's speed. All the factors being anything but constant, the inertial forces of the hull and those ef the houndary layer, as well as the forees of resistance to the movement of a ship impose on the hull additional Joads. ‘These, one may believe, add to the loads due to the forces of water pressure and weight. Way back at tho close of the 19th century, Academician A. N. Krylov, a well-known Russian naval architect, has dovel- oped a general theory of oscillation of the ship and suggested a method for solving the equations af m " which permite cal culation of the bending moments due to additional loads. Further studies, howover, have shown that the maxiinutn values of bond: Ing moments caleulatod acevrding Wo Krylov do uot exceed Uso obiained on the assumption that the ship is undor static eondi= tions, i.c., disregarding her motion and oscillation. This is why. aul the strength calculations nowadays atv hased on static eons! dorations only. In other words, the waves aro considered to be stationary. It will be recalled, that in a vessel moving head on Unrough waves of her own length each of tho bending moinent components will he a maximum the instance either a crest ot a ivongh is amidships Whe te ship is on a crest, the forees of support increasw ainid- ships and docroaso at the encls, as comparod with tho still water conditions, and the vessel is hogging (Fig. 7). When the ship is ina trough, the forces of support inerease al the ends and decrease amidships. The vessel is said to be in sagging conditions, In inast, cases, the values of bending moments aud slicnting forces caleula: cd ina ship which either hogs or sags are much in excess of those. btainoil in still water. Wave hending moment components are denoted by Mwave. ‘Tho inagnitudo and sign of a wave ending moinont compo rent change daponding on tho porioi af pitehing, Which, in Lorn. is equal to dhe apparent wave putiad, Since tho Tatbee is muely in