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AP PSYCHOLOGY SPRING AP EXAM STUDY GUIDE i> Shoda “for the Stare ALSO REVIEW: « STUDY GUIDE (BLUE BOOK) « CHECKS FOR UNDERSTANDING/OBJECTIVE NOTES ¢ VOCABULARY NOTE CARDS e EXPERIMENTS! ¢ TEXTBOOK Your AP’ Scores Will Be Online This Year In July, you will get your AP scores online. You will not receive your scores in the mail, so follow these steps to get ready. Sign Up 1, Sign wp for an account at apscore.org (it's free). Get your College Board account now so youlbe ready to get linn i Youwal natrecave your sce in th ean Ye ts aecounto access than. Onc you sign up, youl cava tout how end when te necess our eas fs ast sign up foran ‘scourt oe to make geting sere ind os uick and easy as possi Youmay leo haves accoeatifyo'v over rqistered ortho SAT* or parieiotd in tes allege Baar programs Try signing in atapscoroory find eat Remember 2. Remember this information. ‘nce you've taken your exane, just ramanber your Clloge Board ‘ceoenteirmane and pasrword, nd one of th llawiag Your AP® number — you'll ion the label in your AP Sudan Pack stecamsine on ‘Your stedrt denier siden 10 number} you putt on your AP Receive 3. 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Motivation, Emotion, Health (MOTIVATION + Motivation- a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior 1 Instinct: complex behavior that Is rigily patterned throughout a speciesand is unlearned 1 Drive-Reduction Theory- the idea that a physiological need creates on aroused tension state (2 drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need + Homeostasis- 1. tendency to maintain a Salanced or constant Internal stale 2. regulation of any ‘aspect of body chemisty around a particular level + Incentives: & postive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior 1 Masiow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-actualization needs ‘Needto live up one’s fullest and woique potentiat Esteem needs Need fer selPesteem, schiovement, competence sod independence; need for ecogntion and respec fom ethers ‘Belonginguess mad love weeds ‘Need to love and be loved, to belong. and be accepted: need to avoid loneliness and alienation ‘Safety needs [Need to fel thatthe world is organized ad predictable, need to feel safe, secure, snd stab Physiological needs © begins with physiological needs that must be satisfied © the higher-level safety needs become active then psyehotogical needs become active MOTIVATION-HUNGER Stomach contractions accompany our fealings of hunger 2 Glucose ‘> the form of sugar that circulates inthe blood ‘2 provides the major source of energy for body tissues teh its level Is low, te feel hunger + SetPoint ‘2 the point at which an individuats "welght thermostat” Is supposedty set hon the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger weight + Metabolic Rate- body's base rate of energy expenditure + The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions EATING DISORDERS + Anorexia Nervosn Wan 2 normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, stil eating It, continues to starve Ustally ond adolescent female ‘When 9 person weighe los than 85% of thelr normal body weight 95% of sufferars are female mast ate betwean the ages of 18-30 30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die + Bulimia Nervosa Disorder characterized by private "binge-purge” episodes of overeating, usually of high ‘orc foots, followed by vomiting or laxative use ‘SEXUAL MOTIVATION, ‘+ Sexts a physiologlaly based motive, ike hunger, but itis more affected by learning and valves + Sexual Response cycle ‘> The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson a. Excitement 2 Plateau 3. orgasm 4. Resolution ‘+ Refractory Period: resting period after orgasm, during which @ man cannot achieve another orgasm Estrogen. 2 sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males Forces affecting Sexual Motivation: ‘Imaginative stimu © External sti Physiological readiness + Sexual Disorders- problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning In Men + premature ejaculation- ejaculation before they of thelr partners wish + Impotence-inabilty to have or maintain erection In Women + "Orgasmic disordar- infrequent or absert orgasms + Sexual Orientation. an enduring sexual attraction toward members of wither ane’s own gender (homosexual orientation) or the other gender (heterosexual orientation) ‘MOTIVATION + Achievement Motivation- 2 desire for significant accomplishment ‘© For mastery of things, people, or ideas © For attaining a high standard © MeClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns + Intrinsic Motivation- desire to perform a benavior for ts own sake or to be effecive {2 Extrineie Motivation: desire to perform a behavior due to promisad rewards or threats of punishment + Rewards Affect Motivation soma: Til give you $5.00 for every A” Controlling reward (child: “As Tong as ohe pays, TL sody” Extrinsic Motivation Fiicm "You gausswen gen Lets celebrate by going out fr dinner” Joformative reward (Child “Tove doing well” Inerinsic Motivation 1+ Industria!/organizational (2/0) Paychology- sub-feld of psychology that studies and advises fon workplace behavior «170 Psychologists- help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivty, land design products and assess responses to them + Task Leadership- goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goale + Theory x rship- group-oriented leadership thot builds teamwork, mediates confi, and offers ve assumes that workers are basicaly lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money '5Should be directed from above + Theory + Emotion: a response of the whole organism ‘© Physiological arouse © Expressive behaviors © Conscious experience Emotional Arousal 1+ Autonomic nervous system controls physiological arousal ‘Assumes tat, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to ‘demonstrate thelr competence and creativity Srmpattc aiion Grouse) Tpaahwoay rae Farina on (aie a ie =e hots ara Sara as homer ew ons er even & OSS + Aroussl and Performance- Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal fr dificult tasks, and at higher levels fr eosy or welhlearned tasks Emotion sectors ‘+ Polygraph machine that is commonly used In attempt to detect lies; measures several of the physilogical responses accompanying emotion (i.e. perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing changes + Controt Question ‘2. Up to age 18, dd you ever physically harm anyone? + ofevane question ‘Sid the deceased thresten to harm you in any way? + RELEVANT > CONTROL = LEE 2 18 70% acouracy good? ‘© Assume 58% of 1000 employees actualy guity.. after testing all employees 285 will be ‘wrongly accused + What about 959% accuracy? ‘> Assume that 1 in 1000 employees actualy gui... after testing all employees 50 are ‘wrongly declared gulty and 1 of St testing pesttive are guy (2%) EXPERIENCING EMOTION + The amyadal is 2 neural key to fear leering + catharste- emotional release; catharsis hypothesis: “releasing” aggressive energy (through action Of fantasy) reeves aggressive urges + Feel-good, do-good phenomenon- people's tendency to be helpful when already in.a good mood. + Subjective Well-Being- if perceived happiness or satisfaction with life; Used along with ‘measures of objective well-being (physical and econorie inleators to evaluate people's qualty of ie. + Adaptation-Level Phenomenon- tendency to from judgements relative to a "neutral" level (i.e. brightness of lights, volume of sound, level of income); defined by our prior experience + Relative Deprivation percaption that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneselt ‘THEORIES OF EMOTION “+ Does you heart pound because you are afraid. or are you afrald because you feel your heart pounding? + James Lange Theory of Emotion ‘Experience of emotion Is awareness of physiological responses to emation-arousing stimu Sight ofoncoming car __y Pounding heat Far GGereption ofstimaiusy" (wouss) —” (emotion) + Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion ‘° Emotion-arousing stimul simultaneously trigger: physiological responses and subjective ‘experience of emotion Pounding beart (arousal) Sight of oncoming cor Geceephon of stimulus) Fear (emetion) + Schachter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion ’o. To experienes emotion one must: be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal [Pounding hest (arousal) Sight of oncoming ear Fear (emotion ocean ofits} labeled arousal) ‘Cog abel “Te anid” Emotion and cognition feed on each other ‘CHAPTER 6 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION YOU KNOW YOU HAVE MASTERED THE MAIN TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER IF YOU ARE ABLE TO. ‘= irodue the concept of motivation a dizcuss the major theories proposed to explain motivated behavior ‘= Discus the peifc mativation of hinges and examine the physiological and social components ‘naddiion o common eting disorders = Describe te three eleteas of emotion wad preset six thesis on how emotions are processed, S eSplain wba he postive psyenology movements. RAPID REVIEW ‘Motivation ithe povcess by Which actives we started ete nd contiued a0 ta physical = poyshologcal needs or wats are met. When motivation comes om ctside the self itis called extrinsic natvaiog, ou he otter hand, ifs perm does something becase its stsfyng in some intemal ranoer, tc motivation ie aled tase mottvainn Several theories have been proposed to explain the proces of motivation clang the teres of asta drive reduction, needs, rosa, incesive, huis, and se-dtermination. Inslnst approach sopze's hat peopl ae motivated by botogicaly detcenined internal frces. Unfortunate, instinct thor) only doserbesNelavioe and is ‘able to explain wy people did wa they dd. The drivereduction approach props that an Fequirement, produces drive snd tat pple actin dar to reduce thse drives. ‘The dives canbe brimary delves sah as hanger and tito acquired (ssondar) dives sch asthe eed for money ‘Te rationale fr dnve-redutonincales he ieathat he body as atendency tory to manta stay sine efered tows homeastasl. When te body i ou of blanc, need develops andthe easion provides te deve to seduce the ood and ret the body toast of balance. Drive redaction theory, owever, cannot explnn why people would incre ther interalteason by ding things Uke parechuting oat fen splane. Need theory serps to explaia motivation by understanding three ‘specific neds, the need far achievement (n Ach), need for afiiation (nA, 2 ues far power {aPow). Arousal theory sugges tht people are motivate to maitn an optimal level of zousl or tension, The level of soul le acheved by increasing or decreasing simulation andi driven by a proposed tions motive, The Yerkes-Dodson lav demonstrates that for an cay task, pcforance is ‘ost when sous i ite higher than average, whereas for ict ask, performance best when ‘sousi salle below average, Indvidals who consistent seek out high levels of eeusal have been Inheld as seasation seekers. According to incentive approaches of motivson, peoples actions ae detrsined by the reward r incentives forth behaviors. Expectanca-value theories st a sabsetof| Sncettive theories tht ease a prtoss expectancies, or beliefs about what wil happen in the are, ‘now toe tale into aoonet in ode to understand his orher motivation. ‘Abraham Maslow was a major proponent of the humanistic agroash to motivation and proposed & irc of weeds ht indvidal mst ail befae they can each te highest need of ‘etuallzatlon where a person reaches his or ber illest potential. According to Maslow, basic needs such {Ss tunger and itu be staf before the higher Ive necds canbe achieved. Ao, Maslow ‘tern oth tines in which evfacizaion i tained as peak exnerienes. Another theory of ‘motivation similar to Malo’s isthe gelfdetermination theory hat proposes that there are hve inborn {nt uve eds tat boone wk tostiey, These need rete neo for autonomy, competence, sad relatedness ‘One specific area of motivation that has been studied extensively isthe motivation oct aso known ashunger The hungsr drive canbe divided into pysilogiea and socal components. Physiologically, {nslln and gluengons are hormones that gute he level of glucose in the Bleodstream, Insulin fnceases blood sugar levels whic eas to feelings of hunger. Several areas inthe kypodaamus also play an porant ro in regulating eating babaviee,pehaps by influencing the specific weight that oar Boies ty to maintain, or ou eh set point, Ancber fctor hat inunces the weight et point isthe Motivation and Emotion au ‘CHAPTER 8 posal metal rate, which decreases a we age cresing a omesponng increas inthe wht set are ihe toca factor that infoene ange nclod tenes of dy whens person Opell eats, Pat aed toredace sess or prove comfon, andthe appeal of tempting ster tem, Sos problems cee ied wil eating behovios are beaty, fn which person weighs 20 percent overhis ober Seal ‘igh acest erosa, in whic ese weighs 1S pecent es thm his oe eal weight and dearer ra persn develops acyl of overeating, flowed by delete vomniing, A homane ald lepta ray playa role in eonvoling how hungry an diva fees indony cos be defined ste'feling” aspect of consciounes, characterized by a ceran physical 1 bbavin and an ine awareness of feclings. As ca he sen inthe definition, erosions on ded ino fvee components: physiology, behaviors, and subjective experience, Difecat aes lnte been fund tobe sssctted with diferent physiological actions. The amgygdela has been Fee iay arte in the regulation of emetions in hams aswel as the animals. Th Behaviors of ran dds fvial expressions, body movemen' ad ober actions, Research hes supported he ea thar at leet seve basi fata expression ae recognized and mimicked in altars around th word sane ee deplay rues cr exaely when, where, znd how tse emotions ean be expres, appears Tetine etoorealtze: The subjective experience of enotions involves the cognitive procs of Oia intel such a happy, to your fins, Several theories have been developed in an atone © ‘Stn the process humans use to label our emotions. Common sense theors, supe hat tis dance pedicle emotion to occur which ten leds to de behaviors an poysologcal response, The Sours Lang theory of ezotio proposes Unt stimulus Teds 0a parcel pysologial eqns aaa et io be nbjetve ogenence of sp emotion. The Canman-Bard henry suggests tt the Mine and avbjesive experience of emovous occur atthe same me. A stimlut leas to ivan of By fdclamus nich then smaltaneusly activates the syrpathete nervous system and higher corel Dese wtich epee the signal asa pactiulreootion. Schachter and Singer propose he cugniive “This proposes that eer sul oceurs or body bes «physica reaction and we make ae a ol ofthe station, Rased om feedback om both thes ourees, we then come oP with 2 Sabjecuve abel forthe emotion we are expericoeing. The facial fedbac hypothesis asuncs that ‘pal capezlons prove feedheck tothe brain regarding te emotion big expressed and can then Jean oc even cau te emotion. Lovaas’ cognive:mediationaL theory of emotion supgets that ‘Bilouibesstundus, we engage in cogeive apeusal ofthe station which then triggers subjective ‘perience ofan emtion followed by a physiological rexponse “Tac pativeprehology movement i anew perspective in psychology tha recommends iting he soos of nteiogy sway fom te negative and more towards he positive Yo his ook The Pat of Tegpince David Gye, a major poponet of postive poyholony, suggest numberof way 0 aenesce your emotional espoase of happiness, Some of the swggenions include eting happy, geting ‘cough slecp and excising. STUDY HINTS Spy fr the most confusing concept of his chapter is keeping tack ofthe theories af emotion ‘Tho tellng bots are dsianed to help you work throuph this process, To sat with ty ing inibe fillowing ale cosety. Remember when we ae discussing emotions there ase severe canons we ae tested i, The theoties vay scconng 1 which component comes ft ‘The components ae we piptilogiel experince of emotion Gcressd ear rate, sweating te.) 1S Mblesive experonce of motion (he "Testing" of hapines,sadaess, of anges) ‘S Cognitive apes (ising your thought process to asess te station) ‘= SSheorteal bain ati (et consiered cognitive types of ston) “Using these key componcats,ilinthe following ible, The fst row has acady bee fii foryo. Motivation and Emotion “12 CHAPTERS ‘THEORIES OF MOTIVATION WHAT YOU WANT AND WHAT YOU NEED. ofuations see the nes and desires that cause ‘shavors—ta eaten poopl co the things they do. Intinsemattvation comes torn anes while tes metiaton eran rom the cues word DRIVEREDUCTION THEORY 1 People sre motivate Weel nad 1 ries are impulses to os thoeneeds nerd behve homeodtasa a siateoinaralbaance Primary sve re soweal nad ood, slr) {Secondary dae ae ured to meet clay ives (eney, access) InsrINCT THEORY ‘People pertorm speces-specc behaviors 1 Inset are iar behaviors necessary rsa INCENTIVE THEORY 1+ Paopla perm some benaiersbased onde, rathethan neo nantes ae sen asocited wth ewards ‘OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY 1 People basnate bassline evel ofmstiaion 1 Peroeingpessrabebehavarsmoves people {ny tom th bases bu an ponent acess raivatr homo reson toe aul ste This thar saan vans to explain diction people ur substance fr slesure butar then totvstedto eur to basa ban they Uiperance wth hawavr hey oan us the ‘buunce eaintoroturntoa neutal state AROUSAL THEORY People try eave abalanced lel af excterent 1 The Verle-Oodson sates that eon prform test taste thatlitmaciom lvls of rosa SOCIAL THEORY ‘Pes espn prssies om acity Honey Murray sated 20 typesof needs, oth as reo forafitition anor apne dsonance Kort ein named types of metational cont pprosch approach (vo pata cle), Sredanee arden two unpleasant hale), Spproncravidenc one choice wih prosand ons), and muti apsrosct-avoiance (many hues wit pres sd ons). HIERARCHY OF NEEDS. cum 1 brea Mason crested aberachyofneed reticng the gern whi nad must be salle selhauaieten >, HUNGER AND EATING DISORDERS THROUGHTHICK AND THIN. urge ledeterineaby a ampty torch andy ‘Semstry(lucoca a inal. The hypoth fepestinleteandeatita ings” Spa thory ‘aes thatthe hypolneirus manta he boys optim bey waghtoy determing te metohc fats xing diodes se psycalogcal probes Felted to weight bndy mage and eating hai, sex ‘THEBIRDS AND THEBEES Humane are cven a proseat inorder a pass on theiegeves. Ths hypothnarssmalte the ply gn to roduc esl Prmones androgens and fstrogers, Racereers of human sua nue ‘Aves Kinsey, Walam asters, 3d Vig okson ‘SEXUAL RESPONSECYCLE "THEORIES OF EMOTION “THECHICKEN OR THE ESS? Emotions ar tous and feng tht occ resforea to eternal imi Thase ar accompanied ipotyslial russ, batpsyeoboasis dete shear ina hanes fer tne ematoral sponse STRESS CAUSES GAS iets fullofstrssers tat make pel el chetongd “ev tcntencl Some sesarare tani, wile SESS Sie Hane Sie eavelopa he concept aE Sere otoptaonsynatome (GAS) tesa responses to reso. ‘Accarng to chard Lateus, peopl coat tute sesars The primary pores ms SEER Ng wnatteranoccerenrs caress The seein appr invoies deternrg one's yt Foote Secret tis stesso The ses rarctn fhe dials neanaseofendine the ‘SEIS doa darense the inicualis able tohende te stresses, “TYPE A AND TYPEB PERSONALITIES ‘THE ABC'S OF STRESS RESPONSE Indvidulsesondta aessin ferent ways, BANE riareaponse ptr ve bee ik ‘egos Typek ane Tye “TYPE-APERSONALITY ‘+ Aggressive an urgent response a sresors Competiive 1 Seeks aut aranding actos {ay be rnresoeeptletostrssindce ess -TVPE- PERSONALITY Requires moreto gt stossed 1 Whenatrated usual rattthe smote 3s TypenA personas + easysnng Unit 9: Development Prenatal Development and the Newborn ‘ALB weeks after conception, babies are anstomically indistinguishable; 4/5" month different ‘Sex determined by 23" pair of chromosome X-chromosome: comes from elther mother of father; females have two, males have one Y chromosome: comes from father, palred with x to form male Y chromosome stimulates éevelooment of male sex oraan by producina testosterone: most Important rrale sex hormone, but females have i to9 Gender: biologically or sodkaly iniuenced characteristics which people define as male/female zygotes: fertilzed eas; less than half survive pass 2 wesks after 10 days, zygote atiach to mother's uterine wall and forms placenta for nourishment, zygote Becomes embryo: developing human from 2 wooks to second month after two months, looks human, called fetus: developing human from 2 months to birth fetus hears muffed version of mother’s volce and prefers i after bith harm can come when placenta gets teratogens: agents that can harm embryo/Tetus during prenatal stage; 2 mother mho isa heroin adeft will have 2 heroin addicted baby Fewboms are equipped with reflexes tea to survival rooting reflex: reflex, when touched on cheek, to pen mouth and find nipote Dereeptuel abilities continue to develop during frst month, can distinguish mother’s odour Infancy and childhood maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly change in behaviour, could be Influenced by experiences ‘maturation sets the basic course of development and experience adjust it Tack of neuron connections reason why earilast memaries rarely earlier than third birthday experiences help develop neural connections) Rosenzweig and Keech reared sone young rats in salty confinement and athers in playground; Found those in playground develop thicker arid heavier brain cortex For optimum development, early yeas ential ~usa tor fose it; but development exists through life as neural tissues changes ~experiances nurture nature plasticity: brain Freud's paychoanalytc theory of personality sought to explain what he observed during psychoanalysis + Free Association © Method af exploring the unconscious Porson relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing + Unconscious Frei! -a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes. Fealings and memories 5 Cantemporary information processing of which we are unaware + Preconscious information that sot conscious, but is retrievable into conscious awareness Personality Structure + ~ 2 Areservole of unconsclous psychic eneray 5. Strives to satisfy basie sexual ane aggressive drives Operates on the pleasure principle. Demanding immediate gratification + suPEREGO ‘>The part of personality that presents internalized ideas © Provides standards for judgement and for future aspirations + E60 The largely conscious, “executive part of personality Mediates among the demands of the id, superego and ego Operates on the realty prineipe, satisfying the 1s desires in ways that wil realistically ‘bring pleasure rather than pain Personality Development + Paychosexual Stages- the childhood stages of development during which the pleasure-seeking ‘energies focus on dstnct erogancus zones + Oedipus Complex: a boy's sexual desires towards his mother and feelings of Jealousy ond hatred for the rival father Froud’s Psychosexual Stages [STAGE [rocus [Sra (0-18 month) [Pleasure carters on the mouth veking, Bling, chewing [Anal (28-36 months) [Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for Jeontrol [Phaine (G6 years) [Pleasure Zone in genital coping with cestuous sexual feeling [tency (6 to [Dormant sexual feelings bers) [Genel (puberty on) [Maturation of sexual Interests PERSONALITY PEVELOPMENT {dentification- the process by which children incorporate their parents! values into thelr ‘developing supereges Gender Tdentity- one's sense of baing male or female Fixation a lingering focus of pleature-ceeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where Conflicts were unresolved PENSE MECHA Defense Mechanisms: the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting realty Repression: the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxlety-arousing thoughts, fetings, and ‘memories trom consciousness Regression. defense mechanism in which an Inividua retreats, when faced with anxiety, to a ‘ore Infantile paychosenual stage where some psychic energy rernains fated Reaction Formation- defense mecharism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable Jmpulzes into ther opposites. People may express Felings that are the opposite of thelr ansiety- routing unconscious feelings. Projection: defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attnbuting them to athers Ratlonalization- defense mechanism that offers selt-usting explanations in place of the real, ‘more threatening, uneonscious reasons for one's actions Displacement” defense mechanism thet shits sexual or aggressive impulses toward s more ‘acceptable or les threatening objector person... as when redirecting anger towards safer outlet [NEO-FREUDTANS Alfred Adler- Importance of childhood social tension Karen Horney- sought to balance Fraue's masculine biases ‘Carl Junge emphasizes collective unconscious. concept of shared, Inherited reservar of mermory Frcec fram nite cpavies history ASSESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS: Projective Test- a personally rest, such asthe Rorschach or TAT, that provided ambiguous simul designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. ‘Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- a projective test in which people express thei inner feelings and interests trough the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes Rorschach Inkblot Test- the most widely used projective tes, uses a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach to identity people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots ‘THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE +o =a characterete pattern of behave; a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report Inventories and peer reports «+ Personality Tnventory- 2 questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-dlsagree tems) on wich people respond to terns designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess elected personaly trots ‘The “Big Five” personality Factors Bescon Jar wore urcocoeatve [Grateninans — [orarand ver conan lewent verre [cco wre wpe + Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Enventory (MMPI) vo sthe most widely researched and elinially used of all personality tests © Griginslly developed to Menty emotional disorders (st considered is most appropriate tase) ‘9, Now used for many other sereening purposes + Empirically Derived Test. a test developed by tasting a pool of items and then selecting those that decriminate between groups. similar to MMP TENG + Situational influences on behavior ae important to consider {People can fake desirable responses on self-report measures of personcity {1 Averaging behavior seross situatfons seems fo Indicate that people do have distinct personality ‘roite UMAISTIC PERSPECTIVE + Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)- studied sol-sctuslization processes of productive end healthy people + Self-Actuatization- the utimate psychological need that rises after basic physical and Devehological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to full one's potential + Cart Rogers (4902-1987)- focused on growth and fulfilment of individuals Requires three conditions: 1. Genuineness 2) Acceptance: unconditional postive regard 3. Empathy + Unconditional Positive Regard- an attitude of total acceptance toward ancther person 1 Satfeconcept: all of cur thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question “Who amr? + Self-Esteem: one's feelings of high or ow self-worth 1 Solf-Serving Bias- a readiness to perceive onesel favorably + Individualism. giving prioty to one's ovm gozls over group goals ané defining one's identity in terns of personal attrbutes rather than group identieatons 1+ Collectivism- giving printy to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work ‘raup) end defining one's Wentiy accordingly Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism fr nsosnsene tary wom eh rsreperaent ri Ton aD Prt raiee Pies nner ow oe ERE [gga on saa ST SPSS BT [erg maton [omen alt Pecos ea ery Btn by mshi eta) [ete ysl ears Re fstereie= [Moy eter rasa covaian ——[w, cod erg Frmony vue rane [estates [trees oes promeny ansa—[ vrece GT we EVALUATING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE ‘Concepts tke self-actualization are vague Emphasis on seif may promote self-indulgence and lack of concer For others ‘Theory does not adaress reality oF human capacity for evil, “Theory has impacted popular ideas on child rearing, education, management, etc. sm: the interacting laluences between personality and environmental + Personal Control- our sense of controling our environments rather than feeling helpless + External Locus of Controt- the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal ‘control determine one’s fate ‘+ Internal Locus of Control- the perception that one controls one's own fate 2 Learned Helptessness- the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable fo avold repeated aversive events ‘+ Built rom researen on learning and cognition {Fall to consider unconscious motives and individual disposition Today, cogritive-behavioral theory is perhaps predominant psychological approach to explaining human behavior You ARE, API GHAPTER 11 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY | KNOW YOU HAVE MASTERED THE MAIN TOPICS IN THiS CHAPTER IF YOU ABLE TO. ‘Define personality aeoring fo the vatious perspectives tn paycholoay ‘DisissFrends payehnanaly eal peapective on personality facut te division ofthe hind, epee eval sats est nt mos thay en ‘eva Devoe the Hebivoret priv om personality ani thesia cognitive theory oetoing Albert Bandas model naoduce te humanist pespedive of prema including Cat Rogessview ofthe ef and ‘soncept ef uncenditoea postive rar ‘goss tr eon wth ear tothe eseriptin of personaly Expsin what is tnowa shout ple of biology snd Dereitynpesonaity development ‘Desebe major methods of pewwnsltyaseesment incuingieterviews, projective ats, ‘behavioral essessment and peony inventories. 9 REVIEW Personality i he unique way ia which ooh vidual hos, se and fee Shroughou ie “Two component of peronalgr ate chatacer, whic fers to yal judgments ide abou pera" ‘hovel cea ivi en esigeramnt, ofthe coducng characteris person isborn With, Ther reat Tus fote Siercat perspectives regarding personaly including the peyshostalte behaviors, Tumsristic, and tat perspectives, “The prvchannalle perspective criginated wid the theo of Sigmund Freud ad focuses on thera oF uncinscous thoughts on desires i the developmen of personaly. His sport to tak {eto account the sexually ropresid Vitoria ran which Freud grew up whex eluning his theory or Pea stetiy: ren lived theind was divided foto Uee prs tb sonslans mis comin nl of the things ew enon is are ofa any gives moment, the precouscions mind contains al the memories and {at can be recalled wih only rina effet andthe uneousiogs rts the pero our mind ‘rhb eo fiddea etal ines, Feud believed the ynconssions mind was the ost inyportan facterin “Greotingbabavio and personality. Jo adflon fo be dvisions of he cond, Frou ls beloved that ‘posotalty could be died into thee components te ideo, and xperege, The i resis completely ie Tonconnous rind and repress he os priv pao te personality containing sl ofthe ‘be bloga! dives such as binge, hit and ux. According to Prev, hei ope othe, pleasure rina, ‘which stomps se immediate grafcation of neds with no regard for ‘ieee, eu fered fo the poyoblogieal sion ead bya persoo's unconscious dase ax fhebbudo. The eg represents the moet conslous and rational aspect of personality, which operates on Ute reality grinetpigwlomrting tenis the desires ofthe is. a way that wil animize negative sonsaqucnzk. The superogote l pt of the personality Wo davelop asso o Fra theory and ‘eovecnts de ord contr of persotulty. The uperego cosine the comasenes, osx partof ‘esol hat mks a person feel goodazbad depending oa whet they do te righ wrong thing ‘Recording to Feeud, the 6 deca immediate suisictio, wile he sopereo paces cesta whic [pdbvions are mmoralyaccepible, andthe oo let nthe mide to ear wp wi compromise. ‘Por Feud, the tyes compooes of peronality develo in series of paxchostaual tages with ‘each sage focused on afferent erosenhi Zane, or te ofthe body that produce plenurble fsting. ‘Gareeofved caf at any nthe steges of dovelopment can leat ization ad subsequent emodona ‘Povhologialprotens as anadult. The fist page sealed the oral stage becuse he erogenous zones Emo Fsaton ean ocouin this tge ithe baby is weaned fiom the neers tres 0 sono foo Js The sscond sage a Fens theory ist anal sage, daring whch ime prod the ts serves ss ‘he cogeoous zone and he eon enters asund oe ianing. Fixation resuling om openly CHAPTER 11 “Theories of Personaiy rebeling agaist the lt raining resus als who ar caracterisically mesy and ore refer to 25 [anal expulsivenersonalis. Ftationreslieg fom overy stole uiing results in adals whe are ing, sibbocn, sod excessively net aad woe be referred to 25 aa retentive personals, The hid ‘ogee phallic lage and focuses on te chil" own geal, Daring tis tgethe cid develops & seul traction fo the opposite-sex paren, becomes jealous of the sme-tex parent, develop anxlty dae {othe atircton and the jelouny, and resolves tbe ant) trough sexual repression sud identification “Sih he same sex parcel. Feud efecto thie proves a boys a the Oedipas complex and suggested ‘hat its go ough snils press with heir fathers es the trget oftheir affection, The proces of [entiation lends tothe developraent ofthe superego so that by the end of reo’ ted stage of [Seclopmeat lthee components of persona ae place. The fourth sige, Lyn as de Bsus Since, cenit of represedeonulSelings daring which children focus on alloca physica, nd [Socal development bute xual development The Soa stage curs around the start of puberty when Sevun felings ean no longer be repressed and is refered to asthe genial sags. ‘Anumber of poycologiis refered (oot nga-Feeudlans, opred wih prs of Freud’ theories but atl aspects. Chl Gus Jang believed that there were wo pars ofthe unconscious, personal unconscious similar othe unconscious dstribed by Feud and 2 collective unconscious which Cnained universal hamen memories that Fug called archetupes. Alfie Adler Fe het the mosivaing factor of behavior wa ot the pleauce-seking drive ofthe Iibido suggested by Freud, bot mater he scking of superiority through defense mechanisms such 5 compensation. Katen Hoon disagreed wits reads emphasis on sexuabtyand thou peissabties were shaped more by al’ sense of base annie, whieh iPunatended to cosh lea othe development of aerotic pesonalides Buk Erikson ‘Grelope eight peychosoeil sages of development wih focased en the role of socilrelitionships in the development of personality “Although Eruds theory bas hada significant impact on the culture of modern Wester societies, tis thcory has ben cricied on the eletifie rounds de othe fot hat it was not developed based on “seatiic experiments but rather on Frends perma observations in his pial practice asa peychiist, tnd that Frend’s pesooal oberatons were limited oa specifi group of wealthy Austin womet ving Jn the seualyrepeessod Vitran era ‘According fo the behaves” perspective, petonalty consists ofa et flared responses o¢ ‘tabs. A vartion on he behaviors perspective is at ofthe social cognitive learning ehenris, wo emphasize the ol of conditioning alongwith an individual's though process inthe developmen of ronal. A seong proponent ofthe susial cognitive view, Albert Bandara sypgeted thst the “nvironneat, behovit nd persnalcegnitive factor all act ogeber to determine an individual’ ations ‘ha process Bandra tferel oa reeipracal determinism. An portant component of te oogsitive factor is he person's seus of s-ffcacy, ox perception af how effective behavior willbe ina ‘nsculer contest Julian Rotier proposed that indigo develop a lative et way of espondiog and This bebevior represented “perouaiy.” Aa important detrzan ofthe individual's response was his be senor of cus af control Aceordg o Retr, the indvidals expectancy andthe esponse's ‘enforcement value were the to key factor that determined ow an ndvidual would reat, “The humasige perspestive of personality focuses more on qualities thst ste consiéered ‘niguely human soc as fee will and sobjecive emotions. Cal Ragrs proposed hat humans a always Tire to fll sienna caption os process Imown ashe albactuaiznn tendency. Rogers ‘etic positive reed as waemth fein, love, and respect thi comes fom sient oes. Ta ter for an insvidsl to work towards self acrollzstion, they ned tobe expose toa cern Level of “tnconditonalpesdve regard from he significant other incr ves, Rogers flat conditional nstie rezard would reset person's sity to become a fll fenctioning person. Roges believed Sringividuals image of onetel or self-concept, also played sole in becoming fll functional, The Setfconcept wes tase on wha n individ sold by oters and also bis or her own sense of sl ‘Accovdng to Rogers, el-soneep could he evide nt a yal se and an de self. Ifthe el sla ideal self concep were to fr apa, anxiety and newrotc behavior would rst “Teal theatis of perooality hove focused on destin personality td predicting bebevior asd ca tatdesrpaen A falta consistent, enduring way of thinking, eling, or behaving, Gordon ‘Theories of Personality “16- (CHAPTER 11 Aiport denied ppeonimately 200 ats nthe Bogs anguage thot be elt were “wire” nto each Jemon'a nervous system. Raymond Cael artowed the aumber of ats down further by diving wits ‘Fn aurface eal such asthe 200 its descnbed by Alport and gource alt, or the more basic tis Tha underlie srfnce its aod form te core of pesonslity. Iaroversig is en exemple of source tru, Cail belived that there were 16 basic, o source tis. Later researchers wowed his ist o five ures eit and develope the personality model known as the fvefashor model, or he Big Five, the five tet dimensions we openness, conscientlousnes.exteaverson, ageesablness, and ngurallam, Clic of the five factor todel have efgued that tbe station plays a nore significant ole in determining ‘Sh indvidaa’s havior then is suest by tnttheory and ave proposed a theory tbat ocludes sat: ‘Stustign interaction Tie Sell of bshaviaeal genetics sadist role ofinherted tris in personality. Twin tees ‘nove foun he cet tvin re more sill than feral wins or uneled people in cern pests ‘tpesonaity suc as inllgeoce,leadersip, endoocy to flow rls, asseniveness, and aggrssvencs ‘ASotion aes have supported some of theve ndings and have sugested a biological basis for shysess sand aggressiveness Te a attmpto deseibe “nations ptsonlites" Geert Hofstede conducted row-clurl sty fr IBN wien elton «desnpion ofeach country long fou asi dimensions. Ths ‘Sencasions Fofiege observed were individualismcolecvism, power dstanee,mascolinityemininity, snd uncertainty avoidance. “Maths or asain personality have bean developed based on specifi theories of perscnality ss well atthe various goals of easton, sel insight, andthe diagnosis of psychological disorders ‘Sn inteevien is 2 meod of pxsonality aressmectn which the professional asks questions of the cient allows te cient o nsw in ether a actred or unstructured macoer. Interviews ar liited by {he fat that lens can ie atetioally or untentionally, andthe interviewers can bring Shei own ‘ise ato hes intepttation including the ale effet, which isthe tendency ofa person's fst Tmpresion to infivence ltr astssments, Psychoaaalyst hve developed prfectve teats an ater {omnes person's imeonscios sonics or desires by hsving them profeted onto an ambiguous vsval als. Two ofthe most commonly sed projective ests are the Rorschach ink test ad the ‘Theuatle Appereepdan Testor TAS, Prooctive tests ae highly sublestve and ave Des fais to Seer ASS iow tliat and validity. bebaviort would be more likely to measrepersoasliy by ‘dopey soeving a indie’ actions, In rec observation, the psychologist would observe an {uinidual is apeifie seting and record hie orher behaviors through the use of «rating aca oF 3 fReauency count Cries ofthis approach have poised out the possibilty for both the observer eect ESEESNSSHE. Trait theursts would be most ukelyto we a personaitvinventory, whic consists of ‘aqvetionsaie that has standard fist of questions tha require spose answers such a “yes” or“. ‘Examples of commonly uted persoelity verte include Cate’ 16 PF, he ‘Nouretsio/ExuaversionlOpenness eonaity Inventory (NEO-PD, the Myers Briggs Type Indeator (MPT) and the Mingesota Maltpbasc Personality Inventory, Version Tl (MMPL.2), The advantage of ‘Ravvowltypvcotes le hat they are scoced objectively, which eliminates the possibilty of observer Sian and hey ve bev found to have very high elit and vallty scores, However, the inventories seal bated oa selene. UR ge nurber of pesonaity tess are cease over the alert; however, the resus of such tess shoud be interpreted With sn appopeate level of skepticism. sTuDy HINTS 1, students often confise elves of wwarenes suggested by Freud with his three components of pewsonalty, The next two excises should help you keep tem strught. To start with t's think Shout your levels of awareness. For each ofthe level liste, lista least he=exampis ofthe {ncmtion or mermoie that would be found thee. Star with he conscious level “Theories of Personality “163+ CHAPTER 11 svi 60 5 PSYCHOANALYTIC AND PSYCHODYNAMIC HUMANISTIC THEORIES DELYING INTO THE UNCONSCIOUS ‘THESRIGHTSIDEOF LER _ Freud developed is psychoanalyst “The uranisc approa personaly sist and tid deve ate ancithe__vewaeae anaes os ease Fe Ex cStas ded unconecious med, olwers Freud “Sind iar ith moe mode ner 6 ed ont pepehadar er cr ope ballaved hat peopl ave self-concept, Srlch are manalepreseatonsof hese tree Ropersarusstatlacng conditions of ae eS Re ones aeonce fat et Bi fecte snes betueneed wits unconeltonal a its regard esringtal thy snide vd Peerless ef successes ores, Cari ogers and Abreu Maslow both blaved at, Seip tc capelestselPactuallzatfon whichis the mest of en nein pote SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORIES TAKING CONTEOL “These teaver personaly assume that personality ‘Stason cope constuct ret tarave | date onl between tha nd ego crests arty, wich Saye sraieaseh ‘Stiplerecuce rough defen mechs. oo | aca ner P peoesin Reroveunpasant sues fom the ere ESponeue rind Regression Ret to comforting chon before stress Reaction formation: Const unscceteble Tapuses tothe spoestes Projection: Atrbutescee's own eesering inpuivent someone oe - Aatoraization: lusty bev to mat ‘TRAIT THEORIES sntieteing mn Displacement Rediectunsceptablecr dangerous, ae — Sppanes ord eccontbl cr a ones Try agate ios lk ayehodyramic Theos _ srs analy age faa seed bt : oa ‘Udigeroutiow tear tat - Nemathete vata seus ssf gr OMe Utoeeetbecs nl aes cuonay tats Openness Con one alone EiSeeon apenas nero COCEADD |. Gerson ipo cede tote! (eae nay wats econ Wo Reymond Eat bsteec at af eopiehore ane FRgcereribsictate hans Eyck cates dong cleo Late rrceroreson nd sabe anee ate cbt argos bates ted on ores SE embae [AP Pychloey Gren Ki 62 ® Heed ‘PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT BEHAVIORIST THEORIES ‘ABIPE IS NOTJUST APE WE AREWHATWE DO i Measurements fpecoraly vary according” Bahavoists typical relect oer vewpsntsrenarding : theoreles! otataton. [evonaliyaatng that havior sels personaly ‘Fre bere nat paraorly is determined by cont "LChangee whan re rsrnmant canses FN a eerie poyclogte acho st to vewpoin hey Tee ore iy fata the soea-cgnive/ capt ees Assesses unconscious trovahis a impulses Thaler hoor ae “Prjetva teat, sven as the Rosznach bt es . “od tne Thematic Apporeption fest BIOLOGICAL THEORIES E sfreeassocaton| “Dream recall . ‘FEELING TEMPERAMENTAL Biciogcal paychalogistsbellove that person fs shaped by gona boy chemistry, a b00y pe ‘hese haart pint out nt eables appear toFave Ee ‘els on interes to detarnsnelevl of l= fren temperaments stsith sd tese emotional 5 "Seutienean ond nest hones Gofesto onto shape ttre persoraie, ie Hippocrates sores) bowed tat eros {User scale nd questonraes ee varyngiels lb fis, clad humors. “attr devsopads saa messing aus of -Gther scales hove eased ealtatiacy eves ‘Uses scales and qosinnaves, fe, ‘yan developed in Ese Parsnaty, 2 ene P recharges ePs = The Minnesota HulsphasiePesonalty Inventory, 7 ‘codeine oats wos Seance caused ewericies rmessue, —Anatherfrous but empl unsupported eos Gets ang est duorere ate cuces = inn Sheldon’ somatetype theo @ {a eereomestcirdoretremenses Mam Shel otype ser ‘Observes to ater normaton bout ia pecans cee Aardingothe Barnum effect, pop se mare + hlytaratevogve personaly earactristie n= ae esate casertons ol terlves than move yess) pesoaly tered desartlors. eopetendto want to ESeveinpsjnles ane frances ut shouldbe ls ane septal wan they ae od ty have very (Shbigocs pesolty rat thet aul pay to anyone Unit 11: intelligence, Testing and individual Differences + We use intelligence tests to give a numerical value to ones mental abilties by comparing them to others ‘The Orlains of Intellicence Testing + Francis Galton (1922-1911) hd great enthusisam in measuring human tats that lend to the eugenics" movement, Hs goal Was to “quantly human supecioty” by means of tests on strength, reaction time, sensory precision and even head size. Despite his efforts, no correlation whatsoever Was found between general mental ables and the traits. ‘+ Aled Binet ~ founder of modem intelligence testing, sought methods to identify students who ‘Would have dificltes in regular classes by measuring ones Mental Age ~ IF you perform the way 2 typical 10 year old would, then your mental age is 10 years od, regardless of your real age. This Tead to labeling problems. ie, people a1 your level of inteligence and nok realy who you a. + Lamis Truman: davelopad the current Stanford-Binet intellience test. The fost messes IQ. Intelligence Quotient- mental age duided by chronological age(real ege) times 100. Ifyou are 412 years ola(chonologial age) and your manta abies are the same as those who are 12 years ld (mental age). Then your 10 is 12/12 X 100= 100, the average IQ. +The stanford-Binat test Became applied to many people of differing races. The result, Truman. ‘ealized, the reason why non Anglo Saxons ci worst is because the test measures not only thelr Innate ablities but also education and cultural distinctiveness. What is Intelligence ‘+ We define Inteligence as the abilty/capacity to be goal oriented and exhibit adaptive behavior. 2 IQ isnot a fixed “thing” one has; itis merely a score one obtains from a test. Know that intelligence is always expressed ina context. Te, in the context of warriors, musicians, engineers, artist, diferent inteligence levels wile expressed in different araas by one individ, + To determine f many factors undermine ones general mental ability, psychologists make use of factor analysis ~ 9 statsteal method thet Klentiies a variety of related factors in 3 test ‘+ Charles Spearman bellaved that there isa general intelligence factor or g factor undermining ‘each ablty/facter. Te, those who exceed in reasoning also id quite well in all other areas such 95, Spatial abilty, verbal, memory, and word fluency. + People with Savant syndrome excel exceptionally in one ablity/skl but has limited mental ablles. Te, a 12 year old who has difficulty speaking and walking but can compute numbers as fast as a calculator. Thus, contrary tothe g fector, Howard Gardner believes we have "multiple Intelligences" that are independent of each other. + Also sporting the multiple inteligence theory is the existance of emotional intelligence ~ the biity to manage, express, understand, and perceive emotions. Peosle with high emotional intelligence do belter in socal situations and thus are more successful careers, marriages, and parenting. This Ef is indepencent, if not negatively correlated, with academic intligence. + With modern brain imaging techniques, researchers stil fail (as did with Calton) to ind significant correlation between head size and intelligence. ‘+ Brains of people with high performances are less active (Intake lass glucose), quick, end registers information with more complexity. One explanation for this could be thet pecple with faster ‘cognitive processes acquire more information Assessing Intelligence + Aptitude tests — predict your future performance or ability to eam new sil (e, callege entrance ‘exam(designed to test your ablity toda college work), intelligence tests, physial examinations 1+ Achievement tests ~ assesses your current knowledge or what you know. Ze final course Examinatons (designed fo test the knowledge yeu siready obtained Guring the course}, and chopter test. + Currently, the most widely used intelligence test isthe Wechsler Adutt Intelligence Scale (QWAIS)/ it hos 11 subtests and gives a verbal score, s performance score, and an overall score [iige erferences between the verbel and nonvarbol scores indicate possible learning difcules. + Payehological Fests must meet all 3 ofthe folowing criteria in oréerto be widely accepted. 1 Standardization ~ To standardize atest, it must first be given toa large representative Somple of people in which thelr scares wll be Set as the standard for comparison, Normal eurve-a bell shaped curve of scores formed by standardized test results. The majority (68%) of people fall within the center or average ofthe curve 2. Reliability ~ To be reliable, a tast must yild consistent results. This fs done by comparing Scores on twa halves of test or by retesting 3, Validity ~The degree to which a tast measures what its supposed to measure, Content vatidity ~ corresponds toachievements tests. The extent to which atest imensures I's intended behavior Predictive valdity (or critetlon-related validity) - corresponds to opttude tests ‘The success the test has in pradictng intended behavior Criterion - The Sehavior being tested. + Bluon Effect - Inteligence tests worldwide show an increase in scores since 1960's, BUT aptitude feat scores are decrescing;Possible explanations: Greater acatemic diversity, better education, ‘end/or improved nutrition, “The Dynamics of Intelligence + Before age 3, except for extremely impaired children, casuat observations und inteigence tests preclet future eptitudas minimally; but by age 3, performances on inteligence tests begin to predict adolescent and adult scores By age 7, Inteligence tests become more stable and increases in sttity with age of child 1 Mental retardation: condition of imited mental abity as indicated by an inteligence scare of below 70 and produces cfculty in adapting to demands of fe; varies from mild to profound; ‘ONLY one percent of population meets cxitaria and males outnumber females by 50 percent + One cause of mental retardation is Down syndrome: physical dsorders caused by an extra @hromesome in one's genetic makeup + Creativity: ability to produce novel and valuable ideas 1 Discovered thot certain feel of aptitude is necessary but not sufficient for creativity, correlates, but ‘only to certain level (score of about 120) «+ Those who are reed from cancem of sodlal approval demonstrate better creativity Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence + 1Q scores of Identical twins are vitally the same as though one person taking test twice whereas 1g scores of fraternal twins are less similar «+ Dvidence of environmental influence fraternal twins who are ne more genetically alike than any ‘ther sibling, but are treated mare allke tend to score high than other siblings + Adopted children scare more similar to their biological parents thon their adopted parents {1 Heritability: proportion of variation among incviduals that me can attribute to genes; heritability Df trait may vary, depending an range of populations and environments studied 1+ Environment that siblings share influences thei apttudes marginally, but signifcenty influences scholastic achlevaments + Poycholosist 3 MevVieker Hunt tested the benefits of responsive caregiving; trained caregivers to play vocal garnes with infants in wich st they imitated bables’ babbling, then led bables in vocat follovethe-leader (shitting from one familiar sound to another) and finally begin to teach them Sounds from Persian language? results were all 11 Infants could name more than SO objects and body parts by 22 months; Hunt's experiment shows importance of environment on children's ioteligence Racial groups differ in average scores on inteligence tests Difference not mostly based on genetics unlike indvidual performance diferences because heritability within groups would aot eliminate the pessibity of strong environmental impact on the ‘group aitferences ‘+ Example IQ performances of today's better-fed and better-edueated population exceeds those from 1930s population by the same amount as average white today exceed average atricar= ‘+ Gils are better spellers and are equal or surpasses average boy in math grades, but boys tend to Score better in math problar solving + David Geary and Irwin Siverman speculate that sklls came from evolutionary perspective where ‘males tend to be stronger In skils tat their ancestral fathers Needed such as tracking prey and favigating way home wharaas females wers enhanced in keen memory for location of edible planes by their ancestral mathers + Researchers discovered thet some people are better emotional detectors than others while women fre better ati then men Some speculate that through evolution where ancestrat mother learet to read emotions of infant and may have futher being fusled by cultural tendencies to encourage emnpathe sil ‘CHAPTER 7 COGNITION: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND LANGUAGE, YOU KNOW YOU HAVE MASTERED THE MAIN TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER IF YOU ARE ABLE TO... > Tevedute the concept of cogoition, ait relates to mental images, concepts and problem solving 12 Describe aria neligenes and creative thinking. 12 Discus the measurement of iotlgenee including the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence ‘ess, test construction ise and te deteeminaton of developmental delay = Dnseribe seveal prominent oris of nteligence including the concepts of genes, mental retardation, berediy, ad enviroament. © Eaplain ta basis of angnuge andthe relationship between language and thought processes. ‘RAPID REVIEW “Thinking, cognition, can be defined as menial atv tht goes on inthe tein when person is prosesing information Cognition inchudes both verbal and nonverbal processes, Two examples of oyun ste mental images, which ae picure-Lke representations tha standin for objews or events, ‘adconcents or ets that repress class of abjec. Concepts canbe ranked from general o specific by applying the eos supererdinat,basielvel (ype, and subordinate, Eormal concept a defined by spectacle, while nalaca concepts ae formed asa result experience. A prototpe ia speciic ‘uample a's concep tat closely resembles the defining fextures of «concep. Concept re formed ‘rough experience sd calaze and have an impact on ou thinking ‘rablem slving involves using ot th0oghts cognitions to each a goal nd consists oft east fou diferent techniques. ‘Teakand-errar problem solving makes use of mechanical solutions. When ‘menue wes algorichns to probleasolve they are following step-by-step procedures to solve the roblon, Heuristics te general “ues of thumb” that canbe appli to many stuns, Mians-ead ‘Baas is an exupleof one type of urs where the dfereace between where you ae and where FDaean to Se i deerined and teu sey ce akon to reduce that erence, Insaht cones of "Shing the poblem by having fden rroment of inspiration or “aha” moment. Artal intelligence Fp the renin of marin Ha coo this ike a ean, abd is represented today through computer ‘rogram seh as Deep Blue ‘Some factors that inert with problem solving include functional fxedness, whichis when & person thinks abou objects ony in terms oftheir fypial uses; mena se8 which re eadencies couse {icaume problew solving steps tt worked in the pas; and canfcmatin ss, which consists of the eam for evidene tha fits your beliefs wile ignoriag ay coataditory ination, Cxeatlvity occurs ‘wien «peson solves a problem by combining ideas and behaviors in a new way. Many methods of Jroblntsotving lie eonvergent thiaklag, which astmes tat oe singe smawer exists forthe Jroblom, Divergent thinking isthe opposte pres of eonverpent thinking, When anindviual wes “ivergent Biking, he o she stars ftom one pst and comes up with many possibilities or dca based on ‘hat point. “Tatllgence cen be definate the aiity to leam fom one's experiences acquire Snowiede, and ‘use resouneeselectvely in adapting to new stasis or solving problems. Cue, there irs rue tsngrecment on exly what s est byt tera "atelligence" In 1904, Charts Speannan proposed that inteligence was split beseen ow ables. The Ost abiliy was gener inteligence, labeled the (factor, ad the other vas «spect itligenos reer toa hes factor. Spexman believed that bot fh g and factors could be mensre using standardized intcligence tests. Howat Candner, onthe other bend, proposed that est sine efferent Kinds af intelligence exis. Robert Stenbeg proposed the (rlarchle theory of intelligence, which ses tat nlligene cx be divided iat thes types; analytical, srealve, end practical inteligence, Tn Feaoe in 1916, Aled Binet and Theodore Sinon developed the fs forsl est for intetigence in order to determi cid’ mental age. The Stcfor-Bine st wed ato of metal age ‘o chronological age to determine a individu’ teligence quotient or IQ, Inthe U.S, the Weshsler Cognition CHAPTERT Jneligoce teats are now sed re frequently thatthe Stanford-Binet snd TQ scores are now based on Siva! deviation IQ sores ater han arto. Tae Wechsler tests are desigoed fr specific age ‘roups and canbe admsiseredindviusly. Te determine che quality of psytological test, you eed feook atthe tes yal, lable, and procedere used to cba the norms. Validity refers to how ‘wll test measures wha it clains to sensi, while rebability indeatxthe tes ably to produce the ‘ame result whea given fo the saie person under similar conditions. Nowms ae determined by he adaclzaon group selected by he rsezchers and shoald be a representative smple of the population ‘vio wl be taking the test. All ayeholgial tests ould also be examined fer he cultural biases ‘Ravan Dove created an ineligege text eal the Dove Countztbalaace Gener Inligene Tet (aso {Ewa athe Chitin est) ta demonste te eral laes preset in niyo the teligeine tis curently inate, ‘ena stadoon, now ore coramonly refered at developmental day occas in sbout3 pecan ofthe US. pelition ad is define by 1Q sare of 7 (wo standard devon below tke mesa) or {ower long wih dative beavis sigifeady below the expected evel fe the person's age eeu. ‘Dagnoss of evelopmenal delay seein! by the penon’ flea nd adoptive behavior sis, ‘jehoogieal and erctional evel ply ea considera and caviroaments facts. Deo [ety i classified foe ldo moderate severe, and profound, Te hire most common belogicl cases of (evelopment dey ae Down some, ea alebal size, and isp X yr. Thdividual who rccve scores of 130 or above on iatligence ress are refer oa te. lewis Tenmancondvcted a loogitalinal study ofthe at and bbaviors of over 1,500 gited children, ‘Tae children were ksown as Terman’ Terms and his findings showed tet many of the common myths bout be wat genius” were unfomded ‘are receny be concept of emeiona atllizence bas boon suggested as an important fator for access in if. Further reearch nhs ea (still eeded. ‘The ole of person's eavironment cr rutfrs, and heredity, slo refered oat natu, onthe developmet of inteligence continues tobe {buted Studies of eotel and fsteroal wine raised together and apart have provided one method for investigntng the roleof nau and nore. TLanguaze i defined asa system for combining symbols (such 2s words) so that an united numberof seaaingfil statements cn be mado fr the purpos of communicating with fers and cap be fsuljoed at many levels. Semants isthe rle Sor dtemnning the meaning of words and seatence, ‘Phoneme are the most baie units of sounds used ine specficieusge, mazphemes combine the wits ‘of sound ito the smallest units thet have meaning, grammar icles alte roles for combining Thorphemes ato wor, and sent isthe ules for combining words into satenes. Pragmatics dls tit the praca apes of commisicting with ober. Thezelaienshp between language and thought ‘hasbeen studied extensively. The Sani-Whort hypothesis, also known asthe inguisti eatin Iupathess proposes that the words poople ue detennice how they think about themselves andthe ‘world. An oppasing theory, known ds cognitive aniveralism, proposes that cern ways of thinking are ‘Shared among al groups of pople an influence the development of language in simu ways. Animals ‘cher than mens demonstateadvere sity to communicate tit is neler whether or ot they have the capabity Tor langunge as demnnsated by te ability to we abstract symtelso communicate, Katz, ‘sbonobe chitspenze, has demonsatd an ditto understand abot 150 spokea English wor FHowover none of the animale eudind to date apart be bean ale oust and comprehend syn. "Researcher have found tht “eereixng” the bia with activites uch at reading taking cass, and woskng on crossword pule ean belp increase the ability ofthe brain o bl sd manta new ‘euors end connections, This potential or rai growth and repr is called sognlive reserve. ‘STUDY HINTS 1 Inthis chapter you were presented wid ow deen approaches to problem solving. In order to beter uncernind hese spouses fe fom each fr, tae the folowing problem fand-ome up withan example of ow you could solve the problem wsing each of te four ferent approaches. cognition 98 ‘CHAPTER T.

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