Language Two HEIDI DULAY MARINA BURT STEPHEN KRASHEN New York Oxford (OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1982To our mentors ana frends Courtney Cazden, Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle, ‘and Alexander Lipson whose work inspired oursAcknowledgments ‘This book was begun six year ago. During that time many of our colleagues provided information, eas, comments, and moral sup port for Which we are most grateful. We have dedicated this book fo the four t whom we awe the seminal ideas undesiying the Book In addition, we would lie to extend our deepest appreciation to James and Penelope Alatis, who gave much time fo dhsussions of ‘eas and who faciktated our publ presentation of many papers ‘which have been incorporated into this book: Charles Ferguson, Mary Finocchiao, and Robert Politzer, who. provided valuable feedback on ideas and approaches new to the fed; Moris Halle, Richard Ligh, Robin Scaeulla, and Richard Tucker, who read and ‘commented on early versions of the manuscript; Denise McKeon, {who asisted in the enor eueach and in formating teaching plications: Roger Andereon, Lloyd Anderson, Nathalie Bailey, Eu fete Beiere, H. Douglas Brown, Annhariet Buck, Craig Chavaron, 5. Pit Corder, Misiam Elsensein, Ann Fathman, Sascha Felis, May Faith, Judith Olmsted-Gary, J. Hendrikson, Deborah Kellr-Cohen, Carolyn Kessler, Diane Larven-Freeman, john Macnamara, Betty “Mace-Matise, Joseph H. Matluck, Carolyn Madden, Jurgen Meisel John Milo, John Ole, Jr. Chestina 8. Paulson, Jack Richards, Sandra Savignon, John Schumann, Catherine Snow, Irene Spi, Peter Stevens, liabeth Trapot, Albert Valdman, HG. Wide owson, and Henning Wode, who Sent us valuable mata, much of which had not yet been published: Maia Hyman and Marta E Galindo, who produced te manuscript and til version of the bookwith the aid only ofa Lanier word processor; Mary Jean Haley. ¢ Freelance editor, who absorbed much technical materi quickly 294 ‘converted turgid prose into readable English: and our students in the 1979 Panama’ Canal Zone dass of the University of Miami's ‘course in ESL Methodology, who used the til version ofthis book 18 thee text nd veho gave us invaluable reactions te the material. Toll many hanks again or your isssance and encouragement Contents ‘ape 8 18 Mena Bu Stephen Krashen 1 Overview 3 Major Findings in Second Language (L Research Background 6 Purpose Importance of Knowing a Second Language 9 Definition of Tenn 10 2 The Language Environment 13, Macro-Enviconmental Factors 14 ‘The Leamer's Role in Communication 20 Availabilty of Concrete Referents 25 Target Language Models 29 ‘Micro-Environmenal Factors 32 Sallence 22 Feedback 34 Frequency 37 Role of Micro-Environmental Factors 40 Semmary 2 Shady Questions «83 Internal Processing 45 The Fiter 46 ‘The Organizer 54 The Monitor 58 Summary 71 Study Questions 72 4 Effects of Personality and Age on Second Language Acquisition 74 —] fects of Personality 74 Etfes of Age 78 Summary Study Questions — 9 5 The Role of the First Language 96 ‘The Contrastine Analysis Hypothesis 96 On the Terns "interference" and “Transfer” 98 Sources of fateringual Emors 108 ‘The Interaction of a Bling’ Fist and Second Lan- guages 12 Semmary 118 Study Questions 119, 6 Yransitional Constructions 121 ‘he Development of Negation 121 The Development of lnterrogatives 127 Refieive Pronouns 13 Summary ie Study Questions 197 7 Erors 138 Bie vor Analysis Movement 199 ro Types Based on Linguistic Category 146 Surface Stategy Taxonomy 150. contents Comparative Taxonomy 163, Communicative Ect Taxonomy 189 Summary 197 Study Questions 198 ‘Acquisition Order 200 Ohta Studies 208 ‘Adult Studies 209 Wilting vs. Speaking 211 Comparison with Ly Acquisition 211 ‘Simple and Embedded Wh-Questions 214 Rellexive Pronouns 215 Variability 215, Research Methodology 216 Summary 229 Study Questions 230 Special Constructions 232 Neurological Status of Routines and Pattems 233 Routines and Paters in Fist Language Acquisition 235 Routines and Patems in Second Language Acquis fon 238 Semmary 242 Study Questions 242 Aspects of L; Research Methodology 244 Selection ofthe Research Design 245, LLangusge Elation Techniques 246 Considerations in Determining Overall Level of L, Develop went 20 Summary 258 Study Questions 259 From Research to Reality: Implications for the Teacher 281 ‘Teaching Guiclines 263,endix A: Computing Rank Order Corr Appendix A: Computing Rank Order Co Spearman Rank Order Comelation 270 The Kendall Coetcient of Concordance” 273, Glossary 275 biography 263 Index of Names 205 Index of Subjects 309 List of Tables Table 41 Tobie 42 Table 43 Table 44 Table 61 Table 62 Table 63 Table 6 Table 6s Table 7-1 Mean Accent Scores on Pacagraph Reading a8 @ Fane Son of Immigrants’ Age of Arsval and Number of Year in the United States 79 ‘Number of immigrant # the United States and Israel Reporting Degree of Foreign Accent by Age ar A ‘val 80 ‘ereentage of Cuban Inaigeants Judged on English romanciation, by Age of Arival in the United States} Answer: to the question: “When you travel outside [Neve York do people thnk you are a New Yorker by your speech?” 82 Some Intermediate Steps in the Acquisition of Neg sen Development of Negation in German as 2 Fist Zan guage and Second Language for Children 127, ‘Sine intermediate Step inthe Acquistion of Wh ‘Questions by Children and One Adult: Ly nd Lao ‘Some Intermediate Steps inthe Second Language AC> auisiton of Embedded Wh-Questions 134 Some intermediate Steps inthe Acguisition of Reflex ive Fronouns for Fist Language and Second Lan- guage 5 ‘A'Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy 68Table 72 Table 73 Table 74 ‘Table75 Tale7-6 Table 77 Table 78 Table 7-9 Table 7-10 ‘Table 7-11 ‘Table 702 ‘Tole 7-18 bie 14 Table 7.15 ‘Table 7-6 ‘Table 77 Table 75, Table 719 Table 1 Table 82 Table 63 Tbe B4 Table 104, “able 102 A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy 151 Eom of Double Marking in Ly Production 157 Simple Addition Erors Observed in Child Le Produc: tion 183 Regularization Errors in the Misformation Category Observed in Child Lz Production 138 repel Predicates Causing Msinterpretation In Ly and Adult Comprehension 159 Equivalent Cand Ly Erore Organized According to Surface Strategies" 166 Summary of Eror Count 175 Enor Count for Stricture NP-V-Pron 175, Error Count for Sticture2:DeAd}N 176 Error Count fr Structire 3: Pron-(Aus)- (Neg) wei Enor Count for Structure 4: DetN-Poss-N 177 Error Count for Structure 5: NP-be-Adj 178 Error Count for Structure 6: (NP-Aux)-V'+ing- (nn) NP-PrepsNP NPNP. v8 ‘Summary of Child Comparative Eror Analysis Re search 180 English Welsh Comparative Analysis of Word Order in Adjective and Possessive NP Constructions 182 Summary of Adult Comparative Eror Analisis Re search 164 Comparative Error Types by Grammatical Cate- poy? Percent of Comparative Eror Types in Spanish and ‘German for English Speaking Universi’ St dents 188 ‘Spearman Rank Order Coelation Crefcients 213 Definitions of Structures Used in the Dulay and Bart Studies (1973, 1974, 1975) 218 Sample Dsconfirmation Matrix fr Hierarchical Analy ae 2 Sample Stair Matrix and Sample Acquisition Hier archy 225, Comparison of Natural Communication and Linguistic ‘Manipulation Tasks 248 (Comparison of Strsctared and Unstructured Commu: sation Tasks 249 ‘Table 103 Table 104 Table 103 ‘Table AA ‘Table BB ‘Table CC USTORTARES wv General Rules for Assgning Points to the Developed Fom in Computing te SAL 738 Computing the SAL 256 Pereent of Subjects Having Acquired Certain English Structures at Three SAI Levels, Ages 5.8257 Use of the Rank Order Corelaton (ho) 270 Computing the Rank Order Comelation 271 {Une ofthe Kendall Coetficient of Concordance Ww 7List of Figures Fe. Fig, Fi Be Fig Fe Fg Fe Fe Fig. Re. Fie LA ZA 1a ‘Working Model for Creative Construction in L2 Aajistion 6 1 Acquisition Hierarchy fr 18 English Grammatical Structures 34 Intemal Processors 46 lysttation ofthe Relationship and Relative Proportions ‘ofthe Four Enor Types in a Comparative ‘Taxonomy tot Study Summary, Dulay de Burt (1973) 205 Study Summary: Dulay fe Burt (1974b) 206 Study Summary: Dulay & Burt (1875) 208 Study Summary: Bailey, Madden & Krashen (avr) 210 {Comparison of Acquisition Sequences of English ‘Grammatiel Morphemes Produced in the Oral and Waiten Modes 312 (Comparison of Ly and Le Acquisition Sequences 213, Comparison of Netral Communication snd Lingustic, Manipulation Sequences for? English Grammatical Morphemes | 227 ‘Working Model for Creative Construction it Ls Acquisition 253Overview Learning a second language can be exciting and productive... of painful and useless. One's effors san end in the acquisition of fativerlike uency ora stumbling repertoire of sentences soon for atten “The difference often lies in how one goes about learning the new language and how a teacher goes about teaching i. To be success ful learner need not have a special inborn talent fog lesen lan- juoges. Learners and teachers simply need to "doit right.” MAJOR FINDINGS IN SECOND LANGUAGE (L) RESEARCH? [During the last eo decades, eseachers have uncovered some cit teal ingredients of language learning. They have discovered, forex ample, that when chien of adults are not forced to begin speak: ing the new language immediately, they spsealy go thecugh ase Petiod, which lst from 2 few weeks to several months. This com prehension perod appears toacceerte learning fo speak. Most sec- ‘on Tanguage courses, on the other hand, require students to pro {duce and practice sentences in the new language from the fst day fof class. Appeenly, its better to wait awe "also appears thatthe most beneficial language environment is one where Tanguage is used naturally for communication. While some aspects of language may need conscious study, the acquistion of the basics of a language best accomplished in contexts where the lamer is focused on uadersianing or expressing an idea, Imessage, or other thought in the new language. Concrete "here fnd-now”" topics are essential for language acquisition. Paroting Scivities, Inluding most memorized dialogues and. mechanical Als, appear to-do lite to encourage the development of foert conversitonal skills ‘Sometimes, however, even when teachers provide natural lan _goage environments and time fora ilent period, some student stl Imay not learn what is presented ina lesson. Other times, students ‘may even comectly use structures the teacher didnot teach. Re archere now hypotbeslze that several internal factors are #espO "ble fr these unenpected reactions When a students exposed fo a new language, the firs internal hurdles ate posed by the individual's emotional state and motive: Hons, We have learned that guage learners, consciously oF un consciously, slet only certain types af people as modele Worth em ‘lating, For example, + person who thires American English is auche will probably not lear a8 mich English from Americans 25 ‘peson who thinks American English isthe bes pe of English fotknow i the modern world. Other fitering source’ are te indi | Viduals ansety levels, peer identification, and general motivation {olen the language, Together, they make up what we have called the Allee Fler” or simply "ter" The Filer acs to contol tnt to further mental processing ‘Once incoming language has passed through the Fite, it reaches vo other processors the “Organizer” and the “Monitor.” As the mind Begins to take in some ofthe second language It organizes it in a fahion hich results inthe common ordet im which gramuma ical sructures ae earned, In the systematic rors that are made, and inthe interim constionsleamers use. This organization does ‘ot necessary reflect the orgasiation ofthe teaching cucu and It tends tobe similar for most stand language earners no at ter what thie ist language i Monitoring, the thisd internal proces, akin of selediting in which persons wo are very concerned about lingulste appearances {ae conscious rules fo produce sentences, People who have 2 high este to communicate and whe ate not embarrassed by making mistakes uve the monitor less than those who. are more se Conacls "These thre processors are affected by the learner's personal tals and age, which inhibi or enhance thelr aetiy. For examples ‘earner with an outgoing personality ay fer ou less langue than one who is less confident, oan adult may organize more of the language at once than a young child Perhape the most surprising finding in Ly acquisition research ‘concerns the erors second language letmers make. For several de odes, linguists and texchers assumed that most second language learners’ errors resulted from diferences between the fist and se fond Tanguages. This wae the basis ofthe long-popula contasive Snaljsis theory Now, researchers have learned that the fist lan tage has sla smaller effect on second language syntax than Pre Frausiy thought. Studies show, for example, tat only 5% of the _gommaticn! ears curen make and at most 20% ofthe ones adults Shake can be taco to crossover fom the fst language. Lester! {at languages ore no Yonger believed to interfere with thee at tempts to acquie second langeage grammar, and language teachers ho longer need Yo create special ramimar lessons for students fem tach language Background? "another surprising finding was that cocrecting students’ gram matical rors seems to produce lle improvement. carection may, Urcourse serve other important purposes such as helping wudents nd thew parents fel thatthe teacher i earning her Pay or provige {ng the bass fora grade. Reearch suggests, however, that teachers ince ot bring every error to the attention ofthe learner for faethe roy il become 2 habit Tas mentioned earlier, reseagchers have found that most peopl, whether ther first language is Hindi or French, acquite a working Thowledge of certain structures in English it a fairly st order. This ‘aturl leering onder i observed regardless of the order in which the structures ae presented inthe language curriculum Te addition tofllowing a common order of acquisition for certain structures, both children and alte fom numerous fist language Bgrounds generally learn comple structures such as English ‘questions by progressing frm such constructions as Who that? hroush Who the sand finally so Who's that? Linguistic research fs have found that these and other transitional constructions sre predictable and are produced by most Ly lerners no matter what Theis fit language background. ‘One's perception ofthe order in which various elements ofa lan guage are acquired can be muddied by the fact that people who Fave to function in foreiga language frequently begin by master- ing afew useful phrases that make Le easier. These ae things like ass the vals plense, Whats that; Irs my tare. Both chikren and6 uanguace Wo adults learn and use such phrases, called “patterns” and “routines.” In suninay, there are several ingredients which are essential tO understanding second language acquisition the langeage environ tment, the leaner own controls over the learning process, andthe Tanguage that leamers produce. All are pat of the leaning and teaching process. The figure below illustrates how they work to ether, BACKGROUND ‘What wiggered the research that led to these discoveries? In the slates, lnguits experienced a theoretialrevoltionsehich Began with Noam Chomaky' publication of Syntactic Structures In 1997 Chownsky upset the prevaling belie that Language ss learned by Sitting, memorizing and being rewarded for seying the correct things (. Chomsky, 1957 articles in Fodor and Kat, 196K; Fodor, [ever and Garret, 1974), While these proceses do have some role Inelanguage learning, Chomsky argued that the central force guid= ing langooge acquisition is a languagespeclic "mental structure” for "language acguisition device" (198, pp. 47-89) According to Chomsky, the innate organizational principles of the language 3 Aquisition device govern all human languages, and determine what FIGURE 1A Working Mol for Creative Construction in Ls Aomstion? possible fonn human language may take, This mechanism permits Shldren to sequire the van complicated system that comprises & hhuman language ina relatively short time. Exposure toa language luiggers the langsage acquisition device and provides st withthe detals ofthe language te be acquired (ef, Chomsky, 1975, Ch. 0) ‘Chomsky further stated that “unllormties in the output. - mast Ihe ated) tothe srcture ofthe device i they cant be chow tovbe the result of uniformiies inthe language the learner hears” (965, p27), This view of the language learning process inspired great Seal of psycholinguitie eseuch. Roger Brown at Harvard and Dan Sl bina Berkeley, among others, undertook large-scale investigations ff young cilden’s behaviors ax they leasned fet languages. These ‘eseachers were looking for evidence of Chomsky’ "ment stu {hre""~foruniformites inthe verbal behavior of language learners. “They followed two- and thvee year-old childven and their parets sound for several yeas using tape recorders to catch natal + changes in all kinds of situations. The peycholinguists found strike fing evidence that some lerning behaviors are common #0 all chil dren ao maiter what language Uhey ate lenming. This was the beginning of what is now the well-established eld of develop mental psycholingustics. “Al over the world, children who ae learning theie fist language during erly childhood use similar kinds of vebal constructions and make the same kinds of grammatical mistakes, They lear the base Iwordorder niles of the language frst and omit what are called "grammatical morphemes"=the lite words lke te in English of thin Spanish and der in German, or the maskere lke <5 in cas “Foase markers contribute relatively lite to communicating a mes sage even though they are required for grammatialcorectness. TR. Brown (2973) found that when children do learn grammatical smorphemes, they leam them in the same order, and that order is rot related to how often the children ear the structures nor to ‘whether their parents reward them for rodcing correct structures. Slobin (1971) found that children leaning Hengatian and Serbe- (Groatian first learn grammatical markers that come alter nouns and ‘verbs, sod then those that come belore the pours and verbs ‘These and numerous other regularities that have been found in the developing speech of children have led psychainguiss to sup- port Chomsky thesis thatthe human bean is more than ust a ‘Teceptacl that parents and teachers fil with phrases and sentences Ite structuce guldes the way young children lara and internalize the language they hear around them, Language acquisition is nowt A 2 UnguAce m0 ‘knows tobe an interaction betwee the chil’ inate mental ste ture and the language environment, a "creative construction” peo ‘These discoveries soon came tothe attention of professors who were taining second language teachers. although well versed in {aching methods, some realized that they knew very litle about characterstis of second language learners) speech and even less bout the dynamics ofthe interaction between leer and environ iment. Second language Fesearchers needed to cach up with first Tanguage research. Thus, inthe ate sis, they began to turn on thets tape recorders to cach the impecect sentences their children for students were producing in 8 second language. They also ana- lyzed written compositions. We now have a large body of informs tion about the speech and writing of second language learners and [aboot the environmental and mental factors that saluence language Teaming, PURPOSE “This book presents the exiting findings ofthe last decade in greater deta, together with their teaching implications, While the research ‘continues, enough has been learned to sipzest thatthe lemmer’s ‘ontebution to the whole learning process has been highly under ‘timated, and that knowledge ofthese contibutions can help #0 Enprove curentteching practices "Mos second language teaching methodology hes developed with- cout the Benefit of research on second language learning. Mich af ‘what we now know about the way people Tern languages ts beer Aiscovered only in the last twenty yeas, and many teaching meth fods are much older than that. Reseach is 2 slow and tedlons pro- es, and educators often lack the luxury of te to wait for Is fe- Silt, Students cannot be fumed away when they want or need to learn anew language simply beeaure reearches haven caught Up ‘with classroom needs ‘We hope thatthe information about natural lesring processes that is presented in thi book will ep teachers devise effective lessons and develop materials that enhance natural developmental tendencies, Such knowledge should begin to help teachers under Stand why students perform well or badly, or In an unexpected ‘manner, and it should provide an explanation to people who st fannot engage tn a foreign language conversation ater years 18 2 Tanguage class. We hope it can help those who are eying fo learn a new language on their own selec activities and materials that il De mont sieeve We would aso like to alert college students as well ax general language scholars who have focused elsewhere, to the significance of second language acquisition research and to the contibutions uch research could make to theoretical and practical advancement In education linguistics, and psychology IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING A SECOND LANGUAGE ‘Over a billion people in the world speak more than one language Avery. Inthe Philippines, for example, many people must speak three languages if they are to engage fully in their community’ s0- tial affaie. They must spesk the national language, Pilipino; one of the eighty seven local veraculas; and English or Spanish In small tem rather than aba result of having mated and memorized “Thus we use the fem creative construction to refer fo the ssbcon- scious process by which language learners gradually organize the Tenguage they hear according to rales tht they construct o gener stesenlonces The form of theses i determined Hy mental ech- risa responsible for human language acquisition and use. These ‘cham appear tobe inate Ae te lenmers language system Creabia tydevelops, he ere’ les ae gral refined to incorporate mare Snir ofthe natrelngvage system "The creative contrition model of second language aquisition ‘wasitsated erin Figure 1A. Ieepresents oar view of he pro {ctf second language development ao provides the bi for the ergataton of ths book. Each aspect of he Lenin prces iP lncused in dtl in the elght Capers that flow ‘wo tdltonal chaplrsdlapence advice one fr teaches and one for researchers Pr reseaehers we describe research methods Sd poit out problem spots inthe hopes that such flo wil pre Senipst ere tom ecurring and wil enkance the amount ond Suliy of Uy sexeueh, The chapter on the appeton ef research ndings to leaching te an nen to draw general implstion for the seond language lateroe tagested by the research Bindings {To ant eodes in digesting te information presented inthis book, tre hive ince summaries and sy questons athe end feck Spier We Bleve that he ultiate goof second language research is to increase scond language lars’ Uklioad of succes in 2 Gulang a new language, We hope the lowing chapters conrbute Binal The Language Environment ‘The language environment encompasses everything the language learner hears and sees in the new language. It may include a wide variety of situationsexchanges in restaurants and stores, conver sations with fiends, watching television, reading steet signs and newsyapets as well a disscoom aclivitiee—c it nay be very sparse, including only language classroom activites and few books and records, The quaity ofthe language environment ie of paramount impor. ance to success in learning # new language. If stadents are exposed toa ist of words and thei translations, together with afew simple readings in the new language, they will peshaps be able to atain Some degree of reading skill ia language, but lstening and speak ing skis will emai fallow As many high school and college st dents have learned, ip their chagrin, i one i exposed only 0 class. room drils and dialogues, one may acquire substantial mastery of {assroom communication ski but til remain ata lose in other fareasof social discourse. And ofcourse, with no exposure a all, no learning ean take place ln this chapter we have gathered together all the available re- search that indieates which environmental factors influence learners acquisition af a second language end wnder whet condi tions language learning i enhanced. For example it hasbeen found that "silent period” atthe beginning ofthe learning process, diing which the learner simply listens tothe new language and isnot made to produce it relly enhances the speed and quality of lar Ing. Natural commenication (in which people care about the ideas being discuseed rather than whether they ae being expressed cor ‘ecty) also seems eit to developing speaking uency. But even Inautal communication is ineffective if tis about something ab Steyct. Uness the learner ean piece together the meaning of what is being std (with the help of concrete visual als, for example), learning wil proceed slow “Teaching a second language means creating for shudents apart or lof their new language envionment. The entire responsibility fr ‘eating the language environment falls on the eacher who isteach fing language tha is not sed in the community. When teaching the langage of the host community fo immigrants or frei tue dents, however, the teacher has mich outside hep. In either ese, fenvironmental features that acelerate language learning can easily be incorporated into curteim objectives, teaching techniques, and ‘materials to increase the electiveness of the language cassroom. MACRO-ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Researchers have examines the effects of four macro-environmental features onthe rate and quality of Lz acquisition (1) naturalness of ‘the language heard; (2) the learer’s vole i communication: (3) the svailablity of concrete referents to danfy meaning; and (3) who the target language models are. NATURALNESS When the fous ofthe speaker is on the form ofthe language, the language environment is formaly when the focus son the content ‘ofthe communication, the language environment is natu [An ordinary conversation between two people is natural, and so are verbal exchanges ta store, a bank, or party. The pariipamts {in theve exchanges cae about giving and receiving information ct ‘pinions, and although they use language structures, they do so ‘with virtually no conscious awareness of the structures used. On the other hand an explanation of the role forthe formation ofthe past perfect subjunctive in Spanish is formal, as ae the descspions Df any aspect of language or the many dls and exercises that equire conscious linguistic knowledge or manipulation of linguis: ticthems. When we do such eercises, we dont really care that Mary thas a white Bouse, for example, or that John has a Blue shirt. We care thatthe words “white” and “blue” are used correctly in the Sentence pattern. “The distinction between natural and formal language is no ae, It is wually made by language teachers sho designate part af (n= steucional time for formal activities (eg. audielingual dil, struc tural explanations, wanslation, dictation, etc), and part fer natural femmurieation activities such as free conversation, non-anguage fsmes (e.g indoor baseball reading, oF fms. Effects of Natural Exposure ‘A natura language environment appears to enhance the develop ‘ment of communication sil in a second language in both foreign ‘and host environments. Apparently, natural exposure to the new Tanguage triggers the tubonsclous acquisition of communication skis in that language. The beneial etfects ef exposure to natal communication in the target language have been demonstrated by tivee major empirical studies: two studies involved adults and one study lnvalved childre all were acquiring second language ia Foreign enviroments, (Carol's (1967) survey of college language majors was one ofthe frst stdies to demonstrate the ruperiority ofa natural over a for smal language environment fr L; acquisition. Carrll surveyed 2,734 Callege seniors who were majoring in French, German, Russian, ond ‘Spanish in American eslleges and universities, All of them had taken the Modern Language Assocation Foreign Language Proficiency Test (Form A). Coreoll found that foreign language majors performed rather poosly on the average: the median scare on the MLA core Sponded to 4 Foreign Service Institute rating 2 plus (out f 5)— Between “limited working profciengy” and “minimum. profes Sonal proficiency.” Not surprisingly, Caroll also found a stong ‘elationship between line spent abread in a host country envirer= tent and test performance hose who repored yea’ eidy abrend Dirformed best trove soho reported summer roa! oF Four per Formed nex! best: and both ofthese groups outperformes has ho had [uid only in foreign language eneironment ti his ase, he United Sates) n formally structured classroom situations. ‘OF course, one of the major distinguishing characteristic of an cenviconment is the presence ar absence of natal exposure oppor {nies The hot Lnguage envionment permits learners t tak with palivespeating peer about iesues relating to ther ives in the new environment. The foreign language classroom situation, onthe ather and, usualy affords ite opportunity to dius matters of iterest{o the students, Instead, focus is typically om the formal aspects of the language being learned ‘Similar ndings ace reported by Saeger, Scot, Perkins and Tucker (097%, who surveyed Id students atthe American University in Caro, Egypt, and 71 at the American University in Beirut, Lebo ‘Bon, Many ofthe student had attended schools in whieh academic Subjects were taught in English. Saegert etal gathered information| Tegnrding their subjects’ English proficency, the number of years of formal English language instruction, and whether they had had txperience learning aademie subjects in English or another foreiga Tnngusge “The researchers did mot find a steady improvement in English proficiency asthe number of years of EFL study increased. The a Tors concioded that, "A beter overall predictor of English prot, cleney was whether or not the subjects had experience with ita « ‘edit of instruction " The stedents exposure to English asa me ‘dium of instruction in biology, for example, showed a mare ster Stic relationship to level of proficiency than the amount af ume they had spent in the English language dass Results from "immersion program” reseatc also confirm the ef ficacy of the natural environment for language acquisition. Immer sion programs were designed for students who speak a "majority language’ (euch as English in the United States) as thelr Sst a fponge and who wish to learn the “minodity language’ (seh 36 Spanish in the United States) as a second language. In these pro- [grams, the students second language (e.g. spsaish for Anglo ‘Amerians) is used asthe medium of instruction im most asses Sch an environment is natural in thatthe second language 5s the rediam, not the focus, f instruction, "Full immersion” refers to programs that begin in Kindergarten and estend into the upper [rades. “Partial immersion” programs also involve the use ofthe L: fi medion of instruction but may involve eter some subjects in| the Ly and seme in the Ly ("early partial immersion”), or subject rattr in the Ly stating at upper elementary or high schoo, pre {eve by Ly instruction for one Year (Tate paral immersion”) (See Swain, 1978 for fall sewsson)) "ull immersion programs using French as the medium of instruc tion have been in existence for atleast the lst decade for English: peaking children in Canada. More recey, fal immersion pro- trams, with Spanish as the language of instruction, have been in Speration in Culver City, California Tt has Been demonstrated that ‘hilren in these programs acquire impressive amounts of the se fond language, perform satislatorly i subject matter taught inthe second language and do not have significant problems in fit lan- {guage skile (Lambert and Tucker, 1972). Linguistic proisency test. Ing. in the St. Lambert French immersion program sm. Montel vealed that afer seven years in the program, there were some BPs {in the English speakers control of French, but the "students (had developed high Ives of competence ina second language, reaching 2 Stage that even the most eptimisuc second language teacher would fot set for 2 student folowing the waditional FLES (Foreign Lan fpuage im the Elementary School) program” (Bruck, Lambert, and Tacker, 197%, p. 203) Limits on the Effects of Natural Exposure Although natural exposure appears tobe a necessary ingredient in the language espesience of learners If they are to achiewe iseny, ‘ther environmental conditions must betel. Several factors can Limit the teneiial effects of natural exposcre: lack of peers who speak the target language natively, incomprehensbility of the comer tation, and lack of 4 lent period when one can absorb the sew Tanguage but need not produce it Formal Environments | formal language environment focuses on the conscious acquis ton of rales and forms, It sevetely lined in its potential pro duce speakers who are able to communicate naturally and elfec- tively. Although it hae psychological valves that many adult ke to have the satiation of seeing what they have lsened (sts of words, structures, rules, ete), is role inthe development of com- ‘municative ails appears to be quite limited. In rule explanation, learers are explicitly taught linguistic gen ‘alizations (or exeptions) about target language For example, in 1 focal Japanese class students might be tld, or led to discover, how te ania are used; ina Spanish lass they mught be tld the Aitference between ser and etrs iva Hebrew dass hey ght lea hhow the definite article works. It is usually considered good pedagogy to intraduce one such new concept ata time, and Fules are usvally presented in the order f heir presumed linguistic com- plexity, simpler rules coming frst Mechanical or manipulative practice fn using of stating the rules ‘may precede or fllow the explanations provided by the instructor ‘When practice precedes the explanation, and when its goal i 10 Ihlp the student disover the form ofthe rule ts called inductive18 UNaUAce Two When price comes ter the epaation an when sgl i 0 1H theataden in practicing wha was explained (to oceusag tomatic” pertrmance, see russon blows cle deere, “The porn chartrikafanipulie or ech fae vce, however ino at Ws inductive aru: pa iis Coniiosevere in gamma or uch tls te ot Sede cen eyo tnt mn Ih mechan {Sidrae canbe and oten ae, done without understanding on at of the lara Consider for sample the flowing Coen Spe of mechanical substan Gl rm Polo, 2, tones omited Example: Poms nksan Poa Som: tkrso sou or aon ‘Continue the dit CComect response doesnot demand any knowledge of Thai ive, but in ely ten, exercises may appear to be communicative, thoy ne mechanical andosned om grinmatial os Cong the following exercise onthe English retexve: ay ses Boa hosel toe oe — Snare ees merge seein ne cenctmeescmi Sages ae ec = Pfthough various methods of foreign luau eating mh re re en THE LANGUAGE eMNROMENT 19 the student. Next there isa presentation of a biting ist (st of ‘Nord in one language with their translation inthe the) tice EN Yocbulary i intcoduced. This s followed by a reading tot sbulany. Various manipulation ‘exercises of tarlaton trom formeaning Other methods explicitly daim more nttaraness, but dose exe amination reveals that they also contain many fora ogee a ments, The cognitvecade method, for cane li eee transation, also typically begin with an och essa fle The exercises which flow are intended to hae ele ages {he mie, The exercises ae, in tn, followed by een EEmpetence” avis, eg. games tale plying or ogee ne approai is based on the prensppontion that “coors et recede performance.” (The egaive-cole une of Nene wees Bot conespond to Chomsly's eiginal use of them, nore ih the Use of the language in meaningful swuatione” We se, Se, fomever, thatthe notion tha formal, explicit rule knovieaee Ist recede natural use of the language fs Not supported oy oe rent reearch findings. Benetits of Format Exposure ‘Although research indetes that s formal language learning env {onment isnot the best environment for laring agaage Ree, 4 does have certain bench. Ft speakers may meal ta we tthe new language through some of the low level cs he se Ts, hen le ead eco ey ‘may contribute to increasing trary ih Some svar {Anther Benefit of conscious linguistic hnowledge tat i at iies.the casos that many alt learners have Soo engage [xr those who have an interest in the stuctres they we eee {mal environments are shinlating and use, Ae on See oi; foreign language already know however, such Loviedte ae ‘not necessarily make one a beter language user im shone eeete language is use for communication. In 4 sense, this is equiva lent tos linesilogy course for an thee may be uefa oko which muscle ate tvolved in certain stvtes, Bu hiknowledge Wilner necessary improve ones performance on tenis court “There are also language lamers who apparently do not entirely trust ther subconscou learning bilities and who fel more com {ovate if they bnow the mls and sutures consi In any Caves, such coracous awareness increases the fing of conta one aS ver the learning situation. Infact, language tschers have r= Pored thar certain students ace plessay surprised ter come Sows larting a ule tht they have been snonscousy using enrety, commenting, "Oh ye, that's the way It work.” Limitations of Formal Exposure Pechaps the greatest limitation of formal exposure to a language is the small role thatthe conscious knowledge of cules seems to psy inither the acquisition or the conversational use ofthe language For example, mest normal cilden ae sucessful language learners, whether they are learning a stor tecond language. Yet, we Know that they do nat typialy have conscious grasp of the rles they fre acquiring. Similanly, adults normally use their first language Aiueniy, though with varying degrees of sophistcation, yet probs ‘ly only the linguists or gramnarians among them could tate many ofthe rules they use when speaking or writing, Unfortunately, being abe to recite rules does not guarantee a pro- fclent use of the language. Despite painstaking efforts on the Patt, fof both teacher and students to consciously focus onthe structures, oles, and vocabulary of the target language, a minimam ability to Communicate through the language sil eludes most students who study foreign languages using traditional, fonmal methods. ‘THE LEARNER'S ROLE IN COMMUNICATION ‘We can distinguish thre types of communication in which learner participate 1 Oneway, 2 Restricted two-way, and 3. Fall twooway In one-way communication, the learner listens to or reads the ta {get language but docs nol respond, The communication is one-way, towards the learner, ot ram he etme, Listening to speeches and ‘aS prograns, watching fn and most Wlevinea eee a ‘eading books ad maparines areal eranples hone at Jn etcted two-way commasieton, the es 9 the ean responds ally te someone but the later does not we the target spege e response may bein the earners ft language of sane ates ee {aret language and may include a nonverbal espns tok Jn ull wo-way communication, the the Leaner spe in thet language, acting as both recipient and sender of verbal -messag ae ‘This threefold distinction is important becuse cach hee he ace in facitating Ly acquisition. Mant ofthe wate epi ne {esr emphasizes the beneits of lowing ane-way see {wo-way communication during the early Pars o tee rere {fts and wating uni the student realy © paetage Te oc Fangsage bore nitng on Fl two-way commmeeeate Language Leaning anong Vaupes Rive Indians fron on nguage leaning among Indian living in the Vaupes Nive sea a South America Sorenson, 1967) vividly ustates te elas 6 de laying fal two-way communication. The Vaupes Rives leans ey well be the words lading experts in praca Ianguage lone Almost two-dazen mutually eminteligibie languages oe spoken 4 small area populated by a group of about Isa nese Secen moe, it is the custom in tis Indian clture to mar cule af ‘ne’ language grouppeople must find mates who do sot speak thee language! As a consequence, children must enya leat heey en om he sa he thers heather an the ie ea ofthe ss (Takano). More languages af spicaly {ited a the individual grows up and this exordnay language leuning connie throughout adolescence, adulthood, nd eee the later yer While there ie no empirical evidence demonstesing that the ‘Yeupes River Indians are unusually success in secnd langage Scquston, such welkpractied language eamers must cote have something to show us about the ways of pning some eine in new languages. Sorenson's desepton ef how ols lemnen about accomplishing th sof post gees eye Instead, thy passively ee sso wees fms ane aes In and fomilarize temscives withthe sound of Ws pronereeneThey make an ocasional attempt to speak anew language in an “ppropitve ituation, Bui dcr Rt come esl ey ot oe “The Silent Pele for Child L; Learners edt understand langage Chien nave atmos always ben observed to un ot efor Being. ble to prodce ttn fat thee In alco roe father tee evden tem medical anal showing tht sme chien Stay acquire comprohesion allie hutr productive ale at al, $tcking tothe Independent and ordered development ofthese "40 typeof sl TTemeberg (962) sudied a case of “understanding linguage vethut ably fo speak" The subject wa an elghtyearaid oy ‘hoon of nga anv Perper Pech de) sever spoken. Lsneberg reported tat "rom the paints fe isto the cine It has Gee egw that he ada nord and “deguate understanding of spoken langage =A one tine 9 short ters intractons wee pe rcorded and ind he {nt through exrphones He lowed the inatructons without being Sie to eth examine” Tha, deep the lac of peaking ab iy th eld had sculred language wel enough fo undesnd t pericty.Lenneberg oles tht form is etree com ‘soar phenomenon in ore attenasted . ion Undetanding normaly precdesspesking By rer wets ot Ione Ti crepancy sega inset Th ery apes Alvelopmenta speech dsrdes and hen tated in cir ho hse ctl demise aviy pan nh Pr exit pet nga of destin Cogent ch ‘ren is lear to comprehend language nthe sb o ol sl As ft language Irers, normal ciltien begin by eying on one-way communication while they develop comprehension sil ‘Various Ly reveschers have sso found this phenomenon i chil dren who ae learning 2 second language in tural stings, When dats donot force them fo spe, ehldren airing second la fuoge play eb seen pao fr one to hee nth or fo. During this period, the young second language eaves kee Indians in the Vaupes River sia, concente on compression THE LANGUAGE ENURONMENT. 23 ad op fo oe ay ox rected two-way communication Heang (2970) observed fvesyearold boy laming Engick oon aang language a ley shoal in Southern Califone Sy eae Pere fo be an otigoing hl ut he sad sone eae ie the fst two weeks inthis environment and he space ein Words during the second two mec. Productive ngage ig enege unt ten wate had gone by, although the Boye sic te sae memorized phrases fo conenunicaecetabe ness es A smi phenomenon was reparied by Exvin-Tip (197), who sescubed English-speaking chidven, aged fur nee ee Swiss schools where the Inguage of Instucon ea Fe e ‘noted that the dldfen didnot volnter anytng ine ne ane sug ora prolongs peri some a the les sald soy ‘any months. He own chidren did not bein to ask ooh or aM weeks ater they had been inthe selng, ence then te ‘eech was limited to gretngs and her ierasne phe ed fer the subject ha been exposed f0Englch becaes she sroieced almost no speech before tht time. During the five months, skers rally This phenomenon has been noticed by curiculum devsiones and observant language teachers for both cil and adult Ee mee sition. Several recent, innovative teaching approaches. whice oc {emp te capte on the above observations about the lnevage learning process have been developed. The sucera of these esos Brame strongly suggests that adults alo prot rom having a ater Pevod, ‘The Total Physical Response Method [Rerhaps the most widely publicized of the newer approaches is ‘Ashers “Total Physical Response” (IPR) method (Asher tes a 1569 9 and b, 1972; Asher, Kusudo and de la Tome, 1974) Da{inning with simple imperatives (such as Sit do. or Stand wp), 10 more complex sentences (such asf Aber runs fo he ehaboard, un afte bine ad tp hi ih you pen). ‘Asher has conducted effectiveness studies comparing the TPR method with other approaches in which stadens are required 10 peak inthe aget language tight aoray. Ina study involving Gee ‘man as foreign langunge # the United States, TPR scents had Significantly beter listening comprehension scores alter only 32 hours of instruction than students completing 150 hous of college German (Asher, 1972) Further, despite the fact that TPR students had litle systematic tsining In reading and WINE, they per formed in those aceas as mell asthe contols, These results have been replicated wsing Spanish as a foreign language (Asher e at, 1974) and German a a fovelge Linguage (Swaller and Woodelf, 1975 see below), ‘The Natural Approach Another foreign language teaching method which provides for in tual restricted communication in the target language is ealled the "Natural Approach” (Tere 1977). In this method. the entice cass period is devoted to communicative activities, Explanation an for zal wont are done outside the dassroam ag homework. Students ‘re allowed to respond inthe lassroum in ether ther fist language ‘rin the taget language, and early production of the target Ian- [Buage isnot required. Each student makes his cr her ven decision Stout when fo Begin tose the target language, much a Sorenson's Vauipes River Indiane dor A student is likely try to speak in the new language, Tere states, “whenever he or she makes a deision to do so, ie. whenever his or her selimage au ease in the ass room is sich tht 9 response in the second language will 0 pro- slice aries” “Although no studies have been published comparing the results| ofthe Natural Approach fo those af other methods that do notin luce a retriced two-way communication period Terrel's Wn ex perience suggests thatthe Natural Approoth leads to rapid se@U- Sitlon of istening comprehension a we as speaking sil Classroom Research on Delaying Oral Practice Valerian Postovsky (1974, 1977) ond Judith Gary (1972) conducted Independent research stadies om delaying orl practice in he else eotinlacms tat grammar” (Postovsky, 1977, p. 18). a Gey mil ot by Behaving anaes vers ‘month perio as they were learning Spanish im sseathore Colona, Arica oc nee ae Calo ‘Biden mean Tye munca rom the very beginning of Ly aesiion AVAILABILITY OF CONCRETE REFERENTS “The convent of language tht (s directed at beginning lamers must Ter seh Shat learners can figure out the meaning Yo vome extent i eo thid macro-etvironmental feature that affects success [his res a ponge development: the presence oF absence of ext Tee tn ths can td he lamer in grasping the meaning nga umd othe ev’ language. A language ein Shent enay provide this type of support when i ri ata” Aubjects and events that can be see the language is being used.” i incades comerele Tnead, or felt while 1 an Teme invaves understanding of producing language wena Timy,eyond ces's present repertoire, the ex Title content that accompanies sich language mus Ce tind ese he context which wl make the mesg of tere ee trot leas, Experienced second language teachers are, of Curse, et ee the importance of providing contests forthe new weepadee They provide vinsal als, motor activities and other “ere neat Iypet of support to elp make the meaning ste new itrguage dear to bepianing learners Te eat example of language environment rich in concrete ceferent is one that mothers and othe euetakers” create when wy ak fo ane young izes around them. This Kind of speech fas been called “mothers.” Mothers or other bey the “here-and-now” principle ‘ment Drink your jie! stp that! Ort ‘Suldren's ongoing activities: shat w dogs erties palY ‘They deccrbe Wwhat the chil Greg do, or what has just happened: OF. you spied your mks Tels re doo Sue! Or they fe chldren what to do at = given ro- hey ask questions about the i, Wheres you sk? sr Ee pay sb ste tte ee Saco a de ot a wa i aan fat week not to mention next yes Dock or events In anctbe: county poloted out, tie focus on the hereand-now is 0 reining teach langage. Rather, i isa topical consirsint on maternal speech (NewPor., Gletman, “Tadunow principle desives from the ‘hat is going on down the [Av various retearchers have pat of 2 con: fad Gein, 1977). The hee fac that limited see of topics ‘EUR ENMROMMENT a7 ar of mali th tes and young len, Ne tet a summarize t well “Mothers want their hldren to drink thei fue and lean up the playroom, so these are the things that stalked about” mu a Language environments for child second language lamers aze ate torre Cm the lowing ecange iene by Searcher studying a five year-old leaving English ss Second Lan- ‘onge in California — : seis your bal? Wat clo your bal? (eo anewee) ‘ea yous dona? Yen Intat your doggy orin’s doggy? in’ dona. ‘The edult is refering to objects that are visually avilable tothe child, aot to anything spatially o temporally distant, Tis alt is Iellowing the here-and-now principle, prokubly forthe same reason parents do, disassing a mited number of topics of matalInter- “Although the use of the here-and-now principle provides eit and necessary supper for those faced with the first or e2cond ln {guage Tearing tas, iti auch less Irequertly observed when the EM ae alse adds ota to er leer about evens ad objects displaced in space and time, even though the students barely know English. The results are usally daastrous, ae the tllowing echange shows. Icardo isa shirteen-yea-ld boy lesenng English i Califor, who had ony ben in ibe United ate oe mont Vator you ginm doteigh? Tonight ait kaw You dont km yt Doyo work t SOCRATES Ran mae ri Power Mot Oh yu woh the mud down nl SU wna ake doyes deat tome? Ham,‘Other questions asked Ricardo included: Wat id he do yesterday? hat owe mean by austin mak"? Dia'you ever have any wouble With oor ea ‘Ahough the questions and comments directed at this boy may not ook sch to» ative English speaker, the fot that the ln fage doesnot eter to a single concrete, heeand-aow referent Snakes i imposible forthe lar t gare out wha he mean ‘Svwiinout knowing se meaning o all the words sea Dies etna, ke younger one, woul Benefit fem adherence tothe hereand-now prinape, pedal inthe ety sages oft Scion, OF coun, hr dot ht ler ent ‘itwey ble toca with abstractions, they just eed conrete help Chen unig anew lnguoge Rather han taking about pale trays” however one wou eleet more aproprisecbjec and Svs, such a taney or food: Whatever the cote, ne cond itn to be mets that the bjs and activites chosen for use show have concrete referent 0 the leaner can figure out the Meaning of the lnguoge used Children themeves are are ofthe importance of concrete en vironments for second Tanguage arrest her cody of five Spanish spesong children nam American kindergarten, Filmore Ub) nota that the native Enlsvapeaking Guen would suo: seal oid ont eee fhe can eg English by means of gesture, demonstrations, sound secs 3 ‘petition. Yet when speoking to Englishspeciing adults hey did rot use the concrete approuch This in lstated by fhe following ‘xchange Filner observed in the dasoom sus; English leaner Hey, Matthew, wait armiewe (Hede up his ile) Look, Bete's mine Mine hes go to-go n here, and yours hs go fo go m thee e505; Wha’ nappen? My God! Shows Matthew a ar whieh has the tren msn) uarewew Wha happen tthe Lok (ica fling pat 0) muss My Goi! aus: Foye. Saronew: (To adult osere] Hey teacher, you've got 2 TV, righ? MAETHEWC “Telesis why he dont witch Channel 5. Tht pram is ing on aan, sess: Chanel ry don you tl him yours? armHEw: “Cause he dont know what mn sein. Filmore nts that “Mathew had been plying and alkng with Jes or he ere hor inthe ply, nt hen {el hin somelhing which ould ot be contesting Ne ae {he abserver to tala for him aan The avalale evidence for both child and adult sso lnguage learners, ina host or frig language eneeornen oe ae language enroments rh in Conte rere spn necery environmental charters for beginiieg aogegs ‘TARGET LANGUAGE MODELS | addition tothe beneficial effects of a language environment in ‘which natural language isthe rule, in whieh learners are nor teed {o speak in the new language before they ae ready and in hich the hereand-now principle i fllowed, there ie fut rgninenee macto-environmental factor: the souce ofthe languoge the earns hear, Thete may be many speaker madels available Gnyore ofa speaks the target language is a potential mode, but lester doe ‘draw on them equal, Although it is well kg posed. Unexpected lering outcomes may wel be the reed oo lective attention to diferent epeaker models rather than the cea, of some inherent learning prostem Language learning research provides vorous examples of appar nt preferences for certain speaker models over others under co cltcumstances, preferences which seem to have ebvious acenrny the quality of the learner's spech. To date, evidence has been ri Soke which demonstrates spesker model preferences of tee vee, Remarc ices pes ver parent and own etic op | members over ae-members,Peer versus Teacher en bth each and etre pe the ge lunge, lee hive been cbered to peer the inter at dels br hema, Foreample seen jewel pips spening ed who fa {Seige Hal Sie the Heads Gl ng of stent eran Sade gh of he Seng frst he year Whe he Dy mote oa mide cs gh Sorta te cbowing yar oweve, Ne suis pike up the Sci gl hath nw ns pel) Tae stig nomenon tet “ere ean Shri nt eo English ee young mieten ern ithe lec of tet pas they Jean proutive car the Ghat ofthe tether iso sie (p19 Sint Snings hve been pred ro ue fend Ua seage mein prune n Crads nthe Unie Sen talon prams eter Spl teeny at pres Ltn grange ow he lrg ae pone ue Sat day" No alive tare langage speating hire tee tes inthe programs Te chen setup jet mater throught gelangage, thy spk the ie ngage ‘eal he dato a Tn thc he. Lambert rnc nmaron proga nMon wc the sets who hal ented he poe degen {nda continued Int ar seen yea howe woe gp in the nl of each and marfed anata oh Pre rncaton fry Lambert andthe 979 Ovet the yar the Data rec the ens developed was uate ier [ota he tae Sin ents ve hee epoted fr Spas ero pro seam in Cavern, Clon hee Aenean ne ‘pula a Epis ve eed fn bjt a neon Ersgh Span for the sto! Say. ganna nti Spanish ‘poses waren the pope) After fst yeu nthe program ‘Gorn ten degen), de cles made para Caer Spnah whch wee racer othe younger, rin the beanies Teng pete heck 1 etn wen i mponement sr gent an tee ‘aopmen fh meiopal apeenet is ft wer ied Ie cme of uh “mean vr” fw a ge doe tsp oe ain any ing sens Sri ten nt the uty fe get ngs sake th chr dng the hl dayne tote eon to Sake ttn mune some fests pecn nce tiftenes geen el ‘Sip aad epee mcd ae ne non ee ae Fest Peer Versus Parent {fat language laring, it has been found that when the speech INTERNAL PRRCEESING 49 Integative motivation has also been found to ela 1 proficeney inthe Unie Sates for Engh a econ langage I tis ee went nd mega maton ae te notary. Spay a8) found tht Goesonae a det fs thone une ne Coad sewer oppropasr fr tien sade in the United Sues Bctse suc jc ay nt ‘Stadt o motes which mpgs hey wih fo ee thet Sr cunty permanent (a) say of several handed Sttrrtoalsident: Spl used an incest esr of negra tive motivation He date viageativemtivaion atthe ama ‘agreement beech subject Wes of themetves and ter views ‘Speakers ofthe target angoge fos vasey of porosity tate {eg stubborn, lay, kind) )Spaoky eeprtd that deer meas of Inenuring integrative mateation did chow any rssh be- Seen poison in Ehsan aces on he guessontaey, bt ‘Seer pontvecoestios were shown when the Indirect method weed The elec of integrative motivation appears tobe weaker In ther satens Gardner and Lambert 92) invented igh shea {eden ering French in thoes Arran semumumitenn Maine, Connect, an Lousan,Inegeative atvation did wot rete 6 profceng in Maine or Lousiana, and only + weak eatonship fear found in ConnecteatAdatonaly, Chara and Ole (979) roid the aeqston af Engh in Japan by 2) sls Bie intermedi. and advanced EPL course. Phy found ie elton ship benwes atttude and preieny. aly intersting ar he findings of two ste het afow strmentl mstvaton to be sperar Lata (970 foun that or Marathspesking women in Gombay "whe belonged tothe com purser non Western secon Bom sony.” protien In English os measured bya Clore test was more related insta mental motivation than to integeatve motivation. Uskan!con- ‘ded that her subject so theaves "based thet own oun try utreacing out tomoder dens and le sve (p22) Carder {2c Lanett 7a) reached sar cnchsone for Engish as a at Gre language inthe Philippines Inthe Phlppines, English soften {fe langage of education and business, bu teary spoken in {he home. Gardner and Lamber found tat instrament mot Mon wa aber predictor of ereral English profeny, but they td gy nd nna cng thdalso found a clear relationship between the presence of integrative ‘motivation and "salon ls. ‘Motivation may also att ler ot parts of the Language that are not important to the leaner for eample, the phonolopieal aspects of American or British English for learners of English inthe Phi "pines or Bombay. Another case where itis quite possible that Tanguage is iter sea result of sestumental motivation i the de velopment of pidgin languages by communities which lsrn 2 se. fond language for purpores of commerce and other functional fe Sans, rather than for socal contact (See Schumann, 1974, for Aiseusion of pidginization In such cicumstances, only the miti- ‘mom syntax and vocabulary necessary to communicate at lied ‘Fomaine would be lesrmed. As Rica points out: Wecan pedis for erample, the sro English likely 0 be aged by an igre who mines exe with Ns ow language tnd who Jpene shop, catering lngaly fut mot exces otha [guage poup. He wil probly tar tf reply to ied Set of ‘gustions in Eagsh to manipulte s lose cise of pte ormale the vocabulary some ood lead perhupe the language i. Social Group Identiication The language or language variety one Speaks is oten a signal to athers thal one belongs toa sertain socal group. The socal group Identification motive may thus be deined 55 the desire to acguire proficiency ina language o language va ey spaken bya social group with which he learner tdentiies. Com etsy lack ck identifention witha piven group may result in a learner not wanting to acute the language or language variety spoken by that group. We saw in Chapter? that children tne in other children af L, models but often fne out the teacher or their parents. We also saw thatthe reseach strongly indeats that afte Tearners also prefer their pers ae language models and one study suggests that both child and adult learners who belong t0 3 partic Ula ethaie group prefer other embers ofthat group ss models The social group identucation mative f similar to the integrative ‘motive, bt, in our interpretation, goes beyond it Learners with an {ntegeative motive for learning a new language souls wish to Pa "Hopate in the socal or cultural Mf of the target language speakers wile retaining thelr demtfcaion withthe own native language ‘group. Leamers wh Ihe a socl rou identification motive would ‘want social sd eularal Participation, But they Would also want to ee see gy Ry ‘become members ofthe group that speaks the new language or lan- fuage variety Inoier words, ol go stn ipl inne) Tae motivation, but not vice versa, The social group sdentifeation mo- tive would be particulary appliable to immigrants or migrant who ‘may watt to assimilate fully into the host society or community {ther immigrants or mgsants Rave ony inteprative or instrumental ‘motives fr learning the host Inguage “The research findings regarding motivation and atitdes are not ‘entirely clear with respect to distinguishing the effects of a limited tnvironment from the fects offering. A learner may simply be | processing all that is oaiabl given the limited environment. How“ Bren given the same language environment, diferences between Snecesfal and unyuccesfl learners in ate and quality of acquis tion are most plausibly accounted for by some kind of interna) lective mechaniem, such 36 2 filter that controls or selects what learners process depending on thelr particular metives, need and testes for example, instrumental motivation Is nati i scope, only a small supa af the language heard will be of saterest to the {earner If on the other hand, iastrumental motivation i wide ia Scope, such ae the deste to work in a eouatey where the target Tsnguage isthe official language, much ofthe language will be of interest and Bering willbe minimal Emotional States ‘The learner's emotional states ae aso pat ofthe filter, n combi hatin vith alituder and motivation, they sect what the learner j {mits for Further processing, Research has shown, for example, the elects of various forms of anviety on acquisition the legs araious the lemme, the better lan- fuage acquisition proceeds, Similarly, relaved and comfortable st tients apparenily can learn more in shorter pecids of time Relaxation Techniques to induce in stents a sate of mental = Taxation and comfort intended to maximize language lestning have bboen developed and are curently being used with reported suctess by Georgi Loeanow in Bulgaria. The students elaved mental state brotght about by cls sale, comfortable chairs, and the ine "ructr’s modulation of voices Believed to increase the receptivity fof the sadent to the new material. Shearer (1975) describes the ‘method, termed “suggesupeda,” brillI “The type Loranor laste i ike «cootble ving 8am The {autor ete anno dalgue'n on exreoe uy accompanied Yh incl gees ade stents repent sentences ster hy Sesion Sy testing in Balgatan to st «question. Ts Enis, e acer Sit tick n bam and ver h yer The students date me Sha Vivaldi walt soy tothe rom. While the stadents rece Theis amehare, ying to empty thelr minds and ten only othe mun he eke eens te sme lesson, this tet the ryt of the dal muse A few mints later, Re sande and his eas ns sh a rf seve tt ls no homeweck, Lovano csi that within month sade th no pie knowledge ae lngeage wll Nove leaned 200 F030 ‘reeds and have» god enough asp of the prams toe ther st Tonveraton. Nesrn expats who fave vised hi neat oper Neca, nthe United States, Eizabeh Philipow of Pepperdine University has adapted Lorano’s echaique to teach Cyrilic languages. A study comparing this method wits treditional language instacton showed the supgestopedic stadents were more proiient with ony one-third study time” (Budzynski, 1977p 2) "T Budeyaski, ofthe Biofeedback Instate of Denwer, refers toa “light stale” slate between consciousness and sleep chase terized by theta brainwaves—during which individuals become more receptive to absorbing certain kinds of information, including Ian sguage. Budoyneki reports cise studies of people who have been helped by being placed in a twilight state and given iaformation that had been previously blocked, Incuding "students who have ‘mental blocks for subject such as foreign languages; fat people who fre unable to comply with suggestions to eat propety: prejudiced [people who ind thar to believe anything a member af a mincety Broup says" (pA). ‘Ann Harit Buck of “The Golden Door," a health resort in Bscon- «ido, California, who brought Budzynsi’s work to ur atenton, ‘eports tht basketball players who imagine practicing foul shots perform as well as players ino actually practice them (Buck, 1981, ‘Research of this sot fe ail nits infancy: nevertheless, the hte that is availabe seems 4 hold promise JAnsiety ruber of studies have shown a relationship between Tw annlety and sucessful language acquisition. Carl (1963) noted INTERNAL PROCESSING. 59 4 sll gate coetion = —20, n=) between test any Sn sconpsment in intensive foreign langage cous. Card tr, Smythe, Clement a Clitsman (370) reper ht css ety neetvey coved with pench kev as wall as wh {indy in French 0 fregn Inpro i grades 711 In Canad {Ep nue ended to be bore Cay reed to god scores on spewch tet than pas Nam, Probie Sur, and Tosco (1978) found that fo thir subjects Gen ners in grader itn Trot, slo ase ‘cyoignteart jen snd srr ekngs may berate of ‘rp to) They devised compostevraleconisinget cern in hand-rasing, reaction to being called on without Rand-aising, ) {nd eanassvent Im speaking french. This wes cled “ore _dsroam pesos.” and raed to achievement oma fet (ew St pe 4 wel avon hseing comprehension test (r= 0, ph, Witenborn, Larsen an Vigil O94; cited in Pmsleae Mosher, snd Merson, 196) waded lege French an Spanish sent Sn ound tat low hgh ahve ay be datinguished br ict taney a ely epee elm tence. Dank (197 ote in Pear ea 196) found tat ow schievers in Latin thowed “emsionaliy: anc confc and arey™ ons posal tex Oller ace, and Vig GHP), in her uy of Menea [Knercan femme in New Mec, reported tha suet who sr themes as” in ation fo -conserative regio, ay Iombl inte” aid beter ons Crees of English so» Sco USngune then hers who dino hasan (197) repre a significant curation between tet aniety and sucess suiingually taught Hench ian Ares in university The creation mas egtive (==), nding tha lw teat ey wan saci with grater sce, which ‘onsistnt wih theses reported above. A peice consaon, fowever, was found between tetany an aclorement Th Spursh (¢2 i) and Coman (= 37) tnght by Yair meth our Armin as nase bythe Tayo Ment Ait te es ‘ontvely clsted with Spanish acevement Bu showed no her Sean reatonsips: One terpreaion othe tet ancy tut not dicted by Chain tte aoe ingualopprowh permits sutconsory seuton to woe event despite he a ounce nenson to xtsich hui, whlewaitona methods enon conscious lrning.Perspe low arate Benefits abo Sci aeguintion, whe sles moderate dpe nee may Berbepl for conor eringAlthough the fter Aas visible effets on learning result, its only the fist processor. Its based on affective factors, wile the next Processor relates 0 analytical, or cognitive, aspects of language a Quisiton . rae THE ORGANIZER? ~ |The organizer is that part of the internal processing system that is Jeesponsibe fr the leumer’s gradual ganization ofthe new lan | guage system. Its functioning s subconscious and is based on What {psychologists call “cognitive” principles: analytical and logical ere feria forthe organization of knowledge aon behavior © regitentan oules if In examining the language that leseners produce researchers cin v the functigning of the orgoniser refected in tire perasie 4 & | Phenomena: (ID the systematic progestin of changes in interim = | Ir transitional ensinton ht tenner use blot ore ture is finally acquire (2) the eros that systematically xc ih _ Js speech and hte common oder i which sas sae tures are enmed. The reationsip between these ings and the cpeaton ofthe organizer i highly inoralve,Atayses of here SSperts of the lene developing Ly sat seve! Seren faces ci'the operation ofthe internal pines that govern the acquis thon o engage ‘GiFranstionat Constructions ‘A varity of rules have been found to characterize learner’ second language spech. We have sed the tem transitional constacions (Gee Chapter 6) refer to the sinter sntres lara reguly ‘he during the aeguiston of partiuer taper engungestrecure “The observation that many Sacre develop systematic manne fr diferent students is one of the mast important indica- tors ofthe force ofthe orgenizer in controlling the language acq sition process, Structures whose development his been sted 0 far ince English and German negation, English snd Hench in ple wh-questons, English embedded i-quesione an reise Proneuns, and German particles. In the development of negation, fr example, the lene’ fist aviempts pcally place the negtor outside the rest ofthe eter Ssneeeither before orale it 8 no sgpng). In Step 2 the ne rE ip te foto place inside the uterances, although the may is 8 Sent ep I no" dm) In Stop the "eo aon ed. the ence eley mara dnd the nears coe acd Fo {trig whine utrmen eNom he ‘ft, te bginnng send of velopment sop ithe scquison of truce ie mo as abrupt ay nese carrie ios suggest Langue evelopment ents series ot pleut ! continu made up 0 Sending the beginning ad ems fo tea ssrenve poset. The deta of tention contruction development ae pre sented fly Copter 6 Whats snpertat hee atthe deve | Spirent of thee suures canbe cheered by gee lings Cpinipln These ae egeizatonal as who src est He in he panier give te on spperaneo the ce spe the devdoping language of lero ode! language back rounds srt the acne of sch trance the engage = ‘Sromnesto aden, > Ewer Types Analyses of merous eros in L learners! speech and writing (s- ‘lated in dtall in Chapter 7) have revesled systematic distortions of surace elements of the new Inguage 1. The omission af grammatia! marphemes—omiting tes that do not conrinate much the meaning of the sentences as in! by some coloring boo, where past and pal makers ae ote "2 The double xacking oa given semantic festore—marking two ‘more items in am attersnce when only one marker eauled a8 Sn She dr wented, where the past ens marked more than once 3, "The regularization of ireglar eles, a in That moweexthed tir, where the ropulr pst fens marker ed i used instead ofthe Ieepulecugh. “The use of archiforme—using one form forthe several e- aquired, in the Use of the acustive for both nominative and 2 ‘Sante pronouns Thr ging ator kno them 5 The alternating abe of two or more forms whose condition or se ae sll beng mteraived,s inte andoon leroaton of ch nd meny Yoo mich dal; many potters 6. "The misordring of items (n constractons tha equi the re vera of wordsorder rules that have been previously aculte, in| aot iow hots, where he placement ots eroncoush 00S ‘he rte for aimple questions rather than embeded questions‘The Acquisition Order of Structures _As we will tein Chapter 8, numerous cesar stdies have re ‘otved sround the questions there cheater Lz suis ‘order for erin English sutures? Neatly every soundly designed study has answered this question sa the atiative. Reveochers have cacovered an Le acquisition der whichis storaeteriste of bath dren and adsl, and whieh olds for both oral and wen modes, provided the focus ofthe Ieemers ison commoniting somthing, This peal nding is cone ofthe mest exciting and significant oukomes ofthe at dee atic inguae sien seach Se Cer force “Th srctres Seem ofl nt atleast tree o four group, each of hich is cedered with rept tothe ether groups. The aeqs tion groupings that have been observed seem f correspond ta ev= sof linguist development and mort learners pass Uwough eich ina fan sable sequence” {ine ostanizsspprety guides the aquiston process, intng [at can be learned to new material tats nt the growing {anzation oe nev language syste, nd rejecting material which foes ot yo into the emerging systems, The result tht obser Snare seualy able to witness props of aac being seglred nthe same arly stable order in the new lnguoge systems ot many Alene of diverse fra language backgrounds “these sbserved leaning hitrchies,ogether with the systematic ratte of err types and tanetionl constructions, ate among ie ‘most impressive evidence ofthe internal conta the organizer ex: sets in the development of » second language Allo the general ‘bservations indicate thatthe exganzer functions asa gue ard fegulatory mechanism which permits the gradual and systematic frovth that har been cbserved for Ls aequisiton in natural and focal stings. ‘Attempts to Characterize the Orgasizer While it seems clear that some mental processor, which we have refered to a8 a organizer, ls responsible forthe lexmers deve: ‘opment of tne new language system, we cannot yet fully speci Its ‘operational principles. “Attempts have been made to characterize organizational leering principles in Ly research (Brown, 1973, Bever, 1970; Slobin, 1973; 5, Yam a sp i net et ee pt nah SSRIS ms ye ree nd Ervin-Tipp, 1973), and ¥ ited een, forbs aguisiton {Evintapp, 178 Dalay ad Ber, 1979). Mes thee efforts hve eon mere success i deermining what the pines are than in what they are Ths intatve, however especial fr {hose inerested i advancing the theoretical sate of thea eshaps the mos dca problem in atempting t cuacteize the organizer has rested from the tendency fo equate pines ‘thinay deen deve’ lnguge oyster with those the ind [son to eogure the sem. At ang these pipes = TeinedTo'be te sme, archers wil continue Yo hope a n= proved methods of dseng mare language systems wl Ding Erne chncoerng ewig prnaples Tse may be aa ope, ‘omerer For evmple we ff tue tat the mumber of wasn. Traine inthe derivation ot siactre may bean acura reser the complet ef tat score, we dont tanw if he principles {Gr equrng vil bet same. Chomsky and Halle (1969 mode @ frat 2 wen they rate that hr deonf oss 8 a Fe Ungushe desepine had no eating on the psychological Teaiy their ingle descriptions (p33. “Tne disappointing reuls of Browns efrs to use descriptive tingulte leet epainiaring order underscores this point. Brawn 197) proposed that he to major “determinant F265 ao a Pre enguanelewnlng oder he obi wee 2 Ironic an grammatil compost Semorie cmplety was de Sh he nme omar meng Hg eel gh ‘cpresen'by morpho the greater the number oar men TEE tRe mace semen canes that morpheme shouldbe He eed grammata complet in ets derivation comes: ‘gre move grammatical tonfornations requted sn he deriva ton a's nracere acrordng othe Jcos and Rovenbout (1968) Shay, he more rmmaely comps tat strcre shoud be. ‘Srovs‘aniyay stowed that either grammatical nor semantic Coney alone caplaned te lnning oer he found, and he had fo conclude tat the order of sequin fs dependent upon réa-} tive complaty, grammatical andor semantic" (p25) ‘ver Tes encouaging fests were obtained by Dulay and Burt (0975) "They ested Brown's 0979) grammatical and semantic com (lost presion forte learning oder of he uctres In hee {TSa td fond tat nether gramfateal nor semantc complexity ‘nor both combined, cul ean te les order found for Ls ives over (1970) and Slobin (1971) have also pointed Yo the ned to ety of factors, including the leamer’s personality (see the next ‘chapter, the focus of the linguistic task, and, of course, whether the individyal has been exposed formaliy to the grammar of th langage Focus on Linguistic Task “Tasks which focus on linguistic manipulation seem to encourage onitoring, While those which focus on commenicating do not A 46Linguistic manipulation task directs the student's stetin tothe linguistic operation required by the task. For example, asking 3 speaker to tanform Maria kes doughvats into a negative sentence ‘equires manipulation of the elements inthe sentence. A natura communication tak focuses the student's atention on cain {ating an TGS or Opinion to someone rather than onthe language forma themselves. In such situations the speaker subconsciously ses the grammar rules acquired to convey the message (See Chapt: It for further description of these type of tasks) ‘As we wil ae in our review of acquisition order studies (Chapter 8), fainly stable order of aquisition hasbeen observed for adults Jeaming English asa second language when the task subjects per formed permitted focus on commnicaton. Ina study which fo cused instead on linguistic manipulation (lin the blank ith the orrect morpheme; we saw tha a diffrent order was cbtained {Cersen-Freeman, 1575. This nding hasbeen replicated by Howe, Roberson and Krashen (1978). (7 Thappeats that when individuals are focused on the form ofthe language, they may apply formally learned, eonsciosly availabe | rales 0 the languoge they produce. Thus to the exten that com ‘ious available rules come ino play when speakers are concer- trating on linguistic manipulation, the observed order wil ary somewhat fom the stable order obtained in most commutation roa The structures affected, of course, wil be ony those to which the learner has applied a rule. Other sutures remain snafected. For example, 4 stident of ESL. who fas conecisly Teaened the third Peron singular ending on reqlar verbs in English, but who has fot yet subeonsecosyScquird ican ulize thie coracious Know! ‘seo a grammar tet ard may perform relatively better in Pro Alucing this tem ona test than ina tural conversation Etfects of Formal Instruction on Monitoring goes without saying that an individual cannot consciously app rules unless they have been learned. The converse, weve, i ot trae: krowiedge of rules ds not mean they wil be applied. A cent stidy by Krashen Seles, Feldman and Fathan (1976) ‘ramined wo groups of adult subjects who were labeled formal ‘nd'nfoal learners, “Formal” lamers were defined ss howe who ‘pore grat deal of elasroom ESL taining hee ite yor) te ite infonna exposure. The “informal” weoupcoristed of se ‘who reported ite schooling in ESL. (none fa semestes) and hed lived in dhe United States fom thre months to fity years. Despite the differences n formal taining, the fra groups agreed very closely (rho = 87, p00) in the order of structures observed in an orl task called'the SLOPE test (ck Fathman, 1975) Mere conscious kowiedge of rules though necessary for monitor use, does nat en- sure that they willbe applied tothe Language that lamers produce Iehas also been shoven that simply asking students to check their (writen) work carefully does not guarante the use of consciously learned les. Keashen, Butler, Birnbaum, and. Robertson (1978) compared orders of sractores obtained ina wrting tsk under So Conditions. Fist, BSL students atthe University of Southern Cal- fornia were asked to describe in writing a series of plctures under 2 "tzee” condition: They were tld to simply write at much a8 pos Sible in five minutes. To further discourage moniterng, they were told that they would be graded on the numberof words they could fet on paper during this ime Ina second “edited” condition, sti- fens were asked to check their work carefully. Both a diferent- subjects and same-subjects design was used: In one version of the ‘experiment, diferent students participated in each condition, ile inanother, the same students were used for hot Two important findings emerted irom thi study. First, there was only a modest amount et improvement in the edited eonition for the se grammatical morphemes that were analyzed (overall im provement was about 694) Second, both groups showed the fom: Er sable comoumiestion order forthe grammatical morphemes snalyzed. The only clea diference between the fee and edited onditions was thatthe third person singular morpheme rose in fink in the edited condition; However, it did not Fise encugh 10 Alisturt the overall order, ‘Thus, even when students were asked to check thelr work, they pparenty chore to focus anit factual correctness, clarity of ideas, or other non-grammatcal aspects oftheir compositions. Or, per haps they simply rested. It appears thatthe task itself must force the typical learner to focus on form inorder to bring conscous role: knowledge int pay." “More typical, owever isthe finding by Schlve (1976), who stud= led adult secretion with three foreign students in the United States who were at an intermediate level of proficiency in English. She found that sell-corections in free speech (corrections initiated and made by the student while speaking), while helpful in increas- {Ce scnomi ype anonyme ic gepromarcanmencnag.ing accuracy, ocurred on only about 10% fall eroes. The stusents were generally able to correct mos ofthe errs they detected. Schue eet suas gh i cman nen (ch natural conversation) nd the language learner “attending othe ac curacy of his mete and the appropdateness of his uerance to the discourse rather than to his grammatical accuracy” (p. 138) "while the monitor makes conscious editing of one's own lans guage posible, it is not the only source of sel-crretion.Subcor- ‘Siousiy acquired grammar also plays such a role. This is most leary Seen when lenmers repor that they correct themselves (or others) by “feel.” and are unable to sate the cule that has been violated, ‘Though this phenomenon has been observed, very litle is known soout Mij.ran extremely competent freelance editor we know, does sce of her editing by fea. When she has to explain to her cents what geamatial or sync rule they voloted, she usualy ake fone of her fiends to cemind her ofthe explicit cule. ML). finds co ious rule knowledge dispensable and even inadequate for coor Prehensive editing Linguistic Domain of the Monitor It appears thatthe linguistic domain of the monitor in most Le learners is limited 19 lower-level rules of the language, those that fare easy to conceptualize and donot require mental gymnastics. [Conscious knowledge of a role, however, does not guarantee the [learner will use i. Learners have Been observed to make many sel described “careless” errors, which they were abe to correct them- ‘Selves and for which they could stat the rule vilate. When asked to coret themselves, leseners have increase their overall accuracy bby 6% in seme studies and up to 47% in others. The corections were typcilly made for lower-level morphological ules. Researchers have also found that learners sre commonly able to produce fairly high-level consiuctions without being able to state fn kind of relevant rule at all. Thus, the ability to produce many ofthe complex sentences and construction of the language appears to be the result of subconscious processes zaher than conscious Ones ‘These suggestions arise from observations of second language leamers, But they have also Been made as a result of experiments in elated learning research, “implicit” (subconscious) and. "ex plicit” (Conscious) leaming were the foros ofan interesting study fEonducted by A. Reber (1970). Reber asked American college st- Gents who were native speakers of English to look a cards with thee to eight eters on them. The students were asked to reproduce the sequence of eters after the card was withdraw. Half the st ‘dents were told that i will be to your advantage to igure ost what the mules sre" The other half were given no special instructions. Neither group was given specific error correction, but they wete told whether the sequence they repeated wa core. Reber reported thatthe group given no instructions pertamed better, both on the simple reporting task and on a subeayuent test where they were asked whether a given sequence was correct Re ber concluded that "subjects who engaged in an explicit search for rules that define a complex stucture performed more pooty in memorizing exemplars ofthe structure than subjects Who operted {na more neva, smplict fashion” (p. $2). ‘Reber noted that previous studies ef this srt suggested that con scious rule learning in such situations was helpful. The tasks in Yolved, however, were considerably easer, indicating that con {ious leaning is only efficient when the task is simple, # conclusion Supported by research in second language aequisiton. The instrctions to search for rles "produced a sttong tendency for subjects to induce or ivent rules which were not accurate rep fesenations of the complex stimulss structures.” Because the rule for the sequence of eters was comple, those who looked for rules ‘often got them wrong. Reber's stidy suggests that implicit learning is superior when’ ‘omplex roles are involved. Very easy rules, however, may be con Scioualy lenmed. Reber notes tht in svetions where am easy eule tras to be learned, subjects did not behave “Tike language leserers shal, they operated like linguists” (p99), “The notion that complex aspects of grammar are dificlt teach through rule use is also shared by curriculum developers. Ruther ford (975), for example, in his Modere Engh text concerning Ex glish as a second Inguage, comments about a notericusy dificult forearm rule of English: "The way to learn the correct use of the ticles is more through practice than close study of the roles and their many exceptions” (P. 127) "The direct evidence for our suggestion about which aspects of a second language are lesrnable and usable through conscious rle- Teaming comes from a variety of case staies. In all cave, se see that a subset of the eror earners make are easily sefcorrecable, {ven a focus on cvrction. In addition, many learners can sate the Fle viclated (One intresting case study is P., a native speaker of Chinese in fer forties, whe had come tthe United States and began to leara[English when she wa inher twenties (Krashen and Pon, 1975). Her ‘errors in casual speech were transcribed during normal family activ~ ites over a pero of about thace weeks. Some 0 erors in all were tabulated "The researches report that she “was able to correct neatly every ‘ertor in the corpus (about 95%) sehen the errors were presented 10 her after their commission. In addition, in nearly every case she was able to describe the grammatical principle invelved and vio- lated” What kind oferors were involved? The authors found that "or the most part the rules involved were simple, “fst lve rules ‘eg omission ofthe third person singular ending, incoret ie ‘lar paste form, allure to make the ver agree with the subject fn number tre) Use of muck with countable noun, ete)” (p-120 Besides identifying the domain ck the monitor, thie study tates that rules learned consciously are not necesscly incorporate into ‘the language system a Person Uses When communicating "Two similar cases aze presented by Cohen and Robeins (1876. Two adult second language lamers, Eulin and Eva, were observed to sellcorect erors successfully when asked to do 30. Eu-lin sim ply described her emors a5 "careless," since she knew the rules ‘Among Ewin’ recurent errors were °-sdeletion» subject verb ‘number agreement” (Cohen and Robbins, 1975, P55). Eva to, 8° ‘vibe her errors to caelesiness. She commented that sometimes 1 would write something the way I speak. We can times go over tat world be mach easier» Whenever go over Something or ake my vie, thn the vler ome tomy mind” [Eva's errore were similar to Eulin’s and P's im that they had to do wih lowee level morphological rules. Finally, Duskova {1969) reported that her college EFL student \wetten erors were also “selleectable by rule p, 20) The ezor lypes made were in bound morphology, such as the omission of ‘oun plurals and subjet-vert agreement errors ‘While many of these apparenly easy to correct “careless erors ae recognized by leamers,leammets demonstrate a great del of com plex knowledge that they cannot possibly trace to any consciods ules they know. (Consider for example, V.,an adult ESL student studied by Stal {ord and Covit (1978). Although ths student ascrbes great impor tance to the study of grammar (he wrote "grammar isthe Key to very language” of a questionnaire), and lthough V. thinks he uses ‘conscious rules when speaking, careful examination by the authors revealed that V. knew tardy any grammar rules at all speaking and felircoreeting instead by "fea" Air examples eae hy Coven and Robbins (170), who provide this reveling quote by one oftheir adult ESL subjects: Ret ae sy gence ut never ee the non that well know that everytime! speak i's prety correct, $01 never think about grammars, I just write down whatever I fel lke i. Everytime | write somedhing jot sop thinking. don’t know which (cule) o apply. So ued a ot of stuf to best fit in writing pare fsraph. IF fit-what'slogicalyou get a pretty good chance of ge fing it right. "(p59 “Cieaty, learners such o8 this one illustrate that they have many’ complex constructions firmly under control in their casual speech for which they know no condcious rules at ll “The area of enor correction also provides support for the sugges: tion that conscious le Tearing i ited fo lower-level ules. White (Go77} for example allowed adult ESL students to secorect wri ten versions of eit oral output. They managed to correct 47% of their ears succesfully OF these, White's subjects were mere su sf at corecing lower-level morphological errors (52%) than ‘Syntactic erers 27%) Aptitude, Metalinguistic Ability and the Monitor Inthe previous sections we have sen that the monitor represents ‘one’s conscious Knowledge ofthe rles and forms of he laguge— he's metalingustic awareness Obtaining such knowledge about the second language usually depends on formal traning. We wold ‘spect that the more formal timing ane has had, the greater one's ‘monitoring capacity willbe. We have aso seen, however, thatthe {vallablity of conscious knowledge of te roles ofa language does not predict it wil be sed. Thus, the zle ofthis knowledge in pro ‘ducing a succesfl Ly learner i not yet kaon: many Teaners are ‘observed to produce quite comple language without being able to State any rates at al Given these findings, determining the relation of foreign la ‘guage apitade to metalinguistie awareness Is a Very important 2 ‘Ena fr futur research Foreign language aptitade, which Carll (1973) defines as the rate a ehich persons tthe secondary school university and adult level learn a foreign language, has most rcely been measured by stan dlasdized tests such asthe Moser Language aptiuie Test (LAT),OP uncunce no \ ee hein Olli," pomnitegl prvakvtey sand the Language Aptitude Battery (LAB), According to Carl, there dre thre major components f modern spite teste The fst | phonetic coding sbity. ste ality to store new language sounds iin memory. The reltonship between phone coding ality ond [the components ofthe eranzer arene yet cer, This ena he Keae for he ether two component, fami senaitvty andi ‘tive ably ‘Grammatical sensitivity ie defined as “the individual's ably to (demain othe i patrng fence So's lnguoge” (Caml. 1973. p. 7). Cao makes 8 dea hat a. ‘hough perormance on thls component dors not requve the sub incr actal knowledge of grammatical terminology dos tavalve ‘ conscous meta-awareness of grammar, Carl acuses sins omparisn of conscious nowedge of language wih the sbcon. Scious or tack Hnowedge entailed In Chamoky’s team “compe ‘ei by choy C8, sves sme Kindo "knoe the ‘lou awarnes "greets sume Snesns and sd nd ‘en some chen canbe made enone am swans the Src seve ofthe sence iy speak = een aman ae ‘Rte rng nil Sterece i he aby, nde a {5 aferentes erste fo secs earings gang “porn ecnie ti sity i cle upon when the ude es ‘Citar amma tes and opi them costing at en Grammatical sensitivity is tapped by the Words Sentences sub test of the CarrllSapon MLAT. which asks the individal t pick ‘out the word or phrate in one sentence that "does the same thing” Tn that sentence aba capllalized word in another sentence. Here Is {Namous example 1. He poke VERY wel of you, 2 Suddenly the musi became gut Jou, Most readers will se that the correct answer i 3, regardless of Whether they know the corect grammatical terminology or te sammatical ole of "Very" and "quite Tnductive ability is defined as the ability to “examine language ‘material... and from this #9 notice and identify pattems of co) Tespondence and relationships involving either meaning or gra ‘matical form” (Carroll, 1973, p. 8). “A typical method of measuring this ability $5 “to present mate- rials fv an astificialIanguage sn such a way that the individual an Induce the grammatical and semantic rules governing that lan suage” (Carell, 197. p. 8) : ductive ability also appears to draw on conscious iaring, since its goal isthe discovery ofan explicit, abstract st rules by means (Of problem-solving approach. (Linguists uses similar process in wating» gramme) Pimsieur's summary ofthe components of language aptitude is similar to Carell: the "tle for faring foreign lnguages consists of hee com ponents. The iss verbal nteligence, by which Is meant both ‘tony with ond hee nese im he Language Apnde Baer ithe “Vocabulary par and te bly fo reason analyte’ about ‘bal mats iis fe mene by the ae called "Language ANA S507 The secnd somone motratin fo een the angtage Te thind component ical "auditory ay" “Te other par of bth Carl's and Pimsleur aptitude batteries ea with autor factors which arent dscused ere. Pimsleur tmoiation component forme an additonal pat ofthe Language AP ide Bory “These desriptons of ape make clear hatin age pare Car) rofe gmat aniiiy” and induce abt." ine irs "eral neta tap eons nic Ane the metalingust aby or montr capa of lamer Sea ht not caret mesures of ape ae ve geeraly relia othe scien of metalingete sis han fo te aca Sion of emotive sie. The development of ommancaive Shit seems tobe fut independent of meting knowledge Tus, pttde messes sug he MLAT are probably eter Pre dlctore of oho tll ata a high gree of metalnustic stl ‘rears than they are of oho te iey to attain commaniztie} Competence the ston engage. ‘rea studies suport hs sggeston. Fit, the vay of ap siade teste usually determined by comeing sores with grades In oveignlnguage cases andor wath enc nd paper gammat thats iMindeo x Cea 198) Suck coer een al‘ot always quit high. Pimsleur (196), or example, reports validly oofcien's for MLAT ranging fom -13t0.78 for high school and allege stedents(p. 181) Similarly, Gardner (160) concludes that “language aptitude appears to be of major importance i the 2cqu- sition of second language skills acquire though diret instruction (p- 124) Ins study, three subtests of Carol's P-Lama Aptitude Test (Words n Sentotes; Paired Associates; and Spelling Clues) related to several “school type” tess of French a a foreign language (e2d- Ing, vecabulary, grammar, pronunciation aecuracy, and phonetic Aisrimination). Gardner and Lambert (1959) presented evidence that "schoal French achievement,” represented by grades in French 36 ‘wel as overall grades strongly elated to periamance an the Words In Sentences subtest ofthe MLAT, “suggesting thatthe student who 's aware of grammatical distinctions n English will do well in French ‘courses where the emphasis is gn grammar” (p. 290) Gardner and Lambert also found a "inguise reasoning factor”: scores on the LAT related fo achievement in reading French, a French grammar test, and aves of Phonetic discrimination, While these studies were carved out in Canadian English-speaking situations (Montea), Gardner and Lambert's (1972) subsequent research In the United States confirm these findings, Gardner, Smythe, Clement and Glks ‘man (1976 also concluded that aptitude related more to classroom Skls (grades) than to communicative sil (epesch) in French 9 2 foreign language in Grades 7-11 in various English-speaking com ‘munities im Canada, In general, the wffect of spltude on perfor- ‘mance was stronger for older student, « not unexpected finding Since the metalinguistic skills tapped are hot usualy available younger students Finally, n The Good Language Learer, Naiman et AL (1978) also reported thatthe study of grammar slone was Not fncugh. “Several interviewees, who had achieved high marke in their language courses in schoo, nov attached lite significance to this aspect of sucess” (p. 30, Research nov suggests that attitudinal and motvational factors Ihave more to do with the sucessful attainment of communicative Skills second language than metalinguistic awareness does 19 ‘dition to reducing the smount of fitering, high motivation an ‘determine whether ot not the stent avails himself of — infor smal language contexts” (Gardner, Smythe, Clement and Ghisinan, 1976, p 200), (See aso Oller’ Hypotkens 6 in Oller, 1977.) 8 similar jobtervation is made by Filmore in her ease study of ve ehilen Scquiring ESL im an American Kindergarten. She deseribes the most Succes English learner as a ehld who "was swongly motivated to be associated with English-speaking children = she sought them out to play with toa extent that none of the other children nthe study did” (p_ 708). Hatch (1976) to, has documented cases from diary studies where affective and atitudinal factors played a role inthe success of child second language acquisition ‘Mach if not most foreign language teaching focuses onthe ac quisition of formal conscious kaawldge ofthe language—learing ‘inthe monitor. We have seen that such knowledge Is not neces: Early related to, and indeed is not needed for communicative ‘vency. Alita factors elated to subconscious leming sre much better predictors of « student's eventual success in galing com- ‘mand 69 second language. An effor 0 structure second language feaching programs to enfancesubconscivs learning and 0 doven- phy reliance on metalingustic skills cou lead fo second language feaching that takes advantage ofthe student's internal processors rather than working agonst them, ‘SUMMARY Language learning utmatey occurs inthe mind ofthe ler. where ‘antl structure or machanisme recess tng orgenize the angusget {guage iat leavers produce andthe tguage thy ear ot read provide the Bei tr nich we can infer the enaracterece ot sherwie nv. Reasaren suggests tht thee intrnal processing actors ply 8 sub stan! olin sacond language aonuston te iter. the organ, nd “he fit appears to be the Hat major nurse tat Incoming language data ms pas It serenna al incoming language bases on affertve ae. “inves rlates types of motion have been cbsared to tect second language learning integrative motivation, one Sesto o patel thee o he commurty tat speaketh anguage,inarumenta mod ‘atfon, or te doie Yo use to language for practical reasons such as {eting a Job. and the sock! group Identieation mote, which i ts Gnsreteacauveproceny ive anguage spoken bya sci group with “he learoers ematonal states ere alo pert ofthe iter Research has LUnguage sequin proceeds Tiering determines (a) which target anguage modes the laine ee laces) which ports af te new language the lanes atlends to is(c) whan language ellos cease; and f) how fst alaumer can acquire language ‘Tne organiser suvconscioustyprocesste dat wni the ite tsi. is or "he functioning ofthe organizer i reteced in tye aspect ot learn- ‘9 verbal pertormance inthe serie! tranatona consructone lar ‘ts cystemateally use before a stcture fs acque inte rors that frost L Teener reel make, and in he common rder in whe loamere acquire the structures of he now anguage Wile the imprint of the ergeier on laches iohavor i let. L soholats have not yet succeded in peciving is operational princes ‘Atompts 12 eharaterze the organizer tems of Imguate complenty {tne ameunt of sere ngustie knowledge In a suctue) have nad listed sucoess. An aemative approach wsing the concept of earning Campy be dae of tcl arr xprene nena # ‘The monitor i tesponsisie tor concious linguistic processing Learners an tae the lingitc knowledge they ga trough mantorng fo con in “Ine degre 1o which the monitor tuted depends 9n a numberof a: tors: (a) The learner's ago or love! of cognitive deveopment 1 appears that montening Ie more easy done when lamers hae sched he fo tral operations slag, when thy ean manipulate atsract relationships otween ea.) Te vrba ek being parformed. Tasks ht foes he leamers atonon of linguist form tring monitoring ito ay. (6) The Isomers personaly. Learners who teinsecure satanic, anda i appeas that he use ofthe manor i mie fo owerlavel rules ot the language, those tat are eaoy To conceptualize Conscious Know dno of rule, However. does nal guarantae that learser wil dee Conversely many people can comet granmaticn arts orate yt Research evidence Indcats that the succesful aquisiton of com imunicatve skis inte new anguage depends primey on tering and tgnnzing factors rater than on motoring (wnley lng. In son teat cannot do without. ‘STUDY QUESTIONS 1. tis the endothe year and being conscientious language teacher. you nave dagnosea your stosnts verbal performance in ems of he Srcture xy. ana 2 Discus by toe factors you might conse 0 ‘explain yeu tang. 2. Te seven: and ten-yarld chen of Turkish gvesborkers in Munich ate enrolled in German public schoot. Tne chron fae trorong inn automobile pant nd thee mother keeps Rouse Whe! Would {he onmery motivation fearing Garman be “1 Forth children? © Forthe ator? 2, a ingist has witan grammar of cra language, would e ‘or she nacesary ba fuent speaker of the language? Explain your 4, Schumana, Horo, Camp ana Ward (978) reported that sub- Jeeta wo fepaies greater depth of hypnotzacityperormed beter on { pronumeion test of The ware, lenguage previous unknown fo {nem Gant be related tothe operon ofthe ier, the organizer oF the monitor? (Subjects heard the Thal weds once and then repeated ‘em} ExtainEffects of Personality and Age on Second Language Acquisition [Even within the same language environment, some leaners acquire 2 second language beter or faster than others. although everyone has te same innate language processing mechanisms (described in the previous chapter, certain individual characteristics affect how ‘much individual lamers use each processor Researchers are now trying fo pinpoint which aspects of the age and personality of the second language learner make a diference in the language leaming process, and then to determine why those ‘characteristics have such an effect. This rvearch has important im Plications for pedagogy. If we understand why, for example, set Eonfident people are good L, lesmers or why children are ultimately ‘more sucessful than adults in learning to speak a new language, it may be possible to alter curcul a to tllor programs to individual students in order to help otherwise unsuecesfal Ly students Sue ceed EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY ‘The term “personality” is generally understood even though itis ot defined to scientific satisfaction, When we ask questions such 15: I5.X an introvert or extrovert? Impulsive or refetive? Author {asian or submissive? Charming or dul”, we believe that the a= ‘Swors reveal something about an individuals personality. Such per- Sonal characteristics, long with coundess others, are what We 2 crrecrsorremsoaurr nat tty informally aan aggregate of tats characteristic of particular ‘naval ‘Although the construct tet is vaguely defined, the operation of personaly factors in second language leering is quite evident. The personality tits researcher have 39 far studied dn relation to lan fuage leaming incladeseleconfdence level, capacity to empathize, lind the degre of logicality or tendency to analyze. comer tap pes Ste thes on pan | Selt-Contidence [Not surprisingly, ney ll he available iterature suggests that sl confidence is ery moch related [0 second language development, Al things being equal the sel-confident, secure person is a more ‘sccestal language learner, “wo measur secondence ace ancy Iv! and eroven") sion, In neay al the studies conducted to determine the personal ity charateristes associated with suecessfalL, learning, researchers hve conclided that ower ansityTevls and a tendency to Be Ou going were connected with sueeafl Le acquisition [Learners who are enger to ty new and unpredictable experiences, and ho are willing to guess before Krowing for sure, are likely to ‘Stok out situations that require real communication inthe new lan- guage. These people have been observed to use larger range of forms in the target language than those with “wait and See” person- alities who are athe same lve of Lz development. The adventure ome have been observed to find language leering ratvely pain Teas and Yo learn fae quickly. : “The studies that led fo these concusions were described in the previous chapter in the section onthe filter. They donot shew pre= {aely Row sl-confidence and language lenming relate, but they do ‘demonstrate the existence ofthe relationship, We sugges that tlt ‘confident people have the advantage of ot fering rejection as much 25 those with high anviety levels and are therefore more likely 12 ‘pt themselves in learning situations and to do so repeatedly. They [re thrown int less persanalfurmall when they make mistakes than those who are more self-conscious. This probably enhances subcon- serous language leaming because they are more ale Yo take sn and process what they hear at any given moment. To use ou terms, the Fiter of the sel-confident person has 2 larger screen. In edition, sel-confident people are ess hampered bythe conscious operation ‘ofthe monitor because they are not #0 worsed about how they apex,"sont most invest DOO Nim depen dems tere Empathy Webster's defines empathy as the “capacity for participation in an- Voters felings cr ideas” A somber of investigators ave a {empted to relate an individva's capacity for empathy to language ‘oy learning success, but the results have been inconclusive thas been {fcbserved, however, that lees with authoritarian dispositions do, {not seem to learn sacond language as easily as less rigid pera {lities, Learning language requires careful Iistening to others and ~ Caring more about communicating ides than about avoiding speech ‘rom: Neither of there characteristics is fypeat of authoritarian & personalities. ‘Becnse of the ambiguity ofthe research ndings on the reation- ship Benoeen empathy and Ly ling, we will not summarize them here. The Interested reader may refer to them directly (Sehumann, Ny 1975; Naiman eta, 1778; Gulora et a, 1972 and 1972; and Guiora } eral, 1975. We would ike to point out, however that while one + £ tught expecta stong relationship between an individual's degree Yat empathy and his or her success in Ly performance, its unlikely that someone's "opacity for participation in another's felings or 2 ideae” would be measured ty linguistic manipulation tasks of the lors have Used fo determine success in, lear JB ing empathy indeed an Important ator in ese, i more likely to be manifested inthe development of communication ‘his, which enable participation in another's telings and ideas far more than linguistic manipulation tasks do, Researchers might find that stdies sing communication tasks 2 indicators of L, sue ‘est would yield a more systematic and positive relationship be- {bveen characteristics suchas empathy and L, acquisition ‘Analytical Tendencies {A certain highly rational, “analytic personality” hasbeen identiied in the Ly esearch erature. According to the Iterture in exper- imental psychology, "eld independent” persons are able 0 pe | Cove individual items that may be relatively dificult to distinguish | fom their vssal background. This ability Is thought to be assoc sted with a more analytes et-rained) cognitive style. The “eld | ependent” person, on the other hand, “pereives al parts ofthe \ organized field as « toal experience” (Naiman etal, 1978). Field ‘dependence has been associated with the empathic and open per sonality. "A predictable relationship between field dependence, fed inde [pendence and successful language learning, seems to be emerging From the ie research that has been done ao far. More analytical, field independent characteristics appear to be related tothe acqui sition of metlinguistic skis through conscious earning, while the eld dependent person seems to be more apt to acquire communi: ‘ation skill through subconscious learning. "Naiman etal (1975), for example, reported findings that appear to confem this for students learning French as second language. ‘Another team of researchers, Tucker, Hamayan, and Genesee (1976) reported sone relationship between feld independence and perfor ‘mance on an overall et of French in grade 7, but they did ot ind lny relationship for this characteristic with other, more comenun- ‘ative measures of French proficency HH. D. Brown (1877) has also suggested that fld independence ‘may be related to conscious lesming, while feld dependence may be related to subconscious aquisition. He notes thatthe field de- pendent person, "with his empathy and social outreach, will be 3 more effective and motivated communictor” (p35). perenty ond waaor Yow LI as “Tne monitor arpetes tobe he ol fay distal esha lnm tea toy aque sen lng Te sve Gk sgget tthe dees to wich monterng wed pends puns on pesos churn, epeilyst-cottoet Tht sel-conctosness, The more sltconfnt a the ess Sle Coren enn’ ieee eats he ose poes on mon | Teserchers hive identifed ee types of maior wee: or} sen andeses td op as “rent conern wth resins ad a elie sout a om tr Ser the new guage see to ring oot aaa characte ite whens manned trough consouayeled and mon teed perth Oreos ey tet don tr onecnny ‘Spee me kowiedge whe hy sh and they edt place Cotesia send octane Tore sc-conent isn rely on sdetve monitoring or no mnitring aa. Save monrng cam incre ssn wile So ugnilany ietrtering with cnsaniaon, Sach “op ‘Site ones Rave general les mason amount he atone78 UNGUAGE TWO Krashen (1978) and Statfeed and Covit (1978) also report exam: ples of sucessful Ly lemme who make virtually no use of monitor~ Ing. relying totally on their subconsciously aqquzed system as chil en do: People whe make litle vee ofthe manor pear to have ‘move outgoing, less inhibited personality than the Se-conscous “nd introverted personalities of people who rey heavily on the monitor. Underusers ae typically mot embarassed a their own er EFFECTS OF AGE “The belle that children ae better a language acquisition than adults fs supported by both scientific and anecdotal evidence. Children feuiting second languages in natural environments are more likely to eventually sound like native speakers than aduts ae. Adults may "ppeat to make greater progress niialy, But cilzen nearly always Surpass them, The turning point im language acquisition ability Seems to ocur ef about puberty Children unde fen who expe {nce enough natural communication in the tage language neatly Slways soceeed in ataining native ike proficiency, while tose over fee carly do, although they often come very cise. Between these ges, about half are completely sucessful and about half are not. “The reasons for ehild-adut differences in Ly aquisition are not wall understood. The assumption has been that sults do not learn languages as rll az hldren because they are notable to. Research tridence shows, however, thatthe language envzonment typically provided for adult second language lesmers tens to be impover [Shad inthe natural communication and the concrete referents Which foster subconscious language learning ‘Resetch findings regarding age are especially important when ‘educational policy decisions must be made concerning the age OF trade level at which students are offered second language instuc- {ioa, How soon can one begin or how late eam ene watt before in- troducing L; instruction? Although definitive answers cannot be given without considering dhe socle-plitical situation and the goals ‘of parents and students, the esearch on the effects of age should ‘Provide some seitence in making such decisions “The avaiable research comparing aspecs of performance in ‘allen and adele ie basically of two types (0) that which em pares the level & proficiency eventually stained by learners Who Enived inthe host county at different ages, comparing especally thone who arrive before an after puberty, and (2) tht which com pares the rate at which aspects of language are acquired by younger {nd elder U, learners. — ‘Most of the studies comparing attained L; proficiency and age of rival in the host country have focused primarily on pronunla Pronunciation It hes been ssid that “Almost everyone lear the sound patterns ofa language perfect as a chil, and yet, almost ‘no one'can learn the sound patterns of a language perfcty as an ‘ule Scovel, 196, p. 245) While some adults do achieve very high levels of prliclency in pronouncing a second language, they seem to be the exception rather than the rule ‘Oyama (1976), for example, studied a group of Ttalian-born male immigrants who had lived in the United States frm five to «igh: teen years and who had leaned English as second language. In general, they were well educated; nearly all reported tat they had Fad "some college.” Each subject owas asked to read a paragraph and tella story in English; the latter task was to describe situation In which you felt you wore in danger of losing your life, 2 tech- ‘lghe rat used by Labor as method elicting natural casual speech ‘The speech samples were recorded and played to a panel of native speaker judges (graduate students in linguistics), who rated ther ‘ona five point scale (I= no accent, and = henwy accent) ‘Oyama found a high degree of consistency among ber judges (ob- ining reliably coefficients of 0 for the story and 87 for the paragraph). The results for the paragraph are given in Table 4-1 TABLE 4-1 Mean Accent Scone on Parggrph Reading 8 {Function of lnmigianis Age of Awa na Namba ear inthe Unted Stes eee ral Nese Ta 0 eee eee asoy Senet5 the table indicates, she found the subjects’ age of aval had ne most elec onthe degree of accent: Youngest ntvals ad the east acent, but the amount of time the subjects pent in the United states didnot invuence the accent. The results fr the story tling task were quite similar. Seliger, Arashen, and Ladeloged (1975, present esl that agree with Oyama’ concerning the reatonship Wage of aval and po Tuncltion poficeney. In this study, undergraduate linguist dents of UCLA, Queens Coleg, and Bar Univers were sed torntervew immigrants who had lived in the United Sates or Ie Fae for many year Subjets were asked whether they fel that most ‘ordinary, native age anguoge speakers Engh Hebrew) cold tel hat they were not native speakers of those languages. The ee Sus, which cleay gee with Oyanus, ste given it Table 42 Seliger etal. found tat thowe it he tn-tneen yea od ro who reported a "consousefrt to love tes frcgn aces ere ‘ot sgnicanly more succesaul than hone whe sal they made Such wort A subsequent paper by Krashen and Seliger (1979) Ported that length of tie spent inthe new county bore ite tee onship to accent acquisition in fat, there wav slight tendency {or those who reported the presence a freigh accent fo have lived in the new country longer These rents are gute consistent wth ‘What Oyama found in her study. ‘third cy examining this question was conducted by Ashee sed Garin (969, They snvestgnted age of ral in the United States and second language accent in seventy one Cuban i fants aged nine to seventeen. Their sabes wore aed to read four sentences English and were lowed to rchearse the mater TTABLE4G2 Number o migrant to he United Sites and Isat Reporting Degree of Foncg Aces Y hge of Ariel ‘devel aot het —_—Bovi ane Aen a 3 2 ZS LSE Rit cecum aera TABLE 43 Percentage af Cubse immigrants Judge on English Fromm Cina, by Ageo Arial nthe ted Stats sirthmaRiaice an ace me in advance, judges were a group of Amescan junior high schol students wh sated the samples on 3 four point sale (A native speaker of English Be neanatve, C= sight scent, D> + defite kcent) Asher and Cacia reported that ther fges agreed ith ‘heh other prety 70% ofthe tne. Table 3 shows theres. "woe the previ studies found lie eelaonsip Bemween years inthe US and aquisition os native accent, Auber are Gael noted an interaction between yeats inthe U.S. and age of eal, Concluding that's Cuban child had the greatest probability of Schieving» neatiiveprosuciaton of English when he was Sx = nd lived i te United States five yea or more. A ald Who came to Ameren when he wae thiceen or older Pad 9 Seall chance of scgsing a near-native promancition even i hl Ive here fve yout ov thre The cd who wns betwen seven nd twelve when he ative hee and then ive hee fve years smote had a iyi chane of achieving nea-natve pronancie ton (p 399) “Thee thee stuesconchded that age of anival i « powerul detent of timate sucess in accent aeqisition, and all cm ithe a npr ng pot wn ps Sovel (conducted dient kind of study dealing with the question of age andthe aoquiston of phonclogy. He found sin2 Lnauace 0 teresting relationship between age andthe ability to distinguish na- live fom non-native English. His subjects were asked to listen 10 tapes of native and now native speaker of English (the non-natves, however, were pre-selected only those with “excellent pronuncia. tion” were sed), and fo indieate whether the speakers were naive speakers of English, Scovel found that his adult subjects were nealy completely successful. His child subjects got beter with age, the Youngest (ages five and six) getting about 75% corect. Interest Igy he notes that “the adult eiteron is eached by the nine and ten years lds... (p-7), approximately the age at which foreign ‘accents emerge. This seems to link production and recognition: "Tt Is - possible” Scovel reports, “that the competene® to recognize ‘non-native speech is simultaneous in ts development withthe per {ormance limitations which account for the prodecton of non-native speech (p. 1). Still another phenomenon related to child-adultdtferences inthe ‘acquisition of phonology has been suggested by Labov (1966), who proposes that similar constrains exist With respect tothe acquis Hon of a second dialect. "New York speech,” according #9 Labow is aoquired by non-New Yorkers if Uhey move to New York before ‘Puberty. To test this hypotheus, Krashen and Seliger (1975) asked Tings students to interew people living in the New York City laren who were not born in New York. Subject were fist asked if {they recognized "New York speech” All did, confining Labov's {aim that there isan agreed-upon recognized dilet spoken in New ‘York. Then the subjects were asked whether non-New Yorkers tok them for New Varkers fom tei speech when they waveled outside [New York. The results ofthis suey are given in Table 4-4, which ‘shows treads similar fo those seen in the Seliger etal second l= TABLE 44 Answers tthe question: “When You taveleute New Yor do people tink fou sea New Yorker by your spcec= ‘Age Aria New Yor Ye. ™ scm iateenes att guage survey, but with less sharp bresks between the groups. Again, {fears lived in New York had no effect. The data thus confirm Li bov's suggestion and further implicate puberty as an important fuming postin dialect acquisition a6 wel, at least a5 far 38 pro- ‘undlation is coneened Grammar Unfortunately, thee less available on cild-adult i ferences in the degree of profcensy ultimately attained in gram- ‘mar, Oyara’s wotk is again useful here. ladon tothe twe tests ‘of accent described earlier, Oyame’s Tallan-bor subjects also t00k Several tests involving the syntactic and semantic components of the grammar. In two of these, a cleat effect of age of arial was ‘observed, In the "sentence through nofie” task (atest fst used in Spolshy, Siguard, Sako, Walker and Amurburn, 1968), subjects heard twelve sentences that were masked by white noise. Each subjects ‘Score was the ftal amber of words corel reproduced. Oyama suggests “that it may be this highly coordinated interpretive skill hat is Tacking in the person spho complains that he (or shel ‘understands speech in the] second language periectly well under ‘ormal crcumeances, but comprehension drops drastically in noisy environments or on the phone.” The Hialian-bom subjects’ perfor ‘mance on this test wes sar that seen earlier i the paragraph nd story-tling tests used to probe pronunciation ability. Age of Srival and. perlormancr were significantly corelated (°= 57, ‘Pe0O1) indicating that those who arrived eavler scored higher on the test “Simllor results were obtained from Oyama’s “anomalous sen ‘ences’ Las, in which subjects were asked Ho decide which of two Sentences wos grammatically acceptable. Again, those who asved ‘ariest dia best and years spent in the United States had no effet, (erlrmance on the other tests used by Oyama probing syntactic land semantic abilities in English [detection of ambiguities and “in- ‘entons,” thats, making wp meanings for noun compounds did ‘ot show sigalicantcoreations with age of arial or with Yeats Spent inthe United Sate, This failure to produce sigificant results “iy be ce to thei lack of validity as language test rather than 10 the lick of relationship between age of arrival and competence) Tin moceecent report, Patowsks (1980) aso found evidence that ‘age of arival fe tlated to syntactic proficiency. Paowski tested skty-seven immigrants who had come to the United States before ge feen, and who hod lives inthe United Stats for atleast ive ‘years Interviews between these svects and native speakers were tape recorded and transcribed. The writen transcripts were thersve rated by two tained judges, who rated them on a zero to five sale ‘where 0= unable to function inthe languoge, and 5~ native control (Of grammar. Patkowsk! found thatthe younger the students were ‘ohn they arived the higher the judges’ rating. Further statistical Snalysi showed thatthe amount of exposure to English did net Telate to prostency From these investigations it seoms clear thatthe degree of native- luke pronunciation italy stained, whether in a second la guage ora second dialect, depends largely onthe age of aval of fine learner in the host county. The younger the learner upon a= val the onoce likey that native ike pronunciation wil be at fined and the aasable data suggest that tis i also te for sy tax (Pakowsis, 198), Rate of Acquistion evidence we have reviewed indicates that children are more access than alsin learning cond language, They arent weer, ava ane, Sever te et tat ai em {0 progres tse, especialy the very ea sages ‘ow and HosioagesHohle (197) tested ative speakers of En lsh living in Holand, sncuding Gulden and adals, Thee "be inners” had been in Folland les thin theee months, while “ad ‘Rinced” subjects had been living in Holand atleast ne yest. ess indie ronan of Date ation of aie pene tory dkcrimination, morphology (ubjects were asked to infect Sonsnse words, as in Beko 1068), the Pebody Dice Voeabulary Tear senence repetition tes sd 9 tanaation text. The beginners shore Seared fortes ven foarandes-all months apart the 24 vanced subjects were tested once. While no age differences Were Sppaten the promureiston tess, alder subjects did indeed do Reker eyotar and morphaosy tess : Sow and Foefnage! loble summarize their results a flows: +) Conatdeble improvement cured inal pects of ke edge of Dutch for erjets oal ages, However, this improvement [ted at fret ten fh ere npc an te iret {age groups Q) Older Iarers seemed to have an wdvanioge ove seeder lennerinaquling the rle-goremedsppet a a seco anguage morphology and syetax the teenagers di beter than thetadale sh) selected simpy rte o soqusnition, not an {Upper limit on ablity, since age diferences on there test dim [sora etepeared wid ogee esidene in Holland (2) Thee were no or very small age differences for tests reflecting contol of the phonetic aystem » "(p. 532). Further evidence for older children’s faster rate of grammatical learning is Seen in Fatman (1973) Fodkman administere he SLOPE test an oral measure, to about 200 children acquiring English as 2 second language in Washington, D.C. Her results "indiated that there was some relationship between age and rate of learning [Among children exposed to English the same amount of me, te ‘der (1-15) children scored higher on the morphology and syntax subtests, wnereas the younger (6-10) children received higher 1 Ings in phonology. There were, however, no major differences ob served in the onder in which children of diferent ages learned to Produce the stractures inched in the tes(p. 245). "Ervin-Tripp (197) reports similar findings for syntax acquisition, She tested American culdren, ages four through nine, who were fscquiring French as a second langsage through "peer interaction fnd French language schooling in Switzerland, Her tess inched Syntax comprehension (children acted cut the sentences they heard ‘morphology (pronoun gender and number), fon and translation tests, With expect tO accent Ervin-Tripp found that "for most features of segmental phonology the children above eaven learned faster than the younger chi ren” (p. 123. The older children were slo better at morphology and Syntaxs "On virtually all the tents the nine year-olds were always correct in French, including a child in Geneva for only sx months” (12, (No child had been in Switzerland mote than nine months A the time of testing.) The morphology and syntax results are con Slstent with Fathoaa’s and with Snow and. Hosinagel-Hobles however, the pronunciation reuls are nat. Krashen, Long, and Searels (979) suggest that the difference in the length of residence of subjects in the Fatman and Ervin-Teipp studies may be responsible fr these differences. Krashen etal. hy Pothesize that lder children doin fact acquire pronunciation more ‘apialy, but that younger children catch up to them and eventually Strpass them. Children in the Ervin Tripp study had been in the ‘country for a maximam of rine month, eile the minimum length of residence in Fathman’s study was one year. Snow and Hoefnage Hohe (1977), in a laboratory study, also cone that older children acquire pronunciation skills more eapily (Gn the other and, Yamada, Takatsuka, Kotak, and Kurasu (1980 ‘report that younger children are moce successful at memorizing Vo- ‘abulary and pronouncing new words in a second language. TheFoe canaunce 40 £ JBoobjecte wore sever, sine and elven-yearid Japanese children reno were sated to learn four Engi words. They were taught he Swords by being shown a picure, while the experimenter med the zp ltem shown, Yamada ound that he younger cilaren not ony Stearate items facter, But lo had the impresion that the proc ‘Gretnclaton ofthe fst graders wae general beter than at of the {Din grades p 246) Tis question, ces fo fom sete. Bg), snr oa for sya nd morphology dl, tent ty “Sfeagss proceed later than younger chen although oer cil laren atmand ten year of age, may Bethe fast of al ts. te techn tive facts, tWlegrad? facters & D ye I eect ‘Sources of Age Ditlerences [A numberof suggestions have been iad concerning the sources ‘ofthe cbsered eh: ada ferences in Ly aequlstuon. Walle no Single source by ital appears to be adequate to expan the Val ‘le fnding, cach hold promise im scouting forthe ferences between cisen and adults learning a second language “The fst proposed focses on balgisa actors This explanation reveves aun the queoion deter the a brain fae tently diferent from the cid brain and whether this ecounts forthe diferences obsered. second explanation focuses on the learners caguitioe developmental stage, suggesting tht the one of “formal operations," the aby To frat abba hypotheses, major determinant of shldadul differences sbserved A tind ec Panatlon proposes difrencs inthe sfc ler a 2 soure of Shleadul diterences. This explanation adarses the queton of ‘whether the at gener ee abet achieve the afecve mene taste necessary for acquisition. Factors such av a conscious nest and hestance are suggested as eausing sgnfcaty more fering of what the leaner her, has rec what canbe proses by the organizer and, consequent, ssid. The fourth propos, snd the last we shal consider, sages difreees i the ronment for ‘ely reited othe mos hemeniany roles of graimar(e 2 Ble parldfrencs, gender dition) sd, fro ve KOW,{is arly applied to actual performance, The availability of conscious rules, however, permits very early production. Adis can use the pattems oftheir fist languages and inset L vocabulary words in the slots. This allows immediate participation in simple conversa tions. Using such unnatural mesne for producing language has its imitations Jaowever, and learners who acGuire the new language | {system subconsctousy will eventually surpass those who are Je. [Pendent on conscious rules, despite the conscious Inner’ hes fort Wappears tht cogative differences between children and adults | can explain some chld-adult differences, Hypothesizing a relalin ship between formal operations and conscious learning saccestfally predicts (1) the age at which the capacity for extensive metalinguis: tic awareness develops; and (2) adult initial advantages in rate of learning. Cognitive consderaions, however, do not adres the fo that, in the long run, children typically qutperfrm adults in second language production. To account for this, we urn toa diession of afective explanations for cild-adltaiferences fatectve Factors has been argued that the adult is more sl onscous than the cil is less able to entity with oer groups, ‘nd is, in general, less able to achieve the open mental state neces sary fr language aquisition to take place, According to this view, 8 greater amount of affective filtering by adults explains children’s matey superior pesormanc: the al tones ot various apts the language environment and ceates language sequistion ‘Moris prematurely. Schumann's (1875) review ofthe literature on the” Telationship of affective variables and adult Ly acquisition lends suppor to this view. David Eikind (1970) proposes thatthe onset of formal operations leads to affective diferences between chive and adults, Accord ‘ng to Elkind, the ability to think abstactly leads the adolescent to “conceptualize his own thought.» and) to take his mental con structions as objects and reason about them (p. 6). Eater, we Suggested thet cis new ability lads tothe capacity and perhaps 19 ‘the requirement fo create 8 conscious grammar os second Tan. |faage. Another consequence, according to Elkind, is thatthe ado escent can now also "concepralize the thought of other people” ths capacity, however, isthe eux of adolescent gocentiam, This ocean emerges Decnse, wile the alleen con now copnee the thoughts of others he or she fas odiletiate beeen the ob Isc towsnd which the thoughts thers re dete ened thos which EFFECTS OF PEROONALITY AND ACE. a ae the foc of Ns or her own concern. The Young adolescent, be. ‘use af the physolgial metamorphosis he Or ae $ undering, Selves that others se peesupied wth sor her appenance and In other words, adolescents who have passed through formal op- ‘rations pain s greater ability to imagine what olber people are thinking sbout, This ability, however, may lend them to believe that otters are thinking about the same thing they are most con- ‘ered with, namely their own appearance and behavior. This sce ‘of mind, according, 10. Elkind, leads to. the increased tlt onstiousness,felings of vulnerable, and lowered sel-image that fare associated with tis age, and thal conteibute to an increase in Soong ofthe filter Dierences in Language Environment _ furt poston is that ‘hildadal learning diferences are dae t ferences inthe Kind of Tanguage children and ads ear. I hasbeen shown tht may tmoers (and fathers) mf ther speech to hr chen In ede {Orhlp them understand wht fo being sold. Among ster things they we simpler and shorter sentences (hat get progressively longer snd more complex athe cla matures), an they fend to talk about the “here and now” providing ex linguistic contest an ad 0 Comprehension. Sever! of the sade we reviewed in Chaplet 2 have shown that the child scond language learner alo receives this ind of "motherese,* wile the ad send tnguage leaner ofen oes not ‘implied input does not always mean comprchensible inp however Ina very recent study Searels an Higa (in press com Pare child sed sdolscet second Tangunge armen task that equine iniracion with a native speaker (loc bullding). They old that wile the language dineced atthe younger learners wat "Simpler the older lesmers were move adept at “conversational ianagemeat” that they were beter a inating to the native Speaker whether they understood wit wa sid, they wee beter {eping the convention gig and weve te pret a hanging the Yop of conversation) This suggests thal one reason 1 let eines are ase ine tage oat ty obtln mare com) \prekenteinpat vie beter conversational management even hep {he input directed st them appears tobe more compl Each ofthe explanations mentone? above focuses on one dimen- sion of anguogeseguison, Most Hkly seme spec fa oreral ofthe explanations taken together are required to completely tnderstand the effects of age on second language acquisition. Re- fearch on this important question is jos beginning. The study of {estoy wit Une devrived eve will loube cas sve Ugh ton the forces which interact to account fr bath similarities and ferences inthe way children and adults learn second languages SUMMARY ‘Age and personality are individual characteristics of individual leemers which Rave been shown To nave 8 marked eect on second language deveopment ‘Personality refers oan aggregate of wails character of spatter inaidua. Research Indeates that low anxiety owl and 8 fongancy to bo eutgoing, both expressions a elReonidence, hav a poate fn second language sequin appear that secondo peopl ‘more wing to tke rst, to place themsches in unfamiliar leering st Caton. to guest or experiment with new forma, and fo make mistakes, Allot whlch conto fo telrnoreese sty to as “he resent oh empathy, an indvidua's capacity Tor participation in anatner'sfocing or ideas, Ras Sean inconclusive, Ressichers prevalent Use of ingustle manipulation tasks (rather than communicative tse) maybe asin postive corto betwen empty and, ea nal, ivertgntions of L; lexner's analytic tendency inca that tho "ted Ingependent™ personality, chaactrza by «left Sane a ‘yt! cognitive syle, tands to be aucessul at aquiing conscious Imaainguisteskile: wnle the “eld dependent person & mare em pathic tpe, seams to achieve grestr sucess in tne robconasous 8 [uistion of communication Personality characteristics Rave aso boon observed to tlc an in avers use of the monitor. seconsiou learner, mae concerned ‘nth carecineas than communiention, fe lkey foray hos on ue ot ‘nna monterng a Mach research Ras focused on the ett of age on he ete of guaiy ‘et sacond language asquistion Evigonce points ote following 1. hilren appear to be much more susoessul har adults in acqui| loge poral stem ote new nguape: man vena aan 3 Moat ran are ultimately more sucessut then adults in faring «cond language, but fey are not sways fast. AU appear Yo Bro ‘gre fester than ehidron inthe ares of syntax and morphology teat Inthe eat stages of faring Several lautible sources fr th observed atrences have been oxo posed he biological explanation, namely. tht the aut Pain stn ‘tion mechanisms wae popular hese unt! f was called inte quostion by nesrainguise ovens on cereal dominance, The cognitive spl ‘non sugprts th! the arse of "Toma operations he aby fo fr Imolateabetract hypotheses) = & major setermnent of en-au fer neon Affective laters too, may ply oe, especial in causing adults {otter au more af tho arabe language input than chien 0. Fr hal, difrences Ia the language environment of ciéron and adults Inay alga rest n trance the suecoasatelned By chieron and {éuhs Chikrencaceve much moe coverete“har-tné no nput which facitates Imquage nequston:n contrast, edu typicaly ae exposed to conversion abou fopies whose releents are not obvious from the roninguatie context, On the cer hand, ode students may be Bee a "Each ofthe explanations mencned above focuses on one aspect of language aoquieton I is most likey thats combination of cover x: planation is required to complotoly understand the elects of ge on Second language acauiston. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Have you met anyone who began second tangy an eau and wn appoars to prfrm tk a natives ‘hat you know weil? What would you prot about such an indus ‘i respect fo personaly ype? 2 if you wore planning & foreign language rogram for a school sy tam, et what age would you recommend i begin? Provide a usiieton torine vecommencatons that you would we tothe school personne! ta pavers 3 imagine hat you want 1 larn Japanese aa second anguage. You se twonty eight years od and lng in New York. What factors Unigue to adult (as opposed to chil) language leering suations would you ty to take ito account when planing your lapanese 'anguage lowing ‘itor? Given you are a soltcontiaent an Yolanea persone there re fon fo be pessmitic about the reuls of your lots? ExamThe Role of the First Language “The fist language has long been considered the villain in second language learing, the major cause a «learme’s problems with the new language. In recent years, however, dats have acumblted that place the Ls learer’s fist language in a more rpectabe, some- times even valuable place inthe scheme of things. The first lan fguage is no longer considered an annoying, “srterference” in. 3 learner's efforts to acquire a second language. and when an individ tual finaly becomes bilingual, the availabilty of toh the rst and Second languages is recognized as an ensichment the individual's communicative repertoire Tov large extent, controversies over the ole af he frst language Jn second language acquisition have reslte from wage and var ing uses ofthe terms “Interference” and "taneer” When the tern ate drifed and when empirical data is assemble, there appears to bbe a convergence of opinion on the role of the fist language in second language aquisition. Despite along histoy of asmimption {0 the contrary, present research results suggest atthe major in. act the fist language has on second language acgtstion may have to do with acent, not with grammar or syntax ‘THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS ‘The contrastive analysis hypothesis held sway over the fed of ap- plied lingustics and second language teaching for over to de Endes. Even though i i curently giving may toa more positive view of the role of the fist language in second language acquis Won, iis useful to understand the theories which shaped so much tatly linguist research and which therefore underie uch curent teaching methodology and material ‘Contrative analysis (CA) took the positon that a leamer’s first language “interferes” with his or het acquisition of a second lan uae, and that it therefore comprises the major obstacle to succes Ful mastery ofthe new language: The CA hypothesis held that where Structures in the Ly fered from those nthe Ly errors that re ected the structure ofthe L, would be produced. Such eors were said to be due tothe influence of the learners’ Ly habits om Ly pro- Auction. For example, in Spanish the adjective is usually placed after the moun according to the CA hypothesis, therefore, Spanish tpesking learners sould tend to say the gil smart instead ofthe {art gr when attempting to communicate i English. This process hasbeen labelled "negative transfer” the paychologcal iteratare By the same token, "Positive transfer” refers to the automatic use oF The Ly structure in Ly performance when the stuctues in both Tanguages are the same, resulting in corect utterances. For exam ple, the use ofthe Spanish phiral markers + and -es om English houns should yield a corect English plural noun (eg, nina and rulers in Spanish; gis and dresses in English), if positive transfer were operating in Lz production, Following this reasoning, linguists thought 2 comparison of learner's Lyand Le~contrastive analysis~should reveal areas of di fculty for Ls students, thereby providing teachers and developers OF L, materials with specific guidelines for lesson planning Apparently, this theory s0 appealed to the common sense of re searchers and teaches alike, that a lange body of data challenging it ‘was ignore for years, We know that an examination of the ava Sle empirical data that addresses the CA hypothesis has revealed 1. In nether child nor adult Ly performance do the majority of the grammatical errors reflect the learners Ls 12 learners make many erors in areas of grammar that are compatable in both the Ly and L-—ertors that should nat be made Wipes trance” wore persing 3°; learners judgments of the grammatial conectness of Le sentences are more related to L, sentence type than to their own Ls Sucre TE Phonological errors exhibit more Ly influence than do gram- smasical tro although a substantial nimber of the L, phoacogiclspinels guise, rehorlas a ratafemen (Oo |eors een mat snr io howe made by mong ist |stetage essa oly asa popeton pone [sinaing aca te ers From these findings, we can conclude that at the level of perfor- mance (er product) the CA hypothesis has emerged asa weak Pre- dictor of learner performance, accounting only for» small portion of performance data [At the level of process, the constructs of negative and positive transfer must be seriously questioned. Obviously such processes do rot operate much of the time or systematically. ‘The enthusiasm for contrastive analysis in foreign language teaching can be traced t0 Charles Fries who vote in 1945. "The ‘mort effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific Seszrption ofthe language to be learned, carefully compared with ‘parallel description ofthe native language of the learner” (p. 9) Further in a foreword to Lado's famour treatise on the topic (t540, 1957), Fries stated: "Learning a second language therefor consti tutes 3 very diferent tak rom leaning the fst language. The Basic problems arse not out of any essential difficulty in te features f the new language themselves but primarily out ofthe special “se” ‘rated by the frst language habit (Fries, 1957, Foreword)" A large part of the rationale for the CA hypothesis was drawn fom pric! ples of behavionst(stimulus-respense) psychology that were the a ‘xpted learning principles a that tie, but which have since been Shown inadequate to explain language leaning. (Chomsky, 1959, [RBrovn, 1973; Fodor, Bever, and Garret, 1974, among others) "Empirical data was also called upon 35 support. Unfortunatly the data vset—that of linguistic “borowing” and “switching” de- Sevibed Taterhas pines been shown Yo be inapplicable to the issue fof Ly interference ins sequisition. (ON THE TERMS “INTERFERENCE” AND “TRANSFER” Interference has been used to refer to wo very distin linguistic Phenomena, one that is essentially psychologal and another that {s essentially sociolinguistic. The psychological use of the ten in terference refers tothe influence Of old habits when new ones are Deing learned, wheres the sociolinguistic use of interference seers to language interactions, suchas linguistic borrowing and language switching, that occur when two language communities are sm con ‘sas rama agen ome te tact, Such a distinction had not been made clear during the heyday OF CA, and data documenting these sociolinguistic phenomena, {gathered by linguists such as Weineich (1953) and Haugen (1953), Wweze used by CA proponents as empirical suppor fr the psycho logical phenomenon of negative wander (see Lado, 1957, p10. ‘Upon cise examination, it became evident tht the phenome nom of “interference,” which Weinreich has documented, and that Or inguistic Borrowing,” which Hatigen has documented ae sim Ilo sociolinguistic phenomena. They are, futhermare, quite difer tent from “frst language interference” as conceived by CA. prope- ents. This Jed fo great-confusion when linguists relied “on ‘Weinrich’ and Haugen's work, The diflcences are easily seen when we compare Weinrich’ and Haugen’s detations ‘Weinrich defines interference 38 “Those instances of deviation rm the nom fetes language which ‘cur in the speech of lingual a est hr aly with ‘ore han ane ngage, a8 esl of anges incon (p). Haugen defines linguistic borrowing as ‘An example ofcaltural isin, the spread ofan temo culture fom feopc to people, Boring Is ingle dilfron, and cane un Entiguoly defined se the step by a speaker to repradce in one itngunge,patene which he ha learned im anasher (p35) 8 anguage of the lenmer that is inenced, et the language be ns (p30) “The CA hypothesis, on the other hand, states that interference is due to untarsianity withthe Ly thats, to the learner's not having learned target patterns, Further, iti manifested in the language the learner leas, not the ist language of the learner: “We know from the observation of many cases that ee grammatical structure ofthe native language fends tobe transfered to the foreign language te have here the major sousee f dificlly or ease in learning the Foreign language Those structures that ae diferent will be di- ful” Lado, 1957. pp. 58-5) Further, Weineier® definition of interference is not based on ‘which language was leamed fist! "Throughout the analysis ofthe Forms of linguistic inerterence, conventional tems lke “mother