GOD AND REASON IN THE MIDDLE AGES EDWARD GRANT Iain oy (CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSeh ic Baling Tumpiagon Se Cmte, Ute Kango. “To Bar Basing Canbgec32280 U (2 Werth Now Yo Uk To Sand Raut Osh 6, es de Aus stv Ma Spin eck Hone The Watt, Cope own 8, South Aca epiteencno © ad en ot “islet in opp Ses sy eee tricep meyieparscin cen pn Calg ery ip et Pine ied Se At Jinan Mik Goma nest Sem eke Aca ron hit i fo th ny ng Calg een Date can, Eb a (Gd and eo he Me gsr Gras. Inca nap lec and inde rene oso ia aaron pb) |: Reson—Hisuy 2 thd san Onin Hy of dctoes Leningaed whup Harr Medea 007900 1 Uae end caleg~ Bae Hr Tae saree so osy add ss 10577 pk To Sele, once agint k CONTENTS Porepion of Hail Epos The Dark Side ofan ‘The gprs Reno This Rev fom Ang the Teh Conny ‘Reson and Redation “The Emerge of Tafa Europe inthe Tel Cenrary oni of Dilton: Earp ls Nadir ‘The Grau Evlcion tard New Earp Ree om the Blof Ren the New Bunge Reson Aerts Inelé-The Challeng to Astorsy inthe Early Mile Ages 1200 (Chic and Late Angi Ret an Lg he Te ery Thelgy [Neal Ploy Lew Reason Toes Hold Arde and ihe Madea Univesiy “The Lain Taiton of Learn the Early Mid Ags prob fi of Nee Tin! The Taont Aes ea the Mids ‘The Masa Unveiy BEN awe ass » ” 4s ” 34 Reso ia Acton: Logic in che acu of Ars, The Old and New Lagi For of Linear Legis. The Sophie (Other Themes in Medea Loic ‘he bps of Lege Meisel Puope 5 Reason in Action: Natural Philosophy in the Facuky of Aes What Narr! Phish? [Naswal Philsophy end the Bac Sciences ‘Doing Naural Pbilouply: Niele Oreme Reson and the Sess Natura ils ‘Enpiricion witout Obert Reso and Revelation: How Fath and Theology find Navara Pilsopy {6 Ressn in Acton: Theology inthe Fculy of Theology The New Thelogy Gad ad oe fie ‘Nasu Pilaoply in Toslegy 7 The Assauleon dhe Middle Ages The Media and Early Moder get of exon” The Ondeugh aptna Scholicon and the Middle ger Conenporr Ande toward Media” ‘nd Mie Ago" eon te Balance CConcaions The Cale and Spi Poking Around” Bibaggly Indes Ms ui us 8 60 Ms 8 396 G as ACKNOWLEDGMENTS lc she is often unaware of and har only reflection brings to mind. [My selections rel me chat {owe thanks in vryng degrees toa numberof indiviévale and to one ination. The ler is the Osterechsche [Nationalbiblothe fr its kind permison co reproduce the ine of God the history of many Greek wets in Arabic was slo comples. The erignal Greck might have ben rendered into other languages before tached is Lain sate. Obvious the short ‘route was Greck to Arabic Latin. But many works followed adie ens path, Thus a given Greck wrkemighr have been trated sacssively Jgo Sytiae and Arabic, and then ino Latins or into Syriac, Arabic Spanish and then Latin: ot nto Syrite, Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin Canes for dicorons were obviously mich greater in tanlations fore ‘Aabic to Latin than from Greek Latin, But whether an orginal work ‘was in Greek or Arabic, reasonably accurate talations could ony be ‘made where both the translating expertise and appropriate teats were svaiable Judging fom the numerous reasatons that were made iat Se asin language, there was an intense and widespread desi so obtain as much ofthe new knowedge a onl, ‘The new knowledge wis aloost exclusively from the domains of ac ‘ence and natural philosophy. The humanities tn lestie played almost to role. Within the domains of science and natural philosophy, eae became available on logic, mathematics, asronomy, optic, mechanics ‘satura philosophy, and medicine, as well a works on astrology mie, and alchemy. Among the aume-ous ranslators two were spectacular con tsibutons: Gerad of Cremona id, 187), who tanltedexcsvely fran ‘Arabic to Latin inthe second laf of che wel century, and Willam of Mocrbeke (ct. 1220-1286), who candied exclatvely fom Gash 10 Latin inthe leer al fee recent century. Each ofthese ranlators lone could have akered the couse of Wesern inelctal lf. Gerad ‘wale some 7o works and Mocrbeke approximately 50. Gerard ane lated the basic works of Arivole, the Aimaprs of Peoemy, Eacidy Elonens, the Algbn ofa Khris, ad oghet intherateal wots, He so tanslated numerous weaties by lamie author that significaly supplemented the coxpus of Greek science and nacutal philosophy. Bp sranlating major medical texts of Galen, Avicenna, and Rhaesa-Ras), Gerard rated the level of medicine and gave it 4 new foundation, Wiliam of Moctbeke translated most of the Works of Aristo, a well many commentaries on Aristtls works by Greek commentator in ae antiquity suchas Alesnder of Aphrodisia, joa Phloporss Simplicius, and Themis, In 1269, he waslted neal all ofthe scenic works of Archimedes, 4 The Work of Arie works vil forthe advance of scene were now arable in the Mle. The impactof Eli’ Homen ad Pslemys Alma one wer capa “He of afm de bass of ence. wae aif the Went had ef baren ‘deer and moved a ichiy watered oni But ofthe author fom the Greo- lio fe nd naw Sop, ove ups sa Asin (4-32 BC), the gest Grek phdsopher an scent The sheet number, ange, and intiscimporance of his works makes this chim indisputable. A count of dhe ueatses ited im the table af con- tents of the Onford English wanlton of Arsod's wos published by the Prncetan Univeniey Press (398) yield a count of 47 works of which 16 “uc spatious or of dowbfalauchorship. OF ehe 31 authentic reise, we na number cha aid the iia foundations Fora vai of disciplinary ruic. Armee ir he acknowledged founder of ovo dicpline: logic (Categorie, On Inepation, epi, Sephiscel Rfeains, and. Por “Anatich and biology (es of Animas, Hisary of Animal, Generation of Animal, Moverent of Anil and Pegi of ia). a fornalared “a gytem of naaral philosophy to describe the operations and sructre of the would (in his Mecaplysicn Physic, On the Heavens, On the Sou, On Generation and Corraption. Meworsog: and the Soll Works on Nawal “Things (Persa narra} that wat found xevicable for approximately “soon years unl abandoned inde seentcenth century. The fist book of is Meaaphpisepresnts the Ss history of philosophy andthe st istry of science, while his Poaror Anas the fst extant ease on the philosophy or methodology, of cece He ao wroe seminal wets government (Poli) his, (Eadonan Erber and Nicomashesn Eth) hetsie(Rherre) and leary exci (Poti). Scholars esate dat approximately one-Bith of Avo works has “survived, bur that throne Bh 2 gcd repesenative sample of his rer ‘ouput. What is extraordinary howee, ste fae tat oof thas sive wt neve ede bern rr Hiya the we poe wre in origin Arn cue aes ~ they Wee ex which ie dnd with over poo of ya an kp for his om se, ot hat of 86 oareading pbc Meroe, many of he wot we ord a cosinous neat mere probably not given by Arte as cominaows lectcecounes, Out Mesh for example comiss of numberof spare tae which wee St ‘alee unde ane ner by Aaitonsar of Rhodes who peed sean ef Aste wos in thee ceny 2) "tment cencry Aveo eaders imply assumed chat he ad wren of his works 3¢ che same time, as ifhis though had never evolved ot ‘developed, so cht any contradictions cr inconsistencies were only appar- ery no el The peennial challenge for sidert of Aries sought was to reconcile apparent dsrepancies tht, wo expan hem aay. ‘Bat che mow important reason for Aitodes dominance inthe aes of ‘kien, and natural philosophy over a ptiod of 2000 years isthe Uhre ange of opie he covered an, forte mor par, dhe comprehensive pd athortacve manne n which he eae those pics. There was noth [Jag to compar wth ie The habe and curom developed of expesing onc’ ‘orn views on any of de ropics Asocewrore about by writing x commen ‘ary on the wor ia which Arse treed the topic | rom the standpoint of ean, Anvoce' works were destined to have the greet impacson Western thought Teas not only Aristde' rex that influenced Westen Europe, bat alo whole complex of liter ture and lssmning chat grew up around chem to form what we ‘pnvenienily cl "Arsorlianixm,” For alongwith Aristotle's own works ‘many commentaries on those works by Gree commentators of ate ancquity and by Islamic authors, specially Avicenna (lon Sin) and verte (ibn Rashd), who wrote dusing the ninth to rwelth centuries, [ Auole’s inflence extended beyond his own works and the commen es thereon, His eae also influaced other authors Whose works Europe, especially The Iuwadusion 19 Asronamy by Abu has, which i realy an atologicl tet, but one in which nurse “ous ess of Ariorle ae summavial. Te was theough Abu Maihar modution te dironamy that Aristo’ influence may be said 1 have ‘ia entered Europe ina meaning way [Acie ie the ow imporaneBgut in sence and natura philosophy ng the Lain Middle Ages. Ths i undoubedly acbutable wo he fat his ons in logic and natural phiovophy were made the basis ofan fon in the are fue of medical universities fr almost five em ‘A vivid testimony wo Arse tld on the Wester mind may be ned from the fact that approimaty 2,000 manuscrps of his wos ave been identified If ,000 manwscipt survived, one can realy mas oe thousands more that didnot Arse ws xl the mos influential of 1 was the edition of Arse works by Andronicus of Rhodes that passed down subsequent generation of scholars and sient inthe Gr Taaons of Byzncium, lla and the Latin West Scholars in hese Ge linations were reading Ait private nocs and at his polished reste, ‘They were rough das in which books and chapers were nat awayein che proper ordes, They ate Bled with diffculies. According wo Jonah, Barnes “There ae abrupe csitins, inane repetitions, cces all sons Paragraphs of continuous exposition are sec among actato jing. ‘The language i spare and sineay"” Judged by hi mane wkngs, Aco thy lays been regaled as dll pedatc autor by comparison o Plato, wise elegance an posh pace his dialogues among che erry taser pieces ofthe Western world. lena Atos published works ha those works hae were delbsately releted for wider audience, we regarded, n the ancient world a of high ieraryqualy, Unfortunately fr ‘Atistotethose work did not survive. Only hi extensive private notes spd Jorings hve come doe to asad shaped ur views of hi, ‘Given the ruth of these asesrments of riots work, why did they play such an overriding role in Mlanic and Wester thought? Why did Arto rough works havea geste impact on Islamic and Latin thought ‘han Plt eminency more resable plished dialogues In pat, the forms oftheir espetve works play aoe Pla dialogues wore always gad as more dificult to render inv other languages than eas Artes prose ‘Moreover, not until the ewertith ceneuy did i brcnre know tha Aisles works were his own private leate note, Ua the, Aristotle ‘readers regarded is wks a cmplete and Sal treaties onthe subject he covered. They had no idea ofcheir ee nature Inded, unl the eal | + Bros, (On Oa Use Po 2). Fo mo did ed i ing we fe feta sd aS Meme Sm Ted Mo of tie Dg a ond Te hag Te 6 Fora tent wun of he wor of dicot of A wos we GE | nd dria The Gash oS of Tig (Cai Cae Ushi Pn 68 + banc hie» rersy studenrs and scholars were xpoted to for many cena, we fist se what they recched from Arstode by way of an axitude dren and reine argument, and then se what matival natural phere did with Arse lgie ad aaa philosophy. 88is noc ony an snc ean of ran he hgh lo of hat mes Aste so nga he segue cps yi Were hog ei ether my he cua tra jen an ie bls ws sing ey Te pan oa are a eth byte cc onemon of er ‘Demat pune Aso rota 2 ri Wow tates at mos of rexel geen, Whar rie lt cic in th Ltn de Ags 2 ay ofapprehng Pbns and ann rm of the wel that as nbd in ais fs Alhough his sem of be wor ofthe pene import cls ho th woe gh is Arno meto ing ples ot ugh ci natural psp Tru ini ing shut the operation he sel ord. So cc hi wots har ey cul ely ol hing moe Bsnresty lle. Sp unsvtand hins pop, Arse hough avin to deste isons of ees sly hs peor nd by 0 ding ey tant pobieme? This i te boric dieson of Aisodes th the fin bok of sh epic he proses he pins oF Frou peta posphcs dof Par om the pics tat Seni a ing Aeris ny uma Act says tha al ad ‘zt pilonopcs amd athe cn of hing bod 0 “vague i huh inane they heal bn ested efor in they ber ded oe phy ol Bone ho le ince ns Began ii» i" ey imine nih he ng ne nda Feta hs ben inaeqeycipie! by Hs predecesns. In Pa of mn, Asole ic up te poem of canton of aia ae “Some wees pops of the inte fms of ani ie “ing the pn i oo owns Bue hs mend ifn i cy and cen impracte He then pens te nex he hae Sowing why the mod fico uray fo csiping ma aa hn delving as i foc, po Oa Te top" Ar the begining of Sis ctie on O Geneon and Chraplon, Aca sys a he wil sd coming sod ping fence and nase hip Forts ac bower ee np ‘nce sin the way be eae reson and oh ce highs le acy inthe ure, ad enn me than hat he way aly ‘cn aes ad ras poles and to one teh ‘ine beeved profound inthe analy ofthe eve ‘tthe beled ns bulk ey sop daw Fe the Ga vane ible nor tie ‘eemos mi tof iver he sp of els ‘Sete Co, umole eae he tne ‘utemos ph: In ding this God hosel tema imme nd ger ‘tle sty new the ol tha fe somehoalc Tic unmoved mover engies in oly oe acc: Ithinks, and ehinks only about | ital beaters thon bjs wry is owe atin? Theor a nobles ny he univese egg too, reasoned hough ut Arse al wrote abt human tenon, aborting 08 how pers independemy ofthe hy een conuing tare ea fd a pusive aon, the fone immoral, the Inter pong wih the body" Aso repel oly he reoning par ofthe huren sl a | ‘mmo nd held th humans wr hte ga ony nc lly ‘etn, Wiser of he fanny ree deca ha “oe sean according tle, enn ibe ed plese ge intellect more than anything ele is man." Although Aristotle and the ‘Grek cme tlc specs for eason ther can eo dake the Aide ale dre abou 9. Me Fede irs "cece pig fn ne nai A ey ‘pabinghnowe tute san tne ey tau inmate ‘ea by ddan” andi Teen el eg ‘Seo “made optimal 9 pop so pice Se A Sn i fe dC ai Ge Tg (Oxbr:Cucdon Fes.990 dy 9: Made Hepler ap re 16 Seis le Sal ou apt "wares Et oar Tie ald he bce and eatin? ‘ts Th i pie rare at we Monte ein? "ee ifn gre eel oh het nd se 1, Acc Min Bae “eel ee kel sige ad poe re crea ‘ion. Ths Ase pry eee wey Dy Frac af rb heh fe fags and dani in aig ay” Se Mie lak “Anbar ef | Ok Magic nope WD Ron aaa” in Neen Great Per Hl, Mew nf el Benfica (Bala Me Pome Bak toy 3 4 Me Pow fdamabg sbi ey *sy” and the process sociated with it such at “growth an aeration ‘We mus inguize war each of hem i and wheter alteration fas the sae acure as coming-ocbe, or whether eo the diferent names there come: spond evo diferen processes wih dine nacues.”” To gain insight ia ‘hese problems, Aristo launches nc an historic inguin explaining: (On shis quia, indeed the ea pilosoghere at ie Some of them ase tha thea unaied cominge-be eaten, le her mini at tea and cemingorbeare dst Avie then describes the opinions of Empedoces, Anaxagoras and Leucippus (wth whom he also asocistes Demociut) snd then inthe eo ond chaper, dels: In gene 0 one cept Demos a pli imac to any of hoe ae ia ‘more tan special way. Demat, ower, doe er mot ony to ae ‘ought aout al th problems, Duta to be dingice om the ute by his Imchod. or, a ate ying. Bone of the ore lope made ny eit saremen abou gow cope such ny amateur might hare made Jn his wots on lag Asoc mals no enon of his predcson becte he and noting roar in et nek “A gan pret inguin moe of paren" ey inthe Siphon itror aon prof thd nwo on fe and snae nb thr ac i sex a= In few ofa historical context Arte often approche problems as pes aporia) ob eed, wet imponane ene fet fel pct pte asin Wee nm dma is ple ex in the opting pag of ce capet fhe Shed ok Al xi he prete mu ‘We mus. wih view the scence hich we are ein fit coun the sbjecs tha shoud be Rr dined Ths clade bo the echt opaons ta ome ave ld om cern pointy nd any pits bse the tat appa ove be eroked: or hoe who wih goer of ifclisr lrmeageos ve 1. On Gmina Cpr se a Oseanme ferent sas ‘> Qonnanasnd Cpa {2 Spin nt et st tm ian 0 ran Bae Te Cok Capi Arise Cambie: Carnie Univesity Press, 1993). 33. coe 9 be cies wel for the bvequaee lay of though pls he soln of revi ifcas,and is at pe une noe wich oe doe ot So Bu he cal of ou thing poi wo + knot inthe objet on a ou ho sin ify ein Woe wih tose wae dup fri rca gol to go frwarh. Taare ope should hae sured ll isles beforehand, both forthe reas we fae sed and becuse people gute without fi ting the diecast who do not know xe tay ba os be, man dct other know ees hr he found who he looking fr or nafs end i ot Geo sch aman. leo br who bs feds the ici i cee. Fare he who at sl the cotcding angina hy ere artes wo acs mus bein 2 psn or ading or the remainder of the chaps, Arde lays out question afer question “Bache wil consider in subsequent chaps, the manner deste. Th the opening chpeer of hi Pre, Aritode emphasizes the usefulness resolving compounded enties into ther constituent elements. “AS in departient of eine,” he declan, “in poli, he compound shuld aye be ranked ito dhe Simple elements oF put of he whale We mae hei ok ac the clement of wich the ae red ino a we ny oe nae ice nds fle deo one and whether any sai rein beatin about akon of on™ “Lace in the Politi, we es dhe quesioning manner in which Arode “approached poi and govermental questions, using the same approach be wed in all his her investigations "Having determined thse ques ons” he declares that June noo omer hte hei ly one orm of vere of may. Fray, wha hy rand bow many ad ba ae dif been them, "Ronson tie aangemene of maine i a sate, peal of che “ight ofall The goverment ey svete in the tate nd te cons “eon i nf the germane. For exp, sx democasthe people at ‘spe but in ligne few; and tre, wes tht thee cos “rao adie ands ther se, (x, us consider bars he ppc of ate and how many ors of le tht ary which aman sce sep... 2 Ain emp Mey ch om aba ue acm [3 Meee, i816 93ps which Acscode regarded asthe mos exalted dicplne becase it was cerned with immer rubwancs tat were unchangeable and wholly from matter (the mids of Ast and his medica flower, Tess change an eoiy seed, the mare perfect and noble ic wa) hin this cas of beings is the eupreme immaterial substance, God, aso towns the “Unmoved Move” ot “Pine Maver" ‘Ths sop of Arnos metlogy and proce, He wily sxchishes 2b fr prcing sng uaa nd ay Sims and cones, Th nen De Ha he ere eg otra bic rhe a vig es a has nce donde ad pomp ste We mas epi ia wha ses we ze wing the wok ‘enya igh, sal ‘enya leas. fr or prac aro we can ecmine the terme mote psi lac when comet canst he seal nature Leu then aol he cea "hea wo tae which marly moves coward he ane, ad ht to that wich moses xsl aay fromthe ese. The hv hig ml be tat which ins £0 the bow ofal hing that mve downward andthe light ha which ber | ‘othe sie of eying tht mows par ol pie. “Ass gate oe aber ee and impel” “a perpve moder aden of Arte, “wo be mpl a he of lg marl woah. Rakes we might connect Aries bout te dvi of te ives ith he ese of wonderment stu and a work produced in hin” Asad set of wade bout the mrs hi telenthe wri mpl ngiey hennrcna, and bis concem Br empl daa dered y che Fes appa in» fous pos fom hit bilge cei, Dar of rl were heey Acne dey al he “ec tempramen” He sought 0 be bjt and dace an gre perce ening sain a ‘elvan evidence for esey problem. Above a, howeret he sought ta aie {tn gens a eto ned he ease ‘vide and econ hin, wit daing with it an innit ob and he cane msn Hi doa eFhowle pled monametel e nh yf ou nd ance conc by nate ne a unger mpi and ee while ther ae subj geneadon tb dea” The omer ae excelent ine, but lace toKeedge The vee that ight tow light the, and on he problems which we lng to he especting tes fied ti of reo, Aristo regan all nowledye a Belonging ro one of tc categories rate, productive, and theowticl-* Pract keowedge guided cons luc and was concerned with ethical and politcal behavior (Aritode devoted the Fits and Polis o this aspect of knowledge). Productive knowledge was dieced toward making wef, as wall at bel and ate ching foward his end Aitole wrote his Rare and Pi) By conta, Asstotle repared theoretical knawledge atthe highest form of Knowledge, because i was knowdge fr ison sake, He divided it nea three pars: ply (PUCAE) (ot natal plorophy, and ls common naual selene, asi was sometimes called in the Middle Ages), which wears of physical bodies that hase a separate extence and ae apa of motion, and are therefore subj: to changes mathemati, which tests of immovable objects, sich soins, lines, sutier, and voles, tha ate ssraced fom physical bodies, and therefore da not have spate exe tenes; and, finally there is metpbrc, also called thology ot fit phe 2 Aika, Oe eta 3220-6, 26, Aide cits noida hve ia Magy 6h eo oan Phen dry 34 cry by enon: whe pec posh pas sina eae St fron gue er iden day Cocca thr aus Kinds sony we ae wing ake ene Tork depreens, bores, he hac, The any cee which pecan sa of cl ig pe or th nec jasc han all ar kaon f the wedi which we le js al mpc Ai prone har kone one delight tha an asureview of thingy, whsteer gs aunbr and dimensions. On che othe hand neue apd compe out knowledge often hngt hate advange. Moree thir reer and iy ous bln somenta the lof neo of the heey cat athe bc fhe higher pibopy, Having sendy weed of he vi fr ar uence could rear, we proce to tea of ah omiting wo ae ha of our bys mere oe Kingdom, however orf ome ve no graces char th sey ature, wich shone ov aman lesen si ty ll wh an eee le of exon, ‘sich sing harp cei ce fom wih he pie fs Tarn coon ait a ma tet ein he nse eubjtagnion ad erpon 9s‘where they became the common intelectual propery ofall educated Europeans. The reason and resoned arguments tht were charscteritic fexcutes of Adnodles works became commonplace in Westen Europe ‘What, chen, was the medieval univers, wheze Avivode reigned and ‘where reason was iaseutionalid? Ding the Middle Ages, i was commonplace for smilarminded and Gulariented individuals to come together co form corporations. They fom ll walls of ile: busines, Chusc,elucation, andthe proésons rants of + cea kind, wool merclanc, for example, would ogaiae miles inc «gull, or eneporaion, a would craftsmen, such a weaves, fakes an matons, The moe oti Latin rem designing ach ae orarizations wat unite hs ote, clei or cpu.“ ei” ae Toby Hal expla, “ie was aut an acident of history tar the a unitersias (corporation ot whole bey) came wo refer excuse the ot higher earing that resin he name universes" The advanages ofa corporation were many. Ie was a Sctional enicy ‘which numerous legal rghts were conferred. Any det owed by the tion was nt also owed by its individual members. A corporation ‘wn property, daw up contacts and engage in cour ations by for being sued. Ie was ao 3 prototype of representative government ce the member of 4 corporaion eleaed their own offices who could ‘on their behalf Indeed, the acsons aken by corporate OBiers were ly 4 majority ofthe members a accordance with an old Roman m thar “What touches ll shouldbe considered and approved by al” oe tangas aa appear det)? The eed oct ofc) had the right represent te corporation in cour ofl oF foe church and sate (ihe state cou be a kingdom, duchy, of manic iy). The objectives of corporations vas to protect he latest of chet went member. To schiee thie, copotons had eo promulgate ws satus, which the members were legally required to obey? Hence, brcame law-making bodies, The members gave up cain Fights in fer w acquire he proection of hr espetve corporations. “The corporation, of aise, is oF erucal signfance for tis study the universe that had emexgal by 1200 ~ Bologna, Pars and ford — were sel governing corporations with numerous sights and pivi- ge Ic was ches corporate ences, the universes, that would istnu ie eon and resoned dicount a European acer TAs we si in he Be caper in the str of elation that preva in wel conus, masters wally ugh in whar were called exhedra schools cat wee sociated it ethedal church that asthe Few instutons have had ager impact on Westen society than the uni versgn® Univcsin at we keow chem today may difer radially fra their inte insitacions of the tstenth century, but there is considerable ‘esemblance and an unbroken Hsory that rly inks hem season and ‘atonaliny had « home during dhe late Middle Ape, was sey in the Universi. The fat of ss exszence and the formal sructare tha i sumed, howeres ome a gret deal 0 the concept of «corporation, an inscaconal legal developeseat shar war unique wo the West ‘he Formation of Earpes Corporate Spirit Although the concep of cospration was derived for Roman lita ‘nly inthe twelfth century ee ie began ro recive fill and systematic development rom the lat eleventh © the thitteenth canaries. compare tion lw was developed within the Roman Catholic Church, an outgrow ofthe newy rationalized canon las In Roman lw at cxemplifed by the Jostinian Code, twas the impr authori hat confred the privileges ‘of corporition on a public nay At Berman exphins ‘he chuch eet che Roman view ta pee fm pic corpora he pub le easy, the cies, church) ely cog recone st corporation by te imperil suhoity ce 9 have he rege ae erie of corporation. on teat unde ano lev any group of pests which had the requir aod Purpose for expan mou ots hori os body ofan vel a * thes oink he Chachi coal sean wi | ‘pecalpemision of aighe sue” 4: Frm ene sags eG, Te Fn of Mad Sn the Mile 4 Aes Chg 9, i: SE Tay Hal The iro Er Mn Se a Ching an se Cambie Conde iene ph 46 Foren cnr hay on Hema, La nating 4 Boman ud. Hi, Th ir of Et Mai See | Eman La nd Rin a HE he i fd Sie Oi al rm er sn Cin Pat, Sn aed ope hgh ae oven ea nce: neon oy Pe ge Tea, ew nd ron so. 38 9idence of bishop, Here wathes and sudenscongegatd. Suan wee cenury also played « monumental role in thei emergence and ‘aughe whatever yas xstomay and aval in the sven liberal ara, wi m8 frlopment.8y 1200, a body af erature in scence and narra philoso- iba come inn existence in Wester Europe. Based largely on wansa- fiom Gresk and Arabic into Latin, dhe new Ineraurecepresented & ge explosion. The seven liberal ars were expanded with reaises tore known, epecilly is the sciences, and by teats that were comple versione of works already Lowa. Bu the major portion of new lrratute wae relevant 9 mare) philosophy, subject hat had been formally aught and was knows only in a adimentary frm, cen fon pat of Plot Timaru The newy tansated satura philosophy ofcoute,Arinalcs maurlpalosphy, long withthe commentaries hose creates and works that ieoyporated Ariot's ideas. Medical slo formed pat ofthe new legacy “Here was a body of near that was vady- made to serve a cuca forthe newly emerging universes. But of the four sats that compte! coniplre mates univers he rl mateval was deel tlevant ony vo: ars and medicine. The lw and theology faces had thi own tat wer ial largely independent of he uaratons, Iwas not "however before thology would bee esly dependent on Arodes ein atl plop ae shall ser in Chap 6. UAsinorlés natal phiasophy became che crtculum for the faculty of| which eegted che old seve libel ats to introductory stars and ie naar philosophy the primary subj ofan arts educaon. The new curriculum wae paricalryimporane boca ie war req of ll that hl ben grog and deuopng rs Ew eens he ‘chasn aay of he Aba end sony claps a ‘Students and mastezs moved from school to school, the students seeking che ims fl mr man eyo aw je te sw race appoptine as Mass td stare nero eee Se ci wi ye an ee pe andy ed ils Win rn pin rane inortanwik Chard uscd oreo ing and ving conditions. ae = Under th amas mat and sade olde angen cx hector tnt ia oon ahamen Dy the code he lth rt eh pee Sen nesece in Pi Boga and On They ton el ‘ean at soto "une afar: eee reper aio se seg what ‘ertyofmarts an suo emi manana ce Unive of Pus, pohaps Ue mow porn uae eiee Europe ma universe mas ner ewe ee aa expe he nny nanan Exh ide re | vrs ielscomoaion Ar Pui exh ofthe er ease phe hives = wo, hesogy ene ad lon a saope tights and privileges, as was each ofthe four nations, or subdivisions, of the students matriculating for « bachelor of arts degree. the arts degree {rs ay ofthe Uae faa samy the oa Ne Peed | 2 praca for matin nthe hes les f shes, 15d agtlrerman ace Ee ets el Noman Pa ik allan val al tc aa met une ok ‘cif governing and contzolled the afuirs of its own corporate domain, mak- Philosophy curriculum, which was primarily Aristotic’s natural phi- ing als for aru cminenyadaon often nat ooo Jey ws th crcl yall tae, Hens, ogre sigan land theming of dee By thee of he Mile Ags nr na ‘sly of the natural philosophy dat was caught and discused at ules we ence Peg a Ns mo tient rvs aly aan ups, Sns Aran Seether hen cid ope aap whe bu aha eal ns me re centuries, ic is obvious that natural philosophy, with its rationalistic charac~ cs ws nite ne whet Edel ida Srl ncay weeds eapsed ocean temps 3 aed approach to problems about the payscl word The Carica of Metical Uriversties While the concept of cozporaon wat vit for the formation of metic universities, the tansltons that had been ongoing though mone of the The Anayicel Character of Learng at Medica! Univesitis ‘Medical univer uci in the ar cle wae wally concerned with [the sven liber] ae and hr aegis of plosphy> natu, mora, and “re me er" ie io {ay oft ay Ep 2 ar nt hee ek Cambridge Universey Pes, 932) Chapter 2, 62-65. “ niesso know abou hae ings becuse hoowledg, especialy tore jal knowledges noble end in il tation currcalrs thar weuld achive these ideals and begin, lg arch road the Age of Reston was inseationaied in lira univers, Nothing like ie hac exer been done before. And yet esis advancements mide by various individuals logic and in other ds \runieries were dedicated to ax csenilly conservative euricu- ‘hat proved until the seveneench century Iti onic that as the ris maintained and defended an omifed curculum, the ssc of etn Eutopean society was advancing om many fonts at an amazing for some sense of these dramatic abance, ee Chapter 7 the scion “Contemporary Arides towatd medieval” and "Midlle Age”) ore the curculum war discarded = too martow and obsolete, the ‘univer had established ive asthe Tacs for reatoned dee ‘Univeses became places where society expected tse the appli taton of reson to problems of nau, law, theology, and medicine he jor abject of ud. Tp appreciate and uidertand how reson persed at she medical uni- ie is neceary to examine the lieary formats that were wed: faethe various aubjec mater ané to sample rial afew weaties ected as vehicle for dnteminting eared tnedieal views about the and pial sls :meuphysil knows athe “ore plilosophics” lathe wv of these liberal ar sues were expe to lagi lect), gammas, and the ‘within the quadsviam, they eamed artmatc, geometry, arom, and ‘music Thus, oe only di dhe len loge, the very emboimen of reson, bur they ako studied inherent onal diipline such at aithetic and geome. which hey could arly wo aszonomy ar well at othe exit ences, suchas optic an sai. Among the philosophic iiplines, philosophy was taught ro both undergraduates and to students marc fo a mae of as degre. Mor pilesophy and meaphysce wee sujat ‘aught primary o gradu anudenc in teats. Buc eon was av apple to the three philosophies In lof dase discipline, Arie provided de model of procedure, although i many intances medion chal aba ddaned some ois solutions esp wene beyond him. Over the dustin ‘ofa four-year usivety course lading othe bachelor’ dee, oye ‘coune thar inchded a maser f ars dees univ stadents wee edenijerwen wernece "a A medical university education in ars was peimally an education ia logic, natural philosophy, and th exact sciences, where reson functioned asthe most iportat tol ofineerpretation and sly, Inthe absence of fares in literature and history and other hamaniies subj the medieval usiveniy offered an education that mas overwhelmingly eieted toward analy subjects: log scence, mathematic, and nar pilos ply. Moder university students face nothing comparable. The ineredible ray ofcourse offerings and najrs availble ina large, modern univers makes it posible for seuden: ro avoid, almost comple the rigor of analytical courses, This was nx posible in the late Middle Ages, when dhe curiculum was uch the sane for ll eudens and was verwhelmingy azalylandraont Never ef had a rail cir oh fexent and range been implemented anywhere. ‘Bec the ecu was base Aréondnn ints methodology and objeives,hee was ie invent in scking ov aw knowlege and mang new dicoveris, The purpose of medieval education ws, rather, dco | ‘mal rcs abou the wl to explain why chings ate they ae ad wl rem muchas hey are. The ide wast let about the scare and ope tion ofthe word, not, boweve, fr che purpre of manpuling i oa smulating knowledge forthe aencement of te human race. Soch object and ideas wee sla the dase Frere and would noe emege uti ce sic teen and seventeenth ern, anderen ler. The purpose of medical Fearing was know about de things wo that we might understand by Gadi cation works, or in themation ofthe ancient Gree, nd eps Sebati Litensure Frm and Beaple diel niveniy eduction was bated upon authorestive ves. These Tnherited ftom the ancient world ~ for example, fom Aristotle |, Prleny, Hippocrates, and Galen; fom Ilanie aushors ~ from abn Sina), Averods (bm Rashi), Rhazes (a-Rai, and Alhazen ‘-Haytham) o they wee produce by scholar author who began produce authritave Latin works in various Slds as eariyas the ewe teary, even eloethe appearance of rivers, ax che works by Grasian ‘tious subject esching martes dee sher mater om such stan uote university texboks, eps from Azistodc works on sal plilosophy. The am of every tein scolar was ro organize the ration of opinions ona specie eme in manner that would be ded ae objetive and definitive. The lterature hac was developed «0 body ches goals isel good illusion ofthe emphasis on rations that ie charter of medal leserng. to 105Dang the Migs nl coe esa aa fg ae dae ema te See elem ie Sura Sey ani garage in ony ate cerme ee meme ep se an inh Ne ank ag genes ee ee me el Reh one aor ent” Mat weds bcos ae oe Sern ene aren Spey sat ae ag freee ea Reeeriacnme rn ryseatmn neta ri peter ioe rarertarte cet Sera caee maaan tere eae ea Teme A wo gel vs ie ai teen ee ine nate an or SIErUNS ml ae no open ow ee reese ees Shera caer gamete nd feta lope oe Be cheer ee ey mtn ocr ere eng de Bemere going of et ‘Onesppeeich, hich cou be prea het : Siar me Sree eh ree a tech pam tite ena aaa ‘ie cn ara eer ‘was to read, or write, a from ext ‘explain _ an ee cla queston and agned Tes pn apg i Fc pe Tg Ml ena mcprtni et might also cite the opinions of ether commentators. In the written commen. ee actors the afte ne Hina eas ‘tries, a section of text would be presented, res ‘its commentary, ple or “deeemining oe Sere oe ‘which in turn was followed by the next segment of text, followed by ies ca be re ee eres ‘mentary, and vo on sequently ‘rough the ene ei. hor oo marshal axgumentson both des of + question. At the end of fourth year saents were equized co determine 2 question by dhe form was mose evident in the Ariotclian commencais by the Mislim commentator who ewecsed a grea influence onthe afer he calation of hit numero Arson commentaries inthe i cenury. Averrodts format was wed by sich eminent scholastic as Wales Buy and Nicole Orare. Some autboss chose ot © the il tex ofeach ection of Arto’ work, but merely cited the ‘wotde(oue-word) of each cen, added their commentary and ct che cue-worts ofthe nex section and soon, 8 did Roger Ban {Thomas Aquinas” The coramestaris on authoritative ets descibed far wer all intended vo explicate ar cea ax possible the meaning and ofthe text sel The word, athe form of ides and thoughts, the original autor were the focus ofthis approach, the dhireenth cence: however, another method had valved in sat piloophy that would evenralh, prove the dominant form of commentary onan authors tox. larexd of commenting 02 by aummaising i sting it out vecbti, the practice devel- of raising questions sbous theres ad dear in se ex This wai ly done in the casoom and thesia she waiten tes from which er lectured and fom which sudene chen studied. Ax fst, questions ipod and discused athe ead of he cometary, but in time they pop displaced the commentary: The revue was the emergence ofthe form of schol iteraue. a frm that Became almost synony- vith whats come tobe known athe schobste method queso form of erature i hisorcaly inked ro the disputations ‘yee field in the medieval universes and which formed par of the en | tobe peng ge vate ane ee bs og fea Soliman ee eit ipod se ime aera Sones ae one Aris Py Tama pins ea by Bak, nd Thi Iced by Ye. Sore Nw Hs ie Urey Pes 104sche afer having a le itv and negative gant teqicnent wa comple othe eicion ofthe mate ad league and ae gan he acho firs depes The whole qu (cto) ena wat edo he Se ct metica dpuon. The que (te) nd of Spin ‘as inoue fr apna fr cours daring whch th reine! ale Ls Chap on ss poy, se {Solin ville procs a how toads ete ace fie Lie a alice ane he erat he pal uc ary qesion ea wan conan of de prom uly. heir (or wah Lath a) tio a ste exo Sie de coud be an inte dines” or eh de ales ret in the cette sien" Asin pun, Ie weep fr er pn trench he ‘lied si of sfiemave ten, np if 2 tose wold wal end dead eon of hc ep ie there mig bai: The auhor pee quem of ae tment fom mich col sly fred a he wal tnd mae sie, Tac nal spumens ner alt he alan” (atin pring. They wee lle by sata the opie posto, wich might ke them Aree ys the sic" or ‘Aloe deemize the opp ot "The Come Use sepia an, Aer peeing cp xin, the author might thn cp it undesntngo e ge oe die do rn ee nbn em te autho nas now dy epee hr ve opin, wl Si undone cng tok thal ps pol by pote pene w eta hepsi a ‘en cnet oe the con me ‘Whar illowisaschemaed oun of spel mdi qusion: ccze opinion (operon, o& se sous), a veion of which the wl defend, In euppore of di opinion, the author often cites 2 ot authori, ofien Arto hime or cts fom a commentary 08 feck of Asst o invokes 2 thetgicl authorey in a theological suchas a Commentary onthe Stee of eer Lombard cations, ordoube, abou the uation, o about some of is terms 7 ‘of argument (authors opiions oy way of a sequence of conch fespose to refite each principal agument.™ th the completion of ths bef skech ofthe form and sacar of schol Iierstre, we mast ne tazn ou attention co the sub- five ways in which reason was employ inthe erature ofthe facut and thecogy. In Chapters 4and 5,1 shal consider lg and natural respective which were the pimary subj of the arts Sau, ‘Chaper6, consider ceslogy wick was ofcourse, the subject mater Be ict of tsps: I concentrate cn thee eo acalies Beas they the anes mort insmatly ivaled inthe relationship beeen reson Irvin, a reinship thas enablsbed dhe boundary conditions for of reason in the Middle Ags, The constrains placed upon reson ia fiddle Ages cae fom bel about he ih as embeded in revelation, he uth and therefore revel rth, ws iterpeted sally by profes hologans who vag, oF were eine in theological fcuis, and exon war regarded asthe egimae domain of maura philosophers logins who taught in che are farses, we can se that any conics, reason and revelation would dzcly involve che fais of theology "While the csc srg bereensexson and revelation begins in ‘Ages, tenis ito the seventeenth and eighteenth cen when many wil set the complet independence of reason rom rs fon and ven go beyond and judge reraion hy the erica of eso, 1 or feaone area sted, the faculties of medicine and lw cea to the major objectives ofthis volume, we mas beely o hen before curing the fats of at and cheoogy. As uivesisy jets medicine and aw were of grestimporance forthe esablshment 4 argumentation, lrg bocase each discipline used temon as 1 These ofthe gues 2 pind spument (ener uly eproetin ‘tives opposed to the author’ position; a * (6. The it isin if A of Sey Qui oh Py Ge dion 9s mon a aan tos ‘Se. Tann af he cuncane uersn pe h En ‘A Sit uh Mab ea Cag MA ary ee 9 nia depen a te geson fre bey hf hg ie Cl Hy fC Pye Aes Sead 106 107the basic means of understanding it subjot mate. At this point, dhe for, Tshall ie bie summaries of the ole reson and rationality played ‘ich ofthese major univers discipline, raking medicine fist, ’ ans athe Univenity of Padua eves sought ro make medicine more sient by approaching it asa mathemacil discipline” ith the cules of att and dhedlogy, medicine was aught fom ‘est books, rom Greco Hamicsourers, The most notable ative texts fom Greek sources came from Gale, Discos, and cs and fom Isic sources, he most imporane were Avena NCanon of Medicine was widely wed, Haly Abbas, a-Razi (Rhee) ts and Abe, the st named hcting produced 2 famous bok on Lain physicians also conributel works wo the eoepus of meal ‘Mecine andthe Medial Pace in ae Medina Universes Angi ee ne el me ty ea hen ww epi mporane None Pas Belg: Paty mts aw ie ed portance Cig we hy in, Gin ee ete ine Mtge aly ths wae ened sn ym sl an snp soe anode ce te iivocpyacaican spb hone Se ae Sra eae can al mee pee a trie Foe heya in txt {Sloane dnl fom sca anne ts bik stacy te nop nd pill ee eile pdr of tages nd EMG aden nul poopy eto eke shvn we cen cy bee" ped ney dl wy eel ee sed el py ee my mchac' Mote escon ace cen ining psy nd tel pip soon py eating sua looper rool Fea na) et pus me pene a tare we ee ay fie OF ae ge ‘eee yay he ot npr or mei ups ne was both practical dips, or an at chat involved healing tnd it was alo a theoera dip that ought co deerme 2 unchanging rach. The theoreelaspeas of medicine made 2 (rina), That cence gainer prestige rom Aristo’ con fof scence and the ways sentifc knowlege was aquired." Not tedcine was iflunced by Arsele® natal philosophy and his cal conceptions in the Pater Ana and Mens he ‘acute wete also infienced bythe way natual philosophy haa ‘aught by dhe scholastic method (ee Chapter §), They uz che ‘of diputaion and often proceled by organizing commentaries jal tess into a setes of probirg quesions, ac of which was, ts thers side, dies nedicnewasin many ways 0 nae losphy in ie approach. As Nancy Sas exphains fon of shlaic methods of dpursion and rconcaon into Tad to he sal sles eed py ln ery he rep Bacay soe mers (mo ootalyBerwees Cen and Aso). But ies melcn he schol nar phosphite at oly fe he um ise on honing daputcoal ile but ao Sr providing only tenuoos |. Se Na Sn "The Fay ais aH de Rib San yy Teroen theory and he daa af exsicace, Ee isha ex Bow ‘he Urn Bp Yd he Meee Cig C $9. Se hi To in one ie fh Chap 4 ig ads ly af disseny, ml maa nd case einer pata ‘pumice dating te Me Agu Se Rope Fc, “Aue Fastin” th Lah Gas Sule, Rog Fenty, Jon Arlt Ad Ginga, es, Pil Mole fom Sao ie ad De Cai Unieey Pre 0-9 4 5 Sou Po i “ape md ene aes Cay Pi A Mt wd Pawn ine Sado Vl mori Ma ae Sans cleema 8) ana dex abou the mse of, andrea 0 aking aoc koe ed. Motcone som ily shat i xptece of meal pace pe ss Lew, Th ed kno to Snkic ua Dipaet Sec enti Ting of lac See ide Ea 99.76 if sr i The Py Mon 97-979 fens Ra npc he mene, Gade ale, “uti,” Maio fom ee Bak ech 108 afi hh ho ay pe comics po ceiccemmnnenci ings piiocfannttermag sents Bierol tvaeme gene tan Agere enor pee ere Ce eieeenans Gover also full of this sore of blood, or perhaps of much urinal wareriness pie ier races pin ielaabartatsemate ames eerie aed otigeaiamtae ee orerey eames cia esac coon esses err irs fas seh rare mas Ss profess of medene wget xen shan te ela lesophy withthe ed to ake acount of the enpised and te Ceri aed pian er very eonsous fhe dl ita of ed ac and leuning and deve cosdeledcson ta the ambiguus een eo ape ‘Ths, whe the mate of mac pate compelled anes prt es meng bas nian eel hich meat hier me aan poopy. The sr wu cy oo snc nd lege sunt The pee fe lice as common we i themed cls inh end fearcemh cena Buh nl care ef meio Rede of Eaopansccy wl br bor exepli than 2sceanceo human dnscion in porto odie theo deat Fis ocaed in in he enc cnaryn wep lee unsertod. Botte pice oon became cele err Tris (4-7) come «god ie of a po which he ered in th wind al fhe cnt ey Al the imeretns rosea ng an ey Tei A scien attude and approach in his wes ewe sc in what ol fo cr nba: nr tha thn wos were pcan afe tb ining of pina fs rf vere in no way he case oi de in thar wien anmivion of nd Uwough he hdc ein and he ple in ws prere eito sl oe rei. And bese in ht Hod noch pg tc er ws Ke plage Quoc] ee in any af though fo the manner of annig nd dew i eed Gubler. Freer hid dey ease on wot io he nih thos pe red a] infr ea rom is ess and pce fom hi pb. fourth, sa hue spot of the verme eerste afer te opplaon einer day or of your fe we anton 0 Be pe os wel you wit he ul modes which Tl mention in sing” WochipflJue, 1 ree or chy sad lt, fe olson fing i fet lon ad bade [lore in] by a disse nowy uly wd lost Buf the ak theater cen, Ii so hie sea ine organs wl be ofthe pes uti, Now defn, [wil ox heat sea bya Lan wha we hve sen and dew my honest concen dd ees which ny jedget ae adage, 7 In the ine place the bly spp gue swale, alough ee ome thin Bacar divding aecntng othe sbdnmen an pertonum, wean Toreins and the blader whith wa gid andl of tne. Remonng the clon and caccum, thee append i them moe gros wind than Hib whe the eum and juni and dundoum were moved, orm fund, quite ge and white ewig pgm cer han ay ee hao A ‘he inesines had been cut of or he sentry, nce noting more found hers, slog tha he Maer wa urge, dat opeh a cominues on with instrucons on how to prover the remuning td promises roqenevseions. by tyne Thor A Fah Caray Aap a, and iit fant Cv Sin th Sry of Mea gs Nan et Ste Phy nd oes Toe Cota Unter P99 si Tene mn pn th tan Nd Ma TA Soe Bt ail Sac, 72. Tne (126 ae helo py eon rl ha ey aie om nn tana hoes he spasms eer 5 Sin The Fay of Matin 6 Fora deel Ganon oe tne eaten mane avn Th i Desf sae Cuan Dian Cape Maal Qu je, Ge ‘9 Tis "aught ins om i eh” Micha sets it Get A Se Bo i ina Sie een ne)‘Shortly afer the beginning of postmostims, the dncsion of ‘as introduced into medied school wher it became insintonalzed the caching of anatomy. This sno minor achievement. Mort soit Dade cutcing the dead umin bod.” Except for Egyp, human deci fad been forbidden inthe ancient world. By the second century As ‘ww abo fobidden in Egy. fe wae ners allowed in the amc wal Asconshingly, i inoduction into che West atthe end ofthe thi ‘etary went unopposed by he Chr ‘That posmortems were oon tansformed into anatomic dictions the medicral metal scholsis made evident by a amet anatomical ook the ise ver that wis published in 36 by Mondin de’ Land 1265-1326, profesor of anaemy at che University of Bologna. Mo base is et on his own anatomical ivestgnions. In his intreducson, plains tac his purpose i, 4 Sgn aon ath pf no fe hanna {pide ih dot ceo stem nag el re (Gram come chomp ake are That 3 European, Chrsiansocesy overcame the long: fia of, and deep hos to, man dissection ia tute vo the haracrerof edie medicine andro chose ulknowa individuals dec posible Le he Mee Universities anand cers had alcady syematiz and asinaied canon bwin cenrury wile others were doing the same for ei La that is, the chaise method and spted Roman law wo exeremporry "With she advene of the universes, the Iw Faas taught canon aw, using Gratis Dennen forthe former and he Roman lw fr Some lav scutes rahe only anon Law a5 ithe a foul of of Pcie, whic was forbid wo teach ci law. As hecho od ook deeper rain the universes fr she subjects of etal phi- 7 ad eso lw was alo sigan affected. A good indication ss the labore cerminology chat ws deeloped co distinguish che d= ins of commentaries and ident varios dvions within given Loic ao fluenced ev es obvios om the inodueton ito legal pcs of ible (usable see Chaper for dis en) and din or ditions There wat ale a em. (Qusesions ogi) 0 indcate Jeg analyse wa sekng wo tconcleappazen or real coneadicons in ter. Js asin the Felis ofa and theology, dispuned questions gedebared among eden who were siperied bys master who reso, the questions 1s vial 1 see dhacthe Joga profsion, which was formed in the Age and exited primary the unites, “produced 2 cence of In his excelene uy of the formation ofthe Wesera gal waion, fold Beran diingised sine “pina socal charac of Weer |sccnc in is formative pecod xpcaly as they were influenced by che rie" Universiy ln schools diverinated chrough all of Wester } I Having pid in body foe hat ch dd bebe gigi ‘he pie posto, we musi in nen of he lead ten he a Focal ot knovleder dc bp fms whr bln Ter ough ie eg cfvapi ed thous knwo be wee nota ney ms ‘hep we yeep ihe comdason of howe Diseton of ede ane choos was an epee Bat ie mas done sly for sescbing purposes and rss eae advance knowlege of the homan body. Newnes, he conor Sam stn me mn hn we sent imporans Without fin bpnings naman Geog’ Shin the Middle Age dh icant popes ht oe th ret matomias ofthe iets sd screntenh cena“ ae fle eon du Vin ayn), Andess Ves (urs, Gl Falloppio (523-356), and Marcello Malpighi (4618-165) could nop tape id Her om Gs The Bade of Madr Sia inte Mle A, oy Far cnc pong Sa mes dina Dail Pier. Tie Seen of erm Sore The Bogen Se Tn “Pupil frp nl ton! Cie 4 hae Ue | iGo en sea So bs Cay Ga "TF ofan” a Hie eHdeSmoes “Hing of Unio in Eager oe ae go mor Clg Uinny Py pn Cape Foca eal DAL Thc ie ches gp 6, 99 Thor iene hi ha a ih ed ac (Norden ve pfooe at te ind 6 Se Gant Sn kn alia Ses. Th aan en The Find Mab Vine wh an elo, by Ch Sg aoe Bat ip 1”urope “x rnsatonal enology and method By the methods wed (his thi point), “European uniter. made posible the ‘io of gal sems out of pting diese ad contaditory cas avo ade, he emphasis on “hamonisngcontadtione” made pul ‘he symhess of ious kinds few. Ina fit pois, Beeman observes tare as muy alongside “helog, medicine, nd the ber arts" which wel ‘cholic method, so cht the “aw den could noe hlp knowing tht profesion was aninegrlpar: ofthe nelle! feof his ime” In ps ‘is most important poi ~ te eighch ~ Berman declares tha the "We ‘ives aad the analysis aw othe evel ofa sence, as ee word understood in the welt ccm eure, by concepeszing kal tutions and sysemazng hw w an incegrated boy of know 50 that ‘eli of ea ules eo be demons by thee consineny wiht temaawhole” Although nacional has eroded che anenational character of 4, Beeman ses “something ofthe Bologna tration, and something the scholastic dialectic survive mie centri ltr ~ even in the law es of Ameticn"? While nations may have produced a “decline of snd common purpose ia Wiser cviation as 2 whole” and th ‘averly affced the manson sta ofa ated in the ‘Ages, Berman saw 2 hopell sig in che “sconomic, sient and inteependence” dat wat energing “on both a tegonal and basis" With the advene of the global economy and global in dence, che medial ideal of law aa transnational phenomenon say ‘emerge aa powerfl force is human cvliation, REASON IN ACTION Logie inthe Faculy of Arte den amore techn artes hm ony fhe he the ihe iho: mec, ae This war oso bease he ora a ant maser fare dag rege fn ito Higher cls, Thc al mde Bogen te are inte a Dy vue of te abs ah te fly fa the ary xy of raion it any ci! ees Ti eile fo the of toures ah: atom ata, isle and mata Al einen sae ejects pe mat pos ich was neds peas ier sie Jew ul je gd ante sth facta ening Wee Say Sc neti supe Sieh oy Po Although Ihave, segeably, gen shor hilt wo meine and tw. Th pin rerted che central oe that logis was acceded in ce welt ce ‘hat Lae, noncthclss sidenough abou chem ro convince reader that wer highly tonal inlet dsplins within che univ stem of Midale Ages. But, important medicine and lw ae hey ae not my pi ‘mary concen, because dey wee not involved inthe cent ise that ‘emed eaion in the Middle Aga the elatioship of reason to revatio, ‘subjecs tha are most relevant this se te og, naurlphlsop | ‘heology the first ro of whicr were taught in facaties of ars, the hs which was eughtin ficulties of helo Since i wa read a a tool forthe wo acer dciplin, let ws Begin with ogi. pancples ofall methods, and hence logic ought 1 come fst in the json ofthe sciences With the uaslatons of Aristo’ previouly logial wot, which were sel tothe ol logic, logic was given tial foundational olen the eutculum af the medial waives. nif heen iy itn el The Tt he moo Wd Ride Fry of he Cy Er rn Mid Sr (Cag: Cn Uae Bos. 999 ferent ai or he Quin de filer pny Ecc Pw) Some aay hanks Bre, easin Mada Ll Osec Cad Pon 66 hive ssn of era i. Bean aw and ta oo me mm us