Samir Okasha is a Lecturer in

Philosophy at the University of York. He

has published numerous articles in
philosophy journals in the areas of
philosophy of science, philosophy of
biology, and epistemology. He has taught
at the National University of Mexico and
has held a Jacobsen Fellowship in
Philosophy at the University of London.

Chapter 1 What is
Science ?
The Origins of Modern
Science
What is Philosophy of
Science?
Science and Pseudo-science

 Introduction

Science is not always about physics,

chemistry and biology.
So, what is it that makes something
science?
One of the key problem is in philosophy of
science is to understand how techniques
such as experimentation, observation, and
theory-construction have enable scientist
to unravel so many of natures secrets.

The Origins of Modern

Science

 The Origins of Modern Science

In Europe, between 1500-1750 M periods, the dominant
world-view was Aristotelianism (Aristotle, Greek
philosopher).
He put forward detail theory in physics, biology,
astronomy, and cosmology.
First crucial step in the development of the modern
scientific world-view was the Copernican Revolution
(Nicolas Copernicus, 1473-1543).
Its about Heliocentric model, Sun was the fixed centre
of the universe, the planets (include earth) were in orbit
around the sun, that against Geocentric model
(Ptolemaic, astronomy).
After 100 years, Copernican had become established
scientific orthodoxy.

 The Origins of Modern Science

Copernicus innovation led to develop of modern
physics, through work of Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).
Kepler discovered that the planets dont move in
circular orbits around the sun, as Copernicus thought,
but rather in ellipses. 1st Law of Planetary Motion; his
2nd & 3rd laws specify the speeds at which the planets
orbit the sun.
Galileo was one of the early pioneers of the telescope.
Galileo made the counter-intuitive suggestion that all
freely falling bodies will fall towards the earth at the
same rate, irrespective of their weight (in vacuum)
Low of Free Fall.

 The Origins of Modern Science

Galileo is generally regarded as the first truly modern
physicist. He was the first to show that the language of
mathematics could be use to describe the behavior of
actual objects in the mechanical world.
Another innovative aspect of Galileos work was his
emphasis on the importance of testing hypothesis
experimentally.
The period of Galileos death saw the scientific revolution
rapidly gain in momentum.
The French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist
Ren Descartes (1596-1650) developed a radical new
mechanical philosophy, according to which the physical
world consist simply of inert particles o matter interacting
and colliding with one another.

 The Origins of Modern Science

The scientific revolution culminated in the work

of Isaac Newton (1643-1727).
Newtons masterpiece was his Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) about
dynamical and mechanical theory of great
power based on Newtons three laws of motion
and universal gravitation.
Newton was able to show that Keplers laws of
planetary motion and Galileos law of free fall
were logical consequences of his laws of motion
and gravitation.

 The Origins of Modern Science

In the 20th century, there are two revolution development in
physics:
(1) Relativity, by Einstein, showed that Newtonian
mechanics doesnt give the right results when applied to
very massive objects or objects moving out very high
velocity.
(2) Quantum mechanics shows that the Newtonian theory
doesnt work when applied on a very small scale, to subatomic particles.
Revolution in biology by Charles Darwins discovery of the
theory of evolution by natural selection, published in the
Origin of Species (1859).
In 1953, Waston & Crick discovered the structure of DNA,
how genetic information can be copied from one cell to
another, and thus passed down from parents to offspring.

What is Philosophy of
Science ?

 What is Philosophy of Science ?

The principle task of philosophy of science is to
always the methods of enquiry used in the various of
sciences.
Why this task should fall to philosophers, rather than
to the scientists themselves? because looking of
science from a philosophical perspective allows us to
probe deeper to uncover assumptions that are
implicit in scientific practice.
Part of the job of philosophy of science is to question
assumptions that scientists take for granted.
Simply said, the philosophy of science studies the
methods of science.

Science and PseudoScience

 Science and Pseudo-Science

The fundamental feature of scientific theory is

that it should be falsifiable. - Karl Popper
The falsifiable means that the theory make
some definite predictions that are capable of
being tested against experience.
A falsifiable theory is one that we might
discover to be false its not compatible with
every possible course of experiences.
Science has an essential nature and a
heterogenous activity, encompassing a wide
range of different disciplines and theories.
e.g.: Einsteins theory of gravitation (general
relativity)

 Science and Pseudo-Science

Pseudo-science is the un-falsifiable one: the

theory could be made compatible with any
possible course of events.
e.g. : Freuds psychoanalytic theory and Marxs
theory of history.
Marx claimed that in industrialized societies
around the world, capitalism would give way to
socialism and ultimately to communism.