Running head: RIGHTS, RESPECT, RESPONSIBILITY

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Rights, Respect, Responsibility:

Sexual Assault Prevention in the U.S
Giselle Riker
Wayne State University
Access ID#: fc1139

Author Note
This essay was prepared for SW 4710 section 004, taught by Professor Susan Titus.

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The Problem and its Roots

Gender based violence (GBV) has been a social problem for arguably the entire history of
mankind. GBV occurs all over the world in many different manifestations, but one of the most
universal and recognizable forms is sexual assault. This is a broad term, but American federal
policy recognizes it as Any type of sexual contact or behavior that occurs by force or without
consent of the recipient of the unwanted sexual activity (Office of Violence Against Women,
[OVW], n.d.). Although sexual assault can happen to men, women and children, it has been
historically regarded as being a womens problem, most likely because women have
disproportionately suffered from acts of sexual violence for centuries. Current data still reflects
this disparity: according to the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey of 2010,
approximately one in five women and one in 71 men have been raped in their lifetime (as cited in
National Task Force to End Sexual and Domestic Violence Against Women [NTF], 2013a, p.1).
As a result, policies have been developed over the years to protect women, only becoming more
gender neutral within the past few decades.
Looking back at human history, it is clear to see that society has remained largely
patriarchal over the years, and many theorists and researchers believe that this type of society has
directly created the attitudes and norms that lead to sexual violence. Hill & Fisher (2001)
conducted a study that clearly reflected a sense of both general and sexual entitlement as being a
link between masculinity and rape related attitudes. (p. 44). Prior to this study, several other
researchers found that men scored higher on a measure of entitlement than women (p. 40)
Kaschak (1992) proposed that boys in U.S. society absorb this type of masculine entitlement
from a young age by learning that womens roles involve satisfying mens needs (as cited in Hill
& Fisher, 2001, p. 40).

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To build off of that idea, gender norm socialization has also been hypothesized to play a
major part in the prevalence of sexual assault. The National Sexual Violence Resource Center
(NSVRC) (2012) explains that from a young age, boys and girls are raised and treated differently
to reflect a different set of behavior and expectations for each respective gender. For example,
women are typically taught to express their emotions more openly, whereas men are usually
reinforced with the idea that they have to keep their emotions to themselves, and these different
communication styles often have the potential to create conflict and confusion between genders.
(p.1). Gender norms are also believed to directly influence sexual behavior. Gallagher & Parrot
(2011) found that while women are traditionally taught to be more reserved and set limits when it
comes to sex, males are taught to be more sexually aggressive, and this disparity can be a direct
contributing factor in sexual violence (as cited in NSVRC, 2012, p.1). Gender norms are so
deeply engrained into society, they are very challenging to break, and whats even scarier is the
research that Noar & Morokoff (2002) found that those to adhere to stricter gender norms are
more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior (as cited in NSVRC, 2012, p.1).
Acceptance of rape myths has also been found to contribute to the incidence of sexual
assault. Rape myths are false notions about the nature of sexual assault that, according to
Carmody & Washington (2001), deny or minimize victim injury or blame the victims for their
own victimization (as cited in Burnett et al., 2009, 466). Rape myths include things like the
notion that it is acceptable to pressure someone into sexual activity, the idea that women are
asking for rape by dressing provocatively or behaving promiscuously, and the belief that only
mentally ill individuals can commit rape, amongst several other stereotypical and victim blaming
ideas (SAPAC, Myths and Facts). When these rape myths are perpetuated, they become
normalized and therefore act as a basis for justifying and/or trivializing sexual assault. Not only

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do these myths promote the occurrence of sexual assault, but they also create negative
implications for victims. For example, Paul et al. (2009) found that the more a sexual assault
victim believed that his/her peers accepted rape myths, the less likely they were to disclose
details of their sexual assault and the more likely they were to experience distress and other
negative psychological effects (p. 237).
Policy Reform
This may be hard to believe due to the high incidence of sexual assault in the U.S., but
our federal and state policies surrounding this problem are actually rather solid, especially
compared to some third world countries where such laws are practically non-existent. The
Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) has created stringent standards for our nation in order to
increase prosecution rates for offenders, as well as to protect the rights of survivors and provide
resources for them (OVW, n.d.). In Michigan, we have a very detailed degree system of
determining the severity of the offense and its respective repercussions.
Sexual assault is the type of social problem that is hard to determine whether or not it is
being fixed by the current policies in place. Is the problem getting better as more offenders are
being reported and properly charged? Or will the problem not be resolved until sexual assault
incidence has significantly dropped? Certainly we cannot expect sexual assault to go away
overnight, but I do believe decreasing sexual violence is entirely possible if we decide to tackle
the problem from a different angle. Traditionally, U.S. policies have focused on strengthening the
criminal justice system when it comes to sexual assault, most likely hoping that stronger
punishments would deter individuals from committing these offenses. Plenty of programs have
been created to help survivors deal with the trauma of sexual assault and connect them with the
resources that they need during this difficult time. Both of these actions are positive steps in the

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right direction, but we can implement as many laws as we want and provide all the support in the
world for survivors, and still at the end of the day none of these things are guaranteed to stop
sexual assault from occurring. With this in mind, I believe that we should be focusing more so on
research that explores the causes of sexual assault and what we can do to combat these causes.
As I explained earlier, many researchers agree that the roots of sexual violence are planted at a
young age due to cultural beliefs and norms that have persisted in our country for years.
Therefore, it only seems logical to me that we should start challenging these harmful norms
through the U.S. public education system. I would propose a policy that would create a strong
comprehensive sexual education program that would emphasize sexual assault prevention.
In the simplest of terms, my policy proposal would set out to teach boys not to rape,
rather than the current standard of teaching girls how to not get raped (e.g. womens self defense
courses and strict school dress codes for girls). Schools have a responsibility to teach their
students how to be good citizens, and that includes teaching them appropriate sexual conduct
from a young age. This program would teach children at grade levels K-12 the importance of
consent and respecting each others bodies in all situations, presented through age appropriate
learning materials. As students get older, curricula would expand to include topics such as
appropriate sexual behavior, guidelines for healthy relationships, contraceptives and safe sex
practices, sexual empowerment, information on personal rights and reporting sexual violence,
LGBTQ acceptance and gender equality, and more. Its important to note that although content
varies throughout grade levels, sexual awareness and respect absolutely must be covered in an
appropriate way even for the youngest age groups. There is nothing safe or responsible about
leaving children and young adults ignorant to the dynamics and risks of sex by telling them their
only option is to wait until marriage.

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Leading By Example: The Netherlands and Sweden

Due to many cultural differences, countries in the European Union have vastly different
ideas about sexuality than the U.S.. The Netherlands has particularly strong comprehensive
sexual education requirements. Weaver et al. (2005) explains that since 1993, all schools have
been mandated to provide education about pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, sexual
orientation and homophobia, sexual values, respect for different attitudes regarding sex and
sexuality, and skills for developing a healthy sexuality (as cited in Bell, 2009, p.1). These
programs have clearly had positive results because the Netherlands has the highest sexual health
ratings of any industrialized country (Bell, 2009, p.1). Sweden also follows a similar liberal
approach to sex education. Particularly noteworthy is the Swedish National Board of Educations
number one ethical principle of sex education: Nobody is entitled to treat another human being
simply as a means of self gratification (as cited in Bell, 2009, p.2). That is exactly the type of
sentiment that my ideal sex education program would emphasize.
Initially, it may seem like these comprehensive programs would have no effect on
reducing sexual assault because both the Netherlands and Sweden still have relatively high rates
of reported sexual offenses, with Sweden having the highest number in the European Union
(FRA, 2014, p. 24). However, due to the inconsistent nature of statistics reported by different
countries, this high rate does not necessarily mean that sexual assault is more of a problem in
Sweden, rather is most likely due to their broad definition of sexual assault, as well as legal
procedures that requires that every reported case of sexual violence is recorded separately so they
are more visible in statistics (Alexander, 2012, n.p) The European Union Agency for
Fundamental Rights explains that Swedens large number of offenses could also be attributed to
women feeling more willing to report these incidents due to the correlation between gender

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equality and disclosure of sexual violence (FRA, 2014, p.25) A 2005 survey done by the World
Economic Forum found Sweden to be the number one nation in the world with the highest level
of gender equality (Nordics, 2006), a fact that could very well be attributed to the positive
sexual norms taught in their schools.
Opposition, Support and Funding
The debate between abstinence-only and comprehensive sex educations is definitely
heated, and I can imagine my program would receive a fair share of opposition. Social
conservatives and religious groups are undoubtedly the biggest opponents of comprehensive sex
education. The Family and Youth Services Bureau, who currently funds the Competitive
Abstinence Education Program, would probably not be too thrilled about my idea since it
literally would not be able to exist without a comprehensive sex education curriculum. I wouldnt
be surprised to find some parents against it because they would not want to expose their children
to the idea of sexual violence at a young age, but in the same vein some parents may think it is a
good idea for respect and safety to promoted at a young age. Research would be my main tool to
help change the opinions of these opponents, especially spotlighting the detrimental
psychological and physical effects of sexual assault. Spreading awareness would also be one of
my main weapons because from what I have observed, many people do not perceive sexual
violence to be a problem because they have never experienced it and do not realize how common
it is, nor do they realize the underlying causes that come from the traditional structure of our
society. Promoting the research studying these causes would be a priority because I know it
definitely opened up my eyes to the problem of sexual violence.
Currently in the U.S., states seem to be relatively divided between utilizing abstinence
based vs. comprehensive sex education programs. Traditionally, the federal government has

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focused on providing funding for abstinence-only programs, a sentiment that was emphasized in
1996 with the passage of the Abstinence-Only Curriculum Welfare Reform Act, which required
that $50 million be allocated annually for state funding of sexual education programs with their
exclusive purpose, teaching the social, psychological and health gains to be realized by
abstaining from sexual activity (as cited in Howell 2007). However, since then several new
programs have been introduced including the Personal Responsibility Education Program and the
Teen Pregnancy Prevention Initiative, both of which provide federal funding for comprehensive
sex education programs, monies that could ultimately go toward funding my policy. Several
grants from VAWA currently allocate money to fund sexual assault prevention programs, so I
would also most likely to be able to receive some of that funding.
My policy would definitely receive support from many feminist groups because it takes a
strong stance on promoting gender equality. Sexual assault prevention organizations, such as the
Rape Abuse & Incest National Network, and PAVE (Promoting Awareness | Victim
Empowerment) would also surely be supportive of the program. Supporters of comprehensive
sex education would most likely be on board with my program as well since it would fit
seamlessly into existing plans for comprehensive sex education, such as the National Sexuality
Education Standards developed by the Future of Sex Education Initiative (FoSE) in 2012, which
is basically a research-based plan designed to provide clear, consistent, and straightforward
guidance on the essential minimum, core content for sexuality education that is developmentally
and age-appropriate for students in grades K-12 (FoSE, 2012, p. 6.)
Overall, I do not imagine my program being very difficult to achieve. Specialists would
need to be trained and sent out to schools in order to teach educators how to approach these
sensitive topics with their students. Speakers could even be commissioned to go around to

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different schools and give presentations on different topics that could be more properly explained
by specialists. I myself would not mind being one of the individuals to go out and work with
teachers so they can provide the most effective education for their students.

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Works Cited
Alexander, R. (2012, Sept 14). Swedens rape rate under the spotlight. BBC News.
Retreived from http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19592372
Burnett, A., Mattern, J. L., Herakova, L. L., Kahl, D. H., Tobola, C., & Bornsen, S. E.
(2009).Communicating/Muting Date Rape: A Co-Cultural Theoretical Analysis of
Communication Factors Related to Rape Culture on a College Campus. Journal Of
Applied Communication Research, 37(4), 465-485. doi:10.1080/00909880903233150
Bell, K. J. (2009). Wake Up and Smell the Condoms: An Analysis of Sex Education
Programs in the United States, the Netherlands, Sweden, Australia, France, and
Germany. Student Pulse, 1(11). Retrieved from http://www.studentpulse.com/a?id=40
FRA: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2014) Violence Against Women: An EU
Wide Survey. Retrieved from http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-vaw-surveymain-results_en.pdf
Future of Sex Education (FoSE) Initiative. (2012). National Sexuality Education Standards:
Core Content and Skills, K-12. Retrieved from
http://www.futureofsexed.org/documents/josh-fose-standards-web.pdf
Hill, M. S., & Fischer, A. R. (2001). Does entitlement mediate the link between masculinity and
rape-related variables? Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 48(1), 39-50.
doi:10.1037/0022-0167.48.1.39
Howell, M. (2007). The History of Federal Abstinence-Only Funding. Advocates for Youth.
Retrieved from
http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/publications-a-z/429-the-history-offederal-abstinence-only-funding

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National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC). (2012). Its Time Talk About Gender
Norms. Retrieved from http://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/files/SAAM_2012_Gendernorms.pdf
National Task Force to End Sexual and Domestic Violence (NTF). (2013a) . The Facts
About VAWA. Retrieved from http://4vawa.org/the-facts-about-vawa/
Nordics show way in sex equality. (2006, Nov. 20). BBC News. Retrieved from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6167486.stm
Office on Violence Against Women. (OVW). About the Office on Violence Against Women.
Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ovw/legacy/2011/07/08/aboutovw-factsheet.pdf
Paul, L. A., Gray, M. J., Elhai, J. D., & Davis, J. L. (2009). Perceptions of peer rape myth
acceptance and disclosure in a sample of college sexual assault survivors. Psychological
Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 1(3), 231-241. doi:10.1037/a0016989
Sexual Assault Prevention & Assault Center (SAPAC). (n.d.) Myths and Facts. Retrieved from
http://sapac.umich.edu/article/52