ISF Aachen Welding Technology Part II PDF

1.
Weldability of Metals
1. Weldability of Metals
DIN 8580 and DIN 8595 classify welding into production technique main group 4 "Joining,
group 3.6 "Joining by welding, Figure 1.1.
Production Techniques
DIN 8580
Main group
2
Deforming
Main group
1
Forming
Group
4.1
Assembling
Group
4.2
Filling
Group
4.3
Pressing
Main group
3
Separating
Group
4.4
Joining by
forming
Main group
4
Joining
DIN 8593
Group
4.5
Joining by
deforming
Main group
5
Plating
Group
4.6
Joining by
welding
Sub-group
4.6.1
Pressure welding
Main group
6
Changing material
characteristics
Group
4.7
Joining by
soldering
Group
4.8
Bonding
Sub-group
4.6.2
Fusion welding
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Classification of Production Techniques

to DIN 8580
Figure 1.1
Material
Welding suitability
Weldability of a component is determined

by three outer features according to DIN
8528, Part 1. This also indicates whether a
in
De g saf
sig ety
n
ility
sib
os
g p ture
ldin fac
We anu
M
Figure 1.2.
Weldability
of a
component
We
ld
given joining job can be done by welding,
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Influencing Factors on
Weldability to DIN 8528 Part 1
Figure 1.2
Material influence on weldability, i.e. welding suitability, can be detailed for a

better
understanding
in
three subdefinitions, Figure

1.3.
The chemical composition of
a material and also its metallurgical
properties
are
mainly set during its production, Figure 1.4. They have a

very strong influence on the
Figure 1.3
physical
characteristics of the material.
Process steps on steel manufacturing, shown in Figure 1.4, are the essential steps on the
way to a processible and usable material.
During manufacture, the requested chemical
composition (e.g. by alloying) and metallurgiBlast furnace:
Reduction of ore to
raw iron
Intake of C, S, and P
Top-blow (BOF)-, bottom

blow (OBM)-, stirrerconverter
Converter:
Removal of C and P
through oxygen and CaO
cal properties (e.g. type of teeming) of the

steel are obtained.
Another modification of the material behaviour takes place during subsequent treatment,
where the raw material is rolled to processible
Injection of
solid material
or feeding
cored wires
Ladle treatment:
Alloying and vacuum
degassing (removal
of N2, H2, CO/CO2)
Ladle treatment
electrically heated
semi-finished goods, e.g. like strips, plates,

bars, profiles, etc.. With the rolling process,
material-typical
transformation
processes,
hardening and precipitation processes are

used to adjust an optimised material characContinuous casting:
casting of billets,
blooms, slabs
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Important Process Steps

During Steel Production
Figure 1.4
teristics (see chapter 2).
A survey from quality point of view about the influence of the most important alloy elements
to some mechanical and metallurgical properties is shown in Figure 1.5.
Si
Mn
Cr
Ni
Al
Tensile strength
(-)
Hardness
Charpy-V-toughness
(-)
++
--
Hot cracking
Creep resistance
+(-400C)
(+)
Critical
cooling rate
Formation
of seggregations
++
++
Formation
of inclusions
++
(+)
(-)
++
+
+
with Mn with S
+ Increase of property
++ Strong increase of property
--
+
with Al
Decrease of property
Strong decrease of property
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Influence of Alloy Elements

on Some Steel Properties
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6 depicts the decisive importance of the carbon content to suitability of
fusion welding of mild steels.
A guide number of flawless
fusion weldability is a carbon
content of C < 0,22 %. with
C-content (%)
(Melt analysis)
Fusion weldability
S185 (St 33) [EN 10 025]
unlimited
(up to 0,30)
Not guaranteed, however mostly no

problem with low C-content
S250GT (St 34), S235JR (St 37),

S275JR (St 42) [EN 10 025]
L235GT (St 35), L275GT (St 45)
[Steels for tubing EN 10 208]
P235GH (H I), P265GH (H II), P285NH (H III)
[Steels for pressure vessel construction EN10 028]
C10 (C 10), C15 (C 15), C22 (C 22)
[Case hardening and tempering steels EN 10 083]
up to 0,21
up to 0,22% C: good weldable (exception:

plate thickness <0,5 mm, special order
condtions), as long as content of
impurities (P,S etc.) not too high
S355J0 (St 52)
up to 0,22 and higher

contents of Mn and Si
Weldable
E295 (St 50) Steel for mechanical engineering
unlimited,
about 0,30
Restricted weldability with electric arc

methods, no gas welding of thin plates.
E355 (St 60), C35 (C 35)
about 0,40
Weldable with special electrodes and

mostly pre- and post-welding heat
treatment.
E360 (St 70), C45 (C 45)
about 0,50
Very restricted weldability in spite

of special measures
Material
up to 0,17
up to 0,22
up to 0,18 (up to 0,24)
higher C contents, there is a

danger of hardening, and
welding becomes only pos-
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sible by observing special
Fusion Weldability of
Unalloyed Quality Steels
precautions (e.g. pre- and

post-weld heat treatment).
Figure 1.6
In addition to material behaviour, weldability is also essentially determined through the design
of a component. The influence of the design is designated as welding safety, Figure 1.7.
Welding Safety
(Welding safety due to design)
Design
Stress condition
e.g. Power flow in workpiece

Arrangement of joints
Material thickness
Notch effect
Stiffness differences
e.g. Type and Level of strain in workpiece

Dimensional degree of strain
Stress speed
Temperature
Corrosion
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Welding Safety
Figure 1.7
Welding Possibility
The influence of the manufac(welding possibility due to manufacture)
turing process to weldability is

called welding possibility,
Figure 1.8. For example, a
pre-
and
post-weld
heat
treatment is not always possible, or grinding the weld surface
before
welding
the
Welding
preparation
e.g. Welding method
Consumble type
and auxiliaries
Joint type
Groove shape
Preheating
Actions in the case
of unfavourable
weather conditions
Execution of
welding
e.g. Heat control
Heat input
Welding sequence
Welding Possibility
carried out (narrow gap welding).
Figure 1.8
e.g. Post-weld heat treatment

Grinding
Pickling
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subsequent pass cannot be
Post-treatment
10.
Testing of Welded Joints
10. Testing of Welded Joints
Ls
126
The basic test for determination of material
a
S S
S S
in test area
in test area
b1
Generally, it is carried out using a round
L0
Lc
behaviour is the tensile test.

specimen. When determining the strength of
a welded joint, also standardised flat speci-
Lt
total length
head width
Lt
b1
width of parallel length
plates
tubes
1 2
Lc
r
parallel length ) )
radius of throat
depends on test unit

b + 12
12 with a 2
25 with a > 2
6 with D 50
12 with 50 < D
168,3
L S + 60
25
mens are used. Figure 10.1 shows both standard specimen shapes for that test. A
specimen is ruptured by a test machine while
the actual force and the elongation of the
d1
) for pressure welding and beam welding, L S = 0.

2
) for some other metallic materials (e.g.aluminium, copper and their alloys)
__ L c L S +100 may be required
is typical for this test, Figure 10.2.
L0 = measurement length
(L0 = k S0 with k = 5,65)
Lt = total length
S0 = initial cross-section within
test length
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ment values, tension and strain are calculated. If is plotted over , the drawn diagram
LO
LC
Lt
d = specimen diameter
d1 = head diameter depending
on clamping device
LC = test length = L0 + d/2
r = 2 mm
specimen is measured. With these measure-
Normally, if a steel with a bcc lattice structure

ISF 2002
Flat and Round Tensile Test Specimen

to EN 895, EN 876, and EN 10 002
is tested, a curve with a clear yield point is

obtained (upper picture). Steels with a fcc
lattice structure show a curve without yield
Figure 10.1
point.
The most important characteristic values
which are determined by this test are: yield

stress ReL, tensile strength Rm, and elongation
Rm
ReH
Rel
sf
A.
To determine the deformability of a weld, a
e
ALud
Ag
bending test to DIN EN 910 is used, Figure
10.3. In this test, the specimen is put onto two
supporting rollers and a former is pressed
Rm
RP0,2
RP0,01
sf
through between the rollers. The distance of

the supporting rollers is Lf = d + 3a (former
diameter + three times specimen thickness).
e
0,2 %
0,01 %
Ag
is observed. If a surface crack develops, the
A
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Stress-Strain Diagram With

and Without Distinct Yield Point
Figure 10.2
The backside of the specimen (tension side)

test will be stopped and the angle to which
the specimen could be bent is measured. The
127
test result is the bending angle and the diameter of the used former. A bending angle of 180
is reached, if the specimen is pressed through the supporting rollers without development of
a crack. In Figure 10.3 specimen shapes of this test are shown. Depending on the direction
the weld is bent, one distinguishes (from top to bottom) transverse, side, and longitudinal
bending specimen. The tension side of all three specimen types is machined to eliminate any
influences
through
Specimen
on
the
notch
test
effects.
thickness
of
transverse and longitudinal

specimens
is
thickness.
Side
the
plate
bending
specimens are normally only

used with very thick plates,
here the specimen thickness
is fixed at 10 mm.
A
determination
of
the
toughness of a material or
Figure 10.3
welded joint is carried out

with the notched bar impact test. A cuboid specimen with a V-notch is placed on a support
and then hit by a pendulum ram of the impact testing machine (with very tough materials, the
specimen will be bent and
drawn through the supports). The used energy is
measured.
Figure
10.4
represents sample shape,

notch
shape
(Iso-V-
specimen), and a schematic presentation of test

results.
Figure 10.4
128
Three specimens are tested at each test tem-
Designation
VWS a/b
Dicke
RL
VWS a/b
(fusion
weld)
Fusion line/bonding zone
perature, and the average values as well as

b
Weld centre
Designation
RL
the range of scatter are entered on the impact
Dicke
energy-temperature diagram (AV-T curve).

VWT 0/b
VHT 0/b
This graph is divided into an area of high im-
pact energy values, a transition range, and an

VHT a/b
a
area of low values. A transition temperature is
VWT 0/b
VWT a/b
VHT a/b
VWT a/b
drop of toughness values. When the tempera-
a
RL
RL
ture falls below this transition temperature, a
VHT a/b
transition of tough to brittle fracture behaviour
a
RL
a
RL
V = Charpy-V notch
W = notch in weld metal; reference line is centre line of weld
H = notch in heat affected zone; reference line is fusion line or bonding zone
(notch should be in heat affected zone)
S = notched area parallel to surface
T = notch through thickness
a = distance of notch centre from reference line (if a is on centre line of weld, a = 0 and
should be marked)
b = distance between top side of welded joint and nearest surface of the specimen
(if b is on the weld surface, then b = 0 and should be marked)
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assigned to the transition range, i.e. the rapid
takes place.
As this steep drop mostly extends across a
certain area, a precise assignment of transi ISF 2002
Position of Charpy-V Impact Test

Specimen in Welded Joints to EN 875
tion temperature cannot be carried out. Following DIN 50 115, three definitions of the
transition temperature are useful, i.e. to fix T
Figure 10.5
to:
1.) a temperature where the level of impact values is half of the level of the high range,
2.) a temperature, where the fracture area of the specimen shows still 50% of tough fracture
behaviour
3.) a temperature with an impact energy value of 27 J.
Figure 10.5 illustrates a specimen position and notch position related to the weld according to
DIN EN 875. By modifying the notch position, the impact energy of the individual areas like
HAZ, fusion line, weld metal, and base metal can be determined in a relatively accurate way.
Figure 10.6 presents the influence of various alloy elements on the AV-T - curve. Three basically different influences can be seen. Increasing manganese contents increase the impact
values in the area of the high level and move the transition temperature to lower values. The
values of the low levels remain unchanged, thus the steepness of the drop becomes clearer
with increasing Mn-content. Carbon acts exactly in the opposite way. An increasing carbon
content increases the transition temperature and lowers the values of the high level, the steel
becomes more brittle. Nickel decreases slightly the values of the high level, but increases the
129
values of the low level with increasing con-
specimen position:
core longitudinal
tent. Starting with a certain Nickel content
specimen shape:
ISO V
(depends also from other alloy elements), a
300
2% Mn
steep drop does not happen, even at lowest
1% Mn
200
0,5% Mn
temperature the steel shows a tough fracture
Charpy impact energy AV
100
behaviour.
0% Mn
27
200
In Figure 10.7, the AV-T curves of some
J
100
27
13% Ni
8,5%
5% 3,5%
2% Ni
commonly used steels are collected. These
0% Ni
curves are marked with points for impact en-
200
ergy values of AV = 27 J as well as with points
0,1% C
where the level of impact energy has fallen to
100
0,4% C
half of the high level. It can clearly be seen
0,8% C
27
-150
-100
-50
0
Temperature
50
C 100
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Influence of Mn, Ni, and C

on the Av-T-Curve
that mild steels have the lowest impact energy values together with the highest transition temperature. The development of finegrain structural steels resulted in a clear im-
Figure 10.6
provement of impact energy values and in
addition, the application of such steels could be extended to a considerably lower temperature range.
With the example of the
steels St E 355 and St E
690 it is clearly visible that
an increase of strength goes
mostly hand in hand with a
decrease of the impact energy
level.
provement
Another
showed
imthe
application of a thermomechanical
treatment
(con-
trolled rolling during heat

treatment). The application
of this treatment resulted in
an increase of strength and
Figure 10.7
130
impact energy values together with a parallel saving of alloy elements. To make a comparison, the AV-T - curve of the cryogenic and high alloyed steel X8Ni9 was plotted onto the diagram. The material is tested under very high
P
growth and fracture mechanisms.
1,2h 0,25
there are no reliable findings about crack
0,55h 0,25
test speed in the impact energy test, thus
P
a
CT - specimen
L
h
1,25h 0,13
Figure 10.8 shows two commonly used
specimen height h = 2b 0,25

specimen width b
total crack length a = (0,50 0,05)h
test load P
specimen shapes for a fracture mechanics
test to determine crack initiation and crack

growth. The lower figure to the right shows a
2,1h
2,1h
possibility how to observe a crack propagation in a compact tensile specimen. During
SENB -specimen
3PB
specimen width b
bearing distance S = 4h
sample height h = 2b 0,05
total crack length a = (0,50 0,05)h
F,U
crack initiation
U
F
the test, a current I flows through the speci-
UE,aE
U
men, and the tension drop above the notch is
UO
V
measured.
V
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Fracture Mechanics Test

Sample Shape and Evaluation
As soon as a crack propagates through the

material, the current conveying cross section
Figure 10.8
decreases, resulting in an increased voltage
drop. Below to the left a measurement graph of such a test is shown. If the force F is plotted
across the widening V, the drawn curve does not indicate precisely the crack initiation.
Analogous to the stress-
strain diagram, a decrease

of force is caused by a reduction of
the stressed
cross-section. If the voltage

drop is plotted over the
force, then the start of
d1
crack initiation can be determined with suitable accuracy,
and
the
crack
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Hardness Testing to Brinell and Vickers
propagation can be observed.
Figure 10.9
131
Another typical characteristic of material behaviour is the hardness of the workpiece. Figure
10.9 shows hardness test methods to Brinell (standardised to DIN 50 351) and Vickers (DIN
50 133). When testing to Brinell, a steel ball is pressed with a known load to the surface of
the tested workpiece. The diameter of the resulting impression is measured and is a magnitude of hardness. The hardness value is calculated from test load, ball diameter, and diameter of rim of the impression (you find the formulas in the standards). The hardness
information contains in addition to the hardness magnitude the ball diameter in mm, applied
load in kp and time of influence of the test load in s. This information is not required for a ball
diameter of 10 mm, a test load of 3000 kp (29420 N), and a time of influence of 10 to 15 s.
This hardness test method may be used only
3
6
10
8,9
reference
level for
measurement
10
3
10
specimen surface
130
30
0
hardness
scale
hardness
scale
100
4
5
3
8
130
30
0
specimen surface
0,200 mm
Instead of a ball, a diamond pyramid is
100
0
Hardness testing to Vickers is analogous.

This method is standardised to DIN 50133.
4 5
3
8
0,200 mm
Hardness Number).
0,200 mm
0,200 mm
on soft materials up to 450 BHN (Brinell
8,9
reference
level for
measurement
7
10
pressed into the workpiece. The lengths of

the two diagonals of the impression are
Terms
Abbreviation
ball diameter = 1,5875 mm ( 1/16 inch)
cone angle = 120
radius of curvature of cone tip = 0,200 mm
F0
test preload
F1
test load
total test load = F0 + F1
t0
penetration depth in mm under test preload F0. This defines the reference level
for measurement of tb.
The impressions of the test body are always
t1
total penetrationn depth in mm under test load F1
tb
resulting penetration depth in mm, measured after release of F1 to F0
geometrically similar, so that the hardness
resulting penetration depth, expressed in units of 0,002 mm:

tb / 0,002
10
HRC
HRA
measured and the hardness value is calculated from their average and the test load.
value is normally independent from the size

of the test load. In practice, there is a hard-
Rockwell hardness = 100 - e
HRB
HRF
e =
Rockwell hardness = 130 - e
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Hardness Test to
Rockwell
ness increase under a lower test load because of an increase of the elastic part of the
deformation.
Figure 10.10
Hardness testing to Vickers is almost universally applicable. It covers the entire range of materials (from 3 VHN for lead up to 1500 VHN for hard metal). In addition, a hardness test can
be carried out in the micro-range or with thin layers.
Figure 10.10 illustrates a hardness test to Rockwell. In DIN 50103 are various methods standardised which are based on the same principle.
132
With this method, the penetration depth of a penetrator is measured.

At first, the penetrator is put on the workpiece by application of a pre-test load. The purpose
is to get a firm contact between workpiece and penetrator and to compensate for possible
play of the device.
Then the test load is applied in a shock-free way (at least four times the pre-force) and held
for a certain time. Afterwards it is released to reach minor load. The remaining penetration
depth is characteristic for the hardness. If the display instrument is suitably scaled, the hardness value can be read-out directly.
All hardness test methods to Rockwell use a ball (diameter 1.5875 mm, equiv. to 1/16 Inch)
or a diamond sphero-conical penetrator (cone angle 120) as the penetrating body. There are
differences in size of pre- and test load, so different test methods are scaled for different
hardness ranges. The most commonly used scale methods are Rockwell B and C. The most
considerable advantage of these test methods compared with Vickers and Brinell are the low
time duration and a possible fully-automatic measurement value recognition. The disadvantage is the reduced accuracy in contrast to the other methods. Measured hardness numbers
are only comparable under identical conditions and with the same test method. A comparison
of hardness values which were determined
with different methods can only be carried out
for similar materials. A conversion of hardness
values of different methods can be carried out
piston
for steel and cast steel according to a table in

DIN 50150. A relation of hardness and tensile
strength is also given in that table.
All the hardness test methods described above
require a coupon which must be taken from the
reference bar
workpiece and whose hardness is then determined in a test machine. If a workpiece on-site
is to be tested, a dynamical hardness test
specimen
method will be applied. The advantage of these

methods is that measurements can be taken
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on completed constructions with handheld
ISF 2002
Poldi - Hammer
Figure 10.11
133
units in any position. Figure 10.11 illustrates a hardness test using a Poldi-Hammer. With this
(out of date) method, the measurement is carried out by a comparison of the workpiece
hardness with a calibration piece. For this purpose a calibration bar of exactly determined
hardness is inserted into the unit, which is held by a spring force play-free between a piston
and a penetrator (steel ball, 10 mm diameter). The unit is put on the workpiece to be tested.
By a hammerblow to the piston, the penetrator penetrates the workpiece and the calibration
pin simultaneously. The size of both impressions is measured and with the known hardness
of the calibration bar the hardness of the workpiece can be determined. However, there are
many sources of errors with this method which may influence the test result, e.g. an inclined
resting of the unit on the surface or a hammerblow which is not in line with the device axis.
The major source of errors is the measurement of the ball impression on the workpiece. On
one hand, the edge of the impression is often unsharp because of the great ball diameter, on
the other hand the measurement of the impression using magnifying glasses is subjected to
serious errors.
Figure 10.12 shows a modern measurement method which works with ultrasound and combines a high flexibility with easy handling and high accuracy. Here a test tip is pressed manually against a workpiece. If a defined test load is passed, a spring mechanism inside the test
tip is triggered and the measurement starts.
Test force
The measurement principle is based on a

measurement of damping characteristics in
5 kp
5.0
the steel. The measurement tip is excited to
kp
emit ultrasonic oscillations by a piezoelectric
4.0
crystal. The test tip (diamond pyramid) pene3.0
trates the workpiece under the test pressure

2.0
caused by the spring force. With increasing

Federweg
penetration depth the damping of the ultrasonic oscillation changes and consequently
the frequency. This change is measured by
the device. The damping of the ultrasonic os- little work on surface preparation of specimens (test force 5 kp)
- Data Logger for storage of several thousands of measurement points
- interfaces for connection of computers or printers
- for hardness testing on site in confined locations
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cillation depends directly on penetration depth

thus being a measure for material hardness.
The display can be calibrated for all commonly used measurement methods, a meas-
Figure 10.12
134
urement is carried out quickly and easily. Measurements can also be carried out in confined
pulsation range
(compression)
Application
Dye penetrant method
m = a
m > a
crack is free, surface

is clean
m < a
compression -
+ tension
Description
m = 0
m < a
m = a
m > a
spaces. This measurement method is not yet standardised.
time
crack and surface

with penetrant
liquid
cleaned surface,
dye penetrant
liquid in crack
pulsation range
(tension)
alternating range
all materials with

surface cracks
surface with
developer shows
the crack by coloring
Whler line
Magnetic particle testing
II
A workpiece is placed
between the poles of
a magnet or solenoid.
Defective parts disturb
the power flux. Iron
particles are collected.
III
Stress
failure line
Surface cracks and

cracks up to 4 mm
below surface.
However:
Only magnetizable
materials and only
for cracks perpendicular
to power lines
0
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
Fatigue strength (endurance) number lg N
107
I area of overload with material damage

II area of overload without material damage
III area of load below fatigue strength limit
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Fatigue Strength Testing
Figure 10.13
Figure 10.14
To test a workpiece under oscillating stress, the fatigue test is standardised in DIN 50100.
Mostly a fatigue strength is determined by the Whler procedure. Here some specimens
(normally 6 to 10) are exposed to an oscillating stress and the number of endured oscillations
until rupture is determined (endurance number, number of cycles to failure). Depending on
where the specimen is to be stressed in the range of pulsating tensile stresses, alternating
stresses, or pulsating compressive stresses, the mean stress (or sub stress) of a specimen
group is kept constant and the stress amplitude (or upper stress) is varied from specimen to
specimen, Figure 10.13. In this way, the stress amplitude can be determined with a given
medium stress (prestress) which can persist for infinite time without damage (in the test: 107
times). Test results are presented in fatigue strength diagrams (see also DIN 50 100). As an
example the extended Whler diagram is shown in Figure 10.13. The upper line, the Whler
line, indicates after how many cycles the specimen ruptures under tension amplitude a. The
135
Application
Description
X-ray or isotope radiation penetrate
a workpiece. The thicker the workpiece, the weaker the radiation
reaching the underside.
W ire diameter
Mainly for defects with orientation

in radiation direction.
Tolerated
deviation
mm
3,2
2,5
2
1,6
1,25
1
0,8
0,63
0,5
0,4
0,32
0,25
0,2
0,16
0,125
0,1
W ire number
mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,005
Abbreviation
W ire number to
Table 1
FE 1/7
1 to 7
FE 6/12
FE 10/16
CU 1/7
radiation source
-
CU 10/16
AL 1/7
AL 6/12
workpiece
film (displayed in distance from workpiece)

defect in radiation direction; difficult to identify (flank lack of fusion)
defect in radiation direction; easy to identify
br-er10-15.cdr
AL 10/16
ISF 2002
50
6 to 12
50 or 25
10 to 16
50 or 25
1 to 7
CU 6/12
W ire length
mm
6 to 12
10 to 16
Material groups
to be tested
mild
steel
iron materials
copper
copper, zink, tin

and its alloys
aluminium
aluminium
and its alloys
50
50
50 or 25
1 to 7
50
6 to 12
50
10 to 16
W ire material
50 or 25
br-er10-16.cdr
ISF 2002
Determination of Picture Quality

Number to DIN 54105
Non-Destructive Test Methods

Radiographic Testing
Figure 10.16
Figure 10.15
damage line indicates analogously, when a

Description
US-head generates high-frequency sound
waves, which are transferred via oil coupling
to the workpiece. Sound waves are reflected
on interfaces (echo).
Application
Mainly for defects with an orientation
transverse to sound input direction.
damage to the material starts in form of

cracks. Below this line, a material damage
does not occur.
Test
methods
described
above
require
specimens taken out of the workpiece and a
partly very accurate sample preparation. A

testing of completed welded constructions is
impossible, because this would require a de

sound head
oil coupling
workpiece
defect
ultrasonic test device
radiation pulse
defect echo
backwall echo
ISF 2002
Non-Destructive Test Methods

Ultrasonic Testing II
Figure 10.17
why various non-destructive test methods

were developed, which are not used to determine technological properties but test the
br-er10-17.cdr
struction of the workpiece. This is the reason
workpiece for defects. Figure 10.14 shows
136
two methods to test a workpiece for surface defects.

Figure 10.15 illustrates the principle of radiographic testing which allows to identify also defects in the middle of a weld. The size of the minimum detectable defects depends greatly on
the intensity of radiation, which must be
adapted to the thickness of the workpiece to
be radiated. As the film with documented defects does not permit an estimation of the
plate thickness, a scale bar must be shown for
estimation of the defect size.
For that purpose, a plastic template is put on
the workpiece before radiation which contains
metal wires with different thickness and incorporated metallic marks, Figure 10.16. The size
of the thinnest recognisable wire indicates the
size of the smallest visible defect. Radiation
Figure 10.18
testing provides information about the defect

position in the plate plane, but not about the
position within the thickness depth. A clear
advantage is the good documentation ability
of defects.
Figure 10.18
An information about the

depth of the defect is provided by testing the workpiece with ultrasound. The
principle is shown in Figures
10.17
and
10.18
(principle of a sonar).
The
display
of
original
br-er10-19.cdr
pulse, backwall and defect
Ultrasonic Testing of Fillet Welds
echo is carried out with an

oscilloscope.
Figure 10.19
137
This method provides not only a perpendicular sound test, but also inaccessible regions can
be tested with the use of so called angle testing heads, Figure 10.19.
Pores between 10 and 20 mm

depth provide an unbroken
echo sequence across the entire
display starting from 10mm. The
backwall echo sequence of 30
mm is not yet visible.
30
Wall thickness is below 40 mm.

The roughness provides smaller
and wider echos.
Echo sequence of 20 mm depth.

The backwall is completely
screened.
The perpendicular crack

penetrating the material
does not provide a display
because the reflecting surface
(tip of crack) is too small.
40
The oblique and rough defect
from 20 to 30 mm provides a
wide echo of 20 to 30 mm.
Starting with SKW 4, an unbroken echo sequence follows.
The inclination of the reflector
is recornised by a change of
the 1st echo when shifting the
test head.
The oblique backwall reflects

the soundwaves against the
crack. this is the reason why
an impossible depth of
65 mm is displayed.
Echo sequence of 10 mm depth.

The reflector in 30 mm depth is
completely screened.
br-er10-20.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er10-21.cdr
Defect Identification with Ultrasound
ISF 2002
Defect Identification With Ultrasound
Figure .10.20
Figure 10.21
Figures 10.20 and 10.21

show
macro section
schematically
the
display of various defects

on an oscilloscope. A cor-
base material
50
ferrite
+ perlite
coarse grain zone
bainite
rect interpretation of all the

signals requires great experience,
2,5 mm
fine grain zone
ferrite
+ perlite
fusion line
Steel: S355N
(T StE 355)
weld metal
bainite
because
the
shape of the displayed signals is often not so clear.
cast structure
br-er10-22.cdr
Metallographic Examination of a Weld
Figure 10.22 illustrates the

potential of metallographic
Figure 10.22
examination. Grinding and
138
etching with an acid makes the microstructure
visible. The reason is that depending on
structure and orientation, the individual grains
react very differently to the acid attack thus
100
25
Fe
% Fe
% Cr
macrosection, i.e. without magnification, gives
Cr
20
60
40
15
20
10
% Ni
reflecting the light in a different way. The
80
a complete survey about the weld and fusion

line, size of the HAZ, and sequence of solidification. Under adequate magnification, these
0
10
areas can still not be distinguished precisely,
Ni
however, an assessment of the developed
6
4
microstructure is possible.
2
0
0
200
mm
100
An assessment of the distribution of alloy
100
Distance from fusion line

br-er10-23.cdr
elements across the welded joint can be car-
ISF 2002
Micro-Analysis of the Transition Zone

Base Material - Strip Cladding
ried out by the electron beam micro-analysis.

An example of such an analysis is shown in
Figure 10.23
Figure 10.23. If a solid body is exposed to a
focused electron beam of high energy, its atoms are excited to radiate X-rays. There is a
simple relation between the wave length of this radiation and the atomic number of the
chemical elements. As the intensity of the radiation depends on the concentration of the elements, the chemical composition of the solid body can be concluded from a survey of the
emitted
X-ray
qualitatively
and
spectrum
quantita-
tively. A detection limit is
50
50
50
20 20
1. weld
about 0.01 mass % with this
50
20 20
2. weld
0
10
method. Microstructure areas of a minimum diameter
weld
of about 5 m can be ana-
axis of
bending former
weld
Agents:
- electrolytic copper in the form of chips (min. 50 g/l test solution)
- 100 ml H2SO4 diluted with 1 l water and then
.
110 g CuSO 5 H2O are added
lysed. If the electron beam is
Test:
The specimens remain for 15 h in the boiling test solution.
Then the specimens are bent across a former up to an angle
of 90 and finally examined for grain failure under a
6 to 10 times magnification.
moved across the specimen

(or the specimen under the
br-er-10-24.cdr
beam), the element distribu-
Strau - Test
tion along a line across the

Figure 10.24
axis of
bending former
139
solid body can be determined. Figure 10.23 presents the distribution of Ni, Cr, and Fe in the
transition zone of an austenitic plating in a ferritic base metal. The upper part shows the related microsection which belongs to the analysed part. This microanalysis was carried out
along a straight line between two impressions of a Vickers hardness test. The impressions
are also used as a mark to identify precisely the area to be analysed.
The so called Strau test is
12
standardised in DIN 50
914. it serves to determine
80
web
the resistance of a weld
measurement points
tack welds
against intergranular corro-
base plate
weld1
40
40
20
sion. Figure 10.24 shows

the specimen shape which
a a
20
aa
12
weld2
is normally used for that
120
80
aa
test. In addition, some debr-er-10-25.cdr
Test of Crack Susceptibility of Welding

Filler Materials to DIN 50129
tails of the test method are

explained.
Figure 10.25
Figure 10.25 presents a specimen shape for testing the crack susceptibility of welding consumables. For this test, weld number 1 is welded first. The 2. weld is welded not later than 20
s in reversed direction after completion of the first weld. Throat thickness of weld 2 must be
20% below of weld 1. After
cooling down, the beads
are examined for cracks. If
tensioning bolt
hexagon nut
min. M12 DIN 934
guidance plates
a
tensioning plate
specimen
base body
cracks are found in weld 1,

the test is void. If weld 1 is
free from cracks, weld 2 is
examined for crack with
magnifying glasses. Then
weld 1 is machined off and
weld 2 is cracked by bend-
br-er-10-26.cdr
Tensioning Specimen for Crack

Susceptibility Test
Figure 10.26
ing the weld from the root.

Test results record any
140
surface and root cracks together with information about position, orientation, number, and
length. The welding consumable is regarded as 'non-crack-susceptible' if the welds of this
test are free from cracks.
Figure 10.26 presents two proposals for self-stressing specimens for plate tests regarding
their hot crack tendency. Such tests are not yet standardised to DIN.
thermo couple
electrode
cross-section
groove shape
60
60
welding direction
weld
metal
support plate
Wd./2
H
Wd.
implant
Hc
Wd./2
2
load
temperature in C
specimen shape
load in N
Tmax
start
end crater
150
crack coefficient
C=
x 100 (in %)
800
500
2 3
4 5
sections
60
anchor weld
80
test weld
150
100
60
anchor weld
br-er10-27.cdr
t8/5
ISF 2002
rupture time
br-er10-28.cdr
Tekken Test
Figure 10.27
time in s
ISF 2002
Implant Test
Figure 10.28
There are various tests to examine a cold crack tendency of welded joints. The most important ones are the self-stressing Tekken test and the Implant test where the stress comes from
an external source.
In the Tekken test which is standardised in Japan, two plates are coupled with anchor joints
at the ends as a step in joint preparation see Figure 10.27. Then a test bead is welded along
the centre line. After storing the specimen for 48 hours, it is examined for surface cracks. For
a more precise examination, various transverse sections are planned. The value to be determined is the minimum working temperature at which cracks no longer occur. The specimen shape simulates the conditions during welding of a root pass.
141
The most commonly used cold crack test is the Implant test, Figure 10.28. A cylindrical body
(Implant) is inserted into the bore hole of a support plate and fixed by a surface bead. After
the bead has cooled down to 150C the implant is exposed to a constant load. The time is
measured until a rupture or a crack occurs (depending on test criterion 'rupture' or 'crack').
Varying the load provides the possibility to determine the stress which can be born for 16
hours without appearance of a crack or rupture. If a stress is specified to be of the size of the
yield point as a requirement, a preheat temperature can be determined by varying the working temperature to the point at which cracks no longer appear.
As explained in chapter 'cold cracks' the hydrogen content plays an important role for cold
crack development. Figure 10.29 shows results of trials where the cold crack behaviour was
examined using the Tekken and Implant test. Variables of these tests were hydrogen content
of the weld metal and preheat temperature. The variation of the hydrogen content of the weld
metal was carried out by different exposure to humidity (or rebaking) of the used stick electrodes. Based on the hydrogen content, the preheat temperature was increased test by test.
Consequently, the curves of Figure 10.29 represent the limit curves for the related test.
Specimens above these
heat input: 12 kJ/cm
basic coated stick electrode
plate and support plate thickness: 38 mm
cracks, below these curves
C
Implant-Test
150
Tekken-Test
100
50
cracks are present. Evi-
150
Rcr = Rp0,2 = 358 N/mm
Preheat temperature
Preheat temperature
curves remain free from
fractured
starting cracks
crack-free
20
dent for both graphs is that

with
100
temperature
50
starting cracks
crack-free
20
0
10
20
30
ml/
40
100 g
increased
10
Diffusible hydrogen content

br-er-10-29.cdr
Test Result Comparison of

Implant and Tekken Test
20
30
ml/
40
100 g
preheat
considerably
higher hydrogen contents

are tolerated without any
crack
development
be-
cause of the much better

hydrogen effusion.
Figure 10.29
If both graphs are compared it becomes obvious that the tests produce slightly different findings, i.e. with identical
hydrogen content, the determined preheat temperatures required for the avoidance of cracking, differ by about 20C.
142
Figure 10.30 illustrates a method to measure the diffusible hydrogen content in welds which
is standardised in DIN 8572. Figure a) shows the burette filled with mercury before a specimen is inserted. The coupons are inserted into the opened burette and drawn with a magnet
through the mercury to the capillary side (density of steel is lower than that of mercury, coupons surface). Then the burette is closed and evacuated. The hydrogen, which effuses of the
coupons but does not diffuse through the mercury, collects in the capillary. The samples remain in the evacuated burette 72 hours for degassing. To determine the hydrogen volume
the burette is ventilated and the coupons are removed from the capillary side. The volume of
the effused hydrogen can be read out from the capillary; the height difference of the two mercury menisci, the air pressure, and the temperature
provide the data to calculate
the
norm
volume
to pump
hydrogen
under reduced pressure
under
VT
air pressure B
evacuated
standard
conditions.
This
capillary side
volume and the coupons
meniskus1
weight are used to calculate,
meniskus2
mercury
coupons
as measured value, the hydrogen volume in ml/100 g

weld metal. This is the most
a) starting condition
b) during degassing
c) ventilated after degassing
br-er-10-30.cdr
commonly used method to

determine
the
Burettes for Determination of

Diffusible Hydrogen Content
hydrogen
content in welded joints.
Figure 10.30
2.
TTA / TTT - Diagrams
2. TTA / TTT Diagrams
9
An essential feature of low
alloyed ferrous materials is
g -Iron
face-centered
a -Iron
body-centered
the crystallographic transformation
of
the
body-
centred cubic lattice which

is stable at room temperature (-iron, ferritic structure) to the face-centred
cubic lattice (-iron, aus-
Lattice constant
0.364 nm
at 900 C
Lattice constant
0.286 nm
at room temperature
tenitic
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-01.cdr
structure),
2.1.
Body- and Face-Centered

Lattice Structures
The
Figure
temperature,
where this transformation
Figure 2.1
occurs, is not constant but

depends on factors like
alloy content, crystalline structure, tensional status, heating and cooling rate, dwell times,
etc..
In order to be able to
the
basic
processes it is necessary to
have a look at the basic
TsA
T1
processes occuring in an
binary
system.
Figure 2.2 shows the state
T2
S+ a
3
2
4
5
Temperature T
idealized
L1
L1
Li
So
TsB
Temperature T
understand
a - ss
of a binary system with

a
complete solubility in the

liquid and solid state.
If the melting of the L1 alloy
A
(Ni)
c2
c0
c3
Concentration c
c4
B
(Cu)
Time t
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-02.cdr
Binary System With Complete Solubility

in Liquid and Solid Phase
is cooling down, the first

crystals of the composition
c1
Figure 2.2
c1 are formed with reaching

the temperature T1. These crystals are depicted as mixed crystal , since they consist of a
compound of the components A (80%) and of B (20%). Further, a melting with the composition c0 is present at the temperature T1. With dropping temperature, the remaining melt is en-
10
riched with component B, following the course of line Li (liquidus line, up to point 4). In parallel, always new and B richer -mixed crystals are forming along the connection line So
(solidus line, points 1, 2, 5). The distribution of the components A and B in the solidified structure is homogeneous since concentration differences of the precipitated mixed crystals are
balanced by diffusion processes.
The other basic case of complete solubility of two components in the liquid state and of complete insolubility in the solid state shows Figure 2.3 If two components are completely insoluble in the solid state, no mixed crystal will be formed of A and B. The two liquidus lines Li cut
in point e which is also designated as the eutectic point. The isotherm Te is the eutectic line.
If an alloy of free composition solidifies according to Figure 2.3, the eutectic line must be cut.
This is the temperature (Te) of the eutectic transformation:
S A+B (T = Te = const.).
This means that the melt at a constant temperature Te dissociates in A and B. If an alloy of
the composition L2 solidifies, a purely eutectic structure results. On account of the eutectic
reaction, the temperature of the alloy remains constant up to the completed transformation
(critical point) (Figure 2.2).
Eutectic structures are normally fine-grained and show a characteristic orientation between
the constituents. The alloy L1 will consist of a compound of alloy A and eutectic alloy E in the
solid state.
You can find further inL1
L2
L1
L2
TsA
tion behaviour in relevant
S
1
Temperature T
TsB
So
Te
Li
Li
S+A
S+B
specialist literature.
Temperature T
formation on transforma-
The definite use of the
3
4
principles occurs in the

A+E
B+E
iron-iron carbide diagram.

A
br-eI-02-03.cdr
c1
ce
Concentration c
Transformation behaviour
Time t
ISF 2002
of carbon containing iron

Binary System With Complete Solubility in Liquid Phase
and Complete Unsolubility in Solid Phase
Figure 2.3
in the equilibrium condition is described by the
11
stable phase diagram iron-graphite (Fe-C). In addition to the stable system Fe-C which is
specific for an equilibrium-close cooling, there is a metastable phase diagram iron cementite
(Fe-Fe3C). During a slow cooling, carbon precipitates as graphite in accord with the stable
system Fe-C, while during accelerated cooling, what corresponds to technical conditions,
carbon precipitates as cementite in agreement with the metastable system (Fe-Fe3C). Per
definition, iron carbide is designated as a structure constituent with cementite although its
stoichiometric composition is identical (Fe3C). By definition, cementite and graphite can be
present in steel together or the cementite can decompose to iron and graphite during heat
treatment of carbon rich alloys. However, it is fundamentally valid that the formation of cementite is encouraged with increasing cooling rate and decreasing carbon content. In a double diagram, the stable
melt +
d - solid solution
system is shown by a
d-
dashed, the metastable by
solid sol.
d -+g-
melt +
austenite
austenite + graphite
austenite + cementite
diagram is limited by the
austenite +
ferrite
formation of cementite with
ferrite
The
stoichiometry
strict
of
the
stable equilibrium
metastable equilibrium
Mass % of Carbon
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-04.cdr
Stable and Metastable Iron-Carbon-Diagram
formed carbide phase can

be read off at the top X-
ferrite + graphite
ferrite + cementite
perlite
a carbon content of 6,67

mass%.
ledeburite
phase
melt +
cementite
austenite
Temperature C
metastable
Fe3C
(cementite)
solid sol.
a solid line, Figure 2.4.

The
melt +
graphite
melt
Figure 2.4
coordinate of the molar

carbon content. In accordance with the carbon content of Fe3C, cementite is formed at a molar content of 25%. The solid solutions in the phase fields are designated by Greek characters. According to convention, the transition points of pure iron are marked with the character
A - arrt (stop point) and distinguished by subjacent indexes. If the transition points are determined by cooling curves, the character r = refroidissement is additionally used. Heat-up
curves get the supplement c - chauffage. Important transition points of the commercially more
important metastable phase diagram are:
1536 C: solidification temperature (melting point) -iron,
1392 C: A4- point - iron,

-
12
911 C: A3- point non-magnetic - iron,
with carbon containing iron:

-
723 C: A1- point (perlite point).
The corners of the phase fields are designated by continuous roman capital letters.
As mentioned before, the system iron-iron carbide is a more important phase diagram for
technical use and also for welding techniques. The binary system iron-graphite can be stabilized by an addition of silicon so that a precipitation of graphite also occurs with increased
solidification velocity. Especially iron cast materials solidify due to their increased silicon contents according to the stable system. In the following, the most important terms and transformations should be explained more closely as a case of the metastable system.
The transformation mechanisms explained in the previous sections can be found in the binary system iron-iron carbide almost without exception. There is an eutectic transformation in
point C, a peritectic one in point I, and an eutectoidic transformation in point S. With a temperature of 1147C and a carbon concentration of 4.3 mass%, the eutectic phase called Ledeburite precipitates from cementite with 6,67% C and saturated -solid solutions with 2,06%
C. Alloys with less than 4,3 mass% C coming from primary austenite and Ledeburite are
called hypoeutectic, with more than 4,3 mass% C coming from primary austenite and Ledeburite are called hypereutectic.
If an alloy solidifies with less than 0,51 mass percent of carbon, a -solid solution is formed
below the solidus line A-B (-ferrite). In accordance with the peritectic transformation at
1493C, melt (0,51% C) and -ferrite (0,10% C) decompose to a -solid solution (austenite).
The transformation of the -solid solution takes place at lower temperatures. From -iron with
C-contents below 0.8% (hypoeutectoidic alloys), a low-carbon -iron (pre-eutectoidic ferrite)
and a fine-lamellar solid solution (perlite) precipitate with falling temperature, which consists
of -solid solution and cementite. With carbon contents above 0,8% (hypereutectoidic alloys)
secondary cementite and perlite are formed out of austenite. Below 723C, tertiary cementite
precipitates out of the -iron because of falling carbon solubility.
13
The most important distinguished feature of the three described phases is their lattice structure. - and -phases are cubic body-centered (CBC lattice) and -phase is cubic facecentered (CFC lattice), Figure 2.1.
Different carbon solubility of solid solutions also results from lattice structures. The three
above mentioned phases dissolve carbon interstitially, i.e. carbon is embedded between the
iron atoms. Therefore, this types of solid solutions are also named interstitial solid solution.
Although the cubic face-centred lattice of austenite has a higher packing density than the cubic body-centred lattice, the void is bigger to disperse the carbon atom. Hence, an about 100
times higher carbon solubility of austenite (max. 2,06% C) in comparison with the ferritic
phase (max. 0,02% C for -iron) is the result. However, diffusion speed in -iron is always at
least 100 times slower than in -iron because of the tighter packing of the -lattice.
Although - and -iron show the same lattice structure and properties, there is also a difference between these phases. While -iron develops of a direct decomposition of the melt (S
), -iron forms in the solid phase through an eutectoidic transformation of austenite (
+ Fe3C). For the transformation of non- and low-alloyed steels, is the transformation of ferrite of lower importance, although this -phase has a special importance for weldability of
high alloyed steels.
Unalloyed steels used in industry are multi-component systems of iron and carbon with alloying elements as manganese, chromium, nickel and silicon. Principally the equilibrium diagram Fe-C applies also to
such multi-component systems. Figure 2.5 shows a
Ac3
schematic cut through the

Ac1e
three phase system

Fe-M-C.
During precipitation, mixed
carbides of the general
composition M3C develop.
ISF 2002
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In contrast to the binary

Description of the Terms Ac1b, Ac1e, Ac3
Figure 2.5
system Fe-C, is the three
14
phase system Fe-M-C characterised by a temperature interval in the three-phase field + +

M3C. The beginning of the transformation of + M3C to is marked by Aclb, the end by Acle.
The indices b and e mean
the beginning and the end
of transformation.
The described equilibrium
diagrams apply only to low

heating and cooling rates.
However, higher heating
and cooling rates are present during welding, consequently other structure
types develop in the heat
ISF 2002
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affected zone (HAZ) and in
TTA Diagram for

Isothermal Austenitization
the weld metal. The structure transformations during
Figure 2.6
heating and cooling are described by transformation diagrams, where a temperature change
is not carried out close to the equilibrium, but
ASTM4; L=80m
at different heating and/or cooling rates.
ASTM11; L=7m
representation
processes
during
of
the
transformation
isothermal
austenitizing
shows Figure 2.6. This figure must be read

20m
20m
exclusively along the time axis! It can be

recognised
that
several
transformations
during isothermal austenitizing occur with e.g.

800C.
Inhomogeneous
austenite
means
Temperature
both, low carbon containing austenite is

formed in areas, where ferrite was present
before transformation, and carbon-rich austenite is formed in areas during transformation, where carbon was present before
Time
br-er02-07.cdr
ISF 2002
TTA-Diagram for
Continuous Warming
Figure 2.7
transformation. During sufficiently long annealing times, the concentration differences

are balanced by diffusion, the border to a ho-
15
mogeneous austenite is passed. A growing of the austenite grain size (to ASTM and/or in
m) can here simultaneously be observed with longer annealing times.
The influence of heating rate on austenitizing is shown in Figure 2.7. This diagram must only
be read along the sloping lines of the same heating rate. For better readability, a time pattern
was added to the pattern of the heating curves. To elucidate the grain coarsening during austenitizing, two microstructure photographs are shown, both with different grain size classes to
ASTM.
Figure 2.8 shows the relation between the TTA and
the Fe-C diagram. It's obvi-
Ac3
ous that the Fe-C diagram

is only valid for infinite long
Ac1e
Ac1b
dwell times and that the

TTA diagram applies only
for one individual alloy.
Figure 2.9 shows the dif ISF 2002
br-eI-02-08.cdr
ferent
Dependence Between TTA-Diagram

and the Fe-M-C System
time-temperature
passes during austenitizing

and
Figure 2.8
subsequent
cooling
down.
The heating period is comAc3
posed of a continuous and
continuous
an isothermal section.
Ac1e
Ac1b
During cooling down, two
isothermal
different ways of heat control can be distinguished:

1. : During continuous
temperature
Heating and Cooling Behaviour With
Several Heat Treatments
Figure 2.9
control
ISF 2002
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cooling is carried out with a

constant cooling rate out of
16
the area of the homogeneous and stable austenite down to room temperature.
2. : During isothermal temperature control a quenching out of the area of the austenite is
carried out into the area of the metastable austenite (and/or into the area of martensite), followed by an isothermal holding until all transformation processes are completed. After transformation will be cooled down to room temperature.
Figure
2.10
shows
the
time-temperature diagram
of a isothermal transformation of the mild steel Ck 45.
Read such diagrams only
along the time-axis! Below
the Ac1b line in this figure,
there is the area of the metastable austenite, marked
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-10.cdr
Isothermal TTT-Diagram
of Steel C45E (Ck 45)
with
an
A.
The
areas
marked with F, P, B, und M

represent areas where fer-
Figure 2.10
rite, perlite, Bainite and

martensite are formed. The
lines which limit the area to the left mark the beginning of the formation of the respective
structure. The lines which limit the area to the right mark the completion of the formation of
the respective structure. Because the ferrite formation is followed by the perlite formation, the
completion of the ferrite formation is not determined, but the start of the perlite formation.
Transformations to ferrite and perlite, which are diffusion controlled, take place with elevated
temperatures, as diffusion is easier. Such structures have a lower hardness and strength, but
an increased toughness.
Diffusion is impeded under lower temperature, resulting in formation of bainitic and martensitic structures with hardness and strength values which are much higher than those of ferrite
and perlite. The proportion of the formed martensite does not depend on time. During
quenching to holding temperature, the corresponding share of martensite is spontanically
formed. The present rest austenite transforms to Bainite with sufficient holding time. The right
17
detail of the figure shows the present structure components after completed transformation
and the resulting hardness at room temperature.
Figure 2.11 depicts the graphic representation of the TTT diagram, which is more important
for welding techniques. This is the TTT diagram for continuous cooling of the steel Ck 15.
The diagram must be read along the drawn cooling passes. The lines, which are limiting the
individual areas, also depict the beginning and the end of the respective transformation.
Close to the cooling curves, the amount of the formed structure is indicated in per cent, at the
end of each curve, there is the hardness value of the structure at room temperature.
Figure 2.12 shows the TTT
diagram of an alloyed steel
containing
approximately
the same content of carbon
27
19
40
as the steel Ck 15. Here

you can see that all transformation
370
are
strongly postponed in rela-
170
235 220
processes
tion to the mild steel. A
Time
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-11.cdr
Continuous TTT-Diagram
of Steel C15E (Ck 15)
completely
martensitic
transformation
is
carried
out up to a cooling time of
Figure 2.11
about 1.5 seconds, comC

0,13
Chemical
composition %
Si
0,31
Al
P
S
0,023 0,009 0,010
Mn
0,51
1000
C
900
Cr
1,5
Mo
0,06
Ni
1,55
V
< 0,01
austenitizing temperature 870C

(dwell time 10 min) heated in 3 min
Ck 15. In addition, the
Ac3
800
completely diffusion con-
Ac1
Temperature
700
F
47
25
10 22
55 67
75
75
25
25
75
75 75
A+C
600
trolled transformation proc-
esses of the perlite area
25
500
MS
23
60
400
pared with 0.4 seconds of
72
55
37
are postponed to clearly

30
300
22
9
longer times.
200
100
417
400
396
314 304 287 268 251 224 192
167
152
151
0
10
-1
br-eI-02-12.cdr
10
10
10
10
104
Time
of Steel 15 CrNi 6
Figure 2.12
10
106
The hypereutectoid steel C
ISF 2002
100
behaves
completely
different, Figure 2.13. With

this carbon content, a pre-
18
eutectoid ferrite formation cannot still be car-
C
Si
Mn
P
S
Cr
Cu
Mo
Ni
V
1,03 0,17 0,22 0,014 0,012 0,07 0,14 0,01 0,10 traces
Chemical
composition %
1000
C
900

dwell time 10 min, heated in 3 min
ried out (see also Figure 2.3).

The term of the figures 2.9 to 2.11 "austenitiz-
800
AC1e
Temperature
700
A+C
100
100
100
100
100
100
100 AC1b
100
600
P
500
where the workpiece transforms to an austen-
2 15
400
180
300
200
RA30
914 901 817 366
351
283
236
214
215
177
0
1000
C
900

dwell time 10 min, heated in 3 min
AC1e
Temperature
700
C
A
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
AC1b
that only martensite is formed from the austenite, provided that the cooling rate is suffi-
100
100
500
the AC3 temperature, where above it there is

only pure austenite. In addition you can see
800
600
itic microstructure in the course of a heat

treatment. Dont mix up this temperature with
MS
100
ing temperature means the temperature,
194
400
ciently high, a formation of
any other
300
200
microstructure is completely depressed. With
MS
RA40
100
M
876 887 867 496 457 442
0
10-1
100
101
102
347
289
103
246
227
104
Time
br-er02-13.cdr
200
105
ISF 2002
of Steel C100U (C 100 W1)
this type of transformation, the steel gains the

highest hardness and strength, but loses its
toughness, it embrittles. The slowest cooling
rate where such a transformation happens, is
Figure 2.13
called critical cooling rate.
Ar1
Perlite
100%
Low number of nuclei due to

melting, high temperature, long
dwell time, coarse austenite
grain, C-increase up to 0,9%,
Mn, Ni, Mo, Cr
Cr, V, Mo
900C
1300C
C
800
High number of nuclei, low

hardening temperature,
C-increase above 0,9%
Cr, V, Mo
1000
Temperature
Ar3
C, Cr, Mn, Ni, Mo, high

temperature, ferrite
precipitation in perlite
A
F
600
P
B
MS
400
Bainite
Ms
Martensite
C, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, V, high
hardening temperature, preprecipitation in bainite
Co, Al, deformation

of austenite, low
hardening temperature
200
100
Structure distribution
Temperature
Low hardening temperature

(special carbides),
austenite above bainite
%
75
50
25
0
10-1
Transition time
br-er02-14.cdr
10
102
103
Cooling time (A3 to 500C)

ISF 2002
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Influence of Alloy Elements

on Transformation Behaviour of Steels
Figure 2.14
ISF 2002
Temperature Influence on
Transformation Behaviour of Steels
Figure 2.15
19
Figure 2.14 shows schematically how the TTT diagram is modified by the chemical composition of the steel.
The influence of an increased austenitizing temperature on transformation behaviour shows
Figure 2.15. Due to the higher hardening temperature, the grain size of the austenite is
higher (see Figure 2.6 and 2.7).
This grain growth leads to
Max. temperature 1350 C
S355J2G3 (St 52-3)

C
0,16
Chemical
composition %
Si
0,47
Welding heat cycle
Mn
P
S
Al
N
Cr
1,24 0,029 0,029 0,024 0,0085 0,10
Cu
0,17
Ni
0,06
900
C
800
sion lengths which must be

passed during the trans-
700
formation. As a result, the
48
Temperature
an extension of the diffu-
600
500
"noses" in the TTT diagram
75
55
400
222
are shifted to longer times.
215
300
The lower part of the figure
200
449
420
400
363 334 324 270
253
251 249 243
shows the proportion of
100
8 10
20
Time
br-eI-02-16.cdr
40
60 80 100
200
400
ISF 2002
formed
martensite
and
Bainite depending on cool-
Welding TTT-Diagram
of Steel S355J2G3 (St 52-3)
ing time. You can see that
Figure 2.16
with
higher
austenitizing
temperature the start of

Max. temperature 1350 C
15 Mo 3
C
0,16
Chemical
composition %
Si
0,30
Bainite formation together
Welding heat cycle
Mn
P
S
Mo
0,68 0,012 0,038 0,29
with the drop of the mart-
900
C
800
ensite proportion is clearly
Ac3=861C
Ac1=727C
700
Temperature
32
8
4
19
53
45
32
17
shifted to longer times.
600
500
99
MS 14
74
83
60
77
38
As Bainite formation is not
15
87
so much impeded by the
95
400
208
200
178
300
coarse austenite grain as
200
440
HV30
431
338
285
255
234
224
210
with the completely diffu-
100
8 10
20
Time
40
60 80 100
400
ISF 2002
br-eI-02-17.cdr
Welding TTT - Diagram

of Steel 15Mo3 (15 Mo 3)
Figure 2.17
200
sion controlled processes

of ferrite and perlite formation, the maximum Bainite
proportion
is
increased
from about 45 to 75%.
20
Due to the strong influence of the austenitizing temperature to the transformation behaviour
of steel, the welding technique uses special diagrams, the so called Welding-TTT-diagrams.
They are recorded following the welding temperature cycle with both, higher austenitizing
temperatures (basically between 950 and 1350C) and shorter austenitizing times.
You find two examples in Figures 2.16 and 2.17.
Figure 2.18 proves that the
2
%C
1
iron-carbon diagram was
0,45
0,5
developed as an equilib-
1000
0
C
800
1000
rium diagram for infinite
long cooling time and that
P
600
400
MS
400
Temperature
Temperature
800
F
600
200
200
0
10-1
10
10
10
Time
10
10
0
ISF 2002
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Relation Between TTT-Diagram

and Iron-Carbon-Diagram
Figure 2.18
a TTT diagram applies always oy for one alloy.
3.
Residual Stresses
3. Residual Stresses
22
The emergence of residual
stresses can be of very
different nature, see three
tension
examples in Figure 3.1.

Figure
grinding disk
3.2
details
the
causes of origin. In a protension
pressure
pressure
duced workpiece, material-
weld
, production-, and wearcaused residual stresses

are overlaying in such a
ISF 2002
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way that a certain condition
Various Reasons of Residual

Stress Development
of residual stresses is cre-
Figure 3.1
ated. Such a workpiece

shows in service more or
less residual stresses, and it will never be stress-free!

Figure 3.3 defines residual stresses of 1., 2., and 3. type. This grading is independent from
the origin of the residual stresses. It is rather based on the three-dimensional extension of the
stress conditions.
Based on this definition, FigAnalysis of Residual Stress Development
ure 3.4 shows a typical distrirelevant material
bution of residual stresses.

Residual
stresses,
which
build-up around dislocations
wear
production
e.g.
polyphase
systems,
non-metallic
inclusions,
grid defects
and other lattice imperfections
mechanical
thermal
chemical
e.g.
partial-plastic
deformation of
notched bars or
close to
inclusions,
fatigue strain
e.g. thermal
residual stresses
due to
operational
temperatur fields
e.g.
H-diffusion
under
electro-chemical
corrosion
(III), superimpose within a

grain causing stresses of the
2
nd
type and if spreading
forming
deforming
separating
joining
plating
e.g. thermal
residual
stresses
residual stresses
due to
inhomogenuous
deformationanisotropy
residual
stresses due to
machining
residual
stresses due to
welding
layer residual
stresses
changing material
characteristics
induction hardening,
case hardening,
nitriding
around several grains, bring

ISF 2002
br-eI-03-02e.cdr
st
out residual stresses of the 1
Development of Residual Stresses
type.
The
formation
of
residual
stresses in a transition-free
Figure 3.2
23
steel cylinder is shown in Figures 3.5. and 3.6. During water quenching of the homogeneous
heated cylinder, the edge of the cylinder cools down faster than the core. Not before 100
seconds have elapsed is the temperature across the cylinder's cross section again
s III
tension s
General Definition of the Term Residual Stresses
Residual stresses of the I. type are almost homogenuous across larger

material areas (several grains). Internal forces related to residual
stresses of I. type are in an equilibrium with view to any cross-sectional
plane throughout the complete body. In addition, the internal torques
related to the residual stresses with reference to each axis disappear.
When interfering with force and torque equilibrium of bodies under
residual stresses of the I. type, macroscopic dimension changes
always develop.
s II
+
sI
Residual stresses of the II. type are almost homogenuous across small
material areas (one grain or grain area). Internal forces and torques
related to residual stresses of the II. type are in an equilibrium across
a sufficient number of grains. When interfering with this equilibrium,
macroscopic dimension changes may develop.
x
0
grain boundaries
Residual stresses of the III. type are inhomogenuous across smallest

material areas (some atomic distances). Internal forces and torques
related to residual stresses of the III. type are in an equilibrium across
small areas (sufficiently large part of a grain). When interfering with this
equilibrium, macroscopic dimension changes do not develop.
sIII
= residual stresses between several grains

= residual stresses in a single grain
= residual stresses in a point
<
<
sI
sII
sIII
<
br-er03-03e.cdr
sE = s I + sII
ISF 2002
br-er03-04e.cdr
Definition of Residual Stresses
ISF 2002
Definition of Residual Stresses of

I., II., and III. Type
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
homogeneous. The left part of

1000
C
900
Figure 3.5 shows the T-tC
urement points in the cylinder.

of quenching on the stress
condition in the cylinder. At
Temperature
Figure 3.6 shows the results
750
35 mm diameter
water cooling
500
250
MS
1 edge
2 50 % radius
3 core
1s
5s
15 s
800
1000
Temperature
curve of three different meas-
0s
10 s
700
20 s
600
25 s
500
35 s
400
45 s
300
53 s
200
the beginning of cooling, the
68 s
0 -2
10
10-1
cylinder edge starts shrinking
10-0
101
102
Cooling time
103
104
100
280 s
0
17,5
14
10,5
faster than the core (upper
0
3,5
3,5
10,5
Radius
ISF 2002
br-eI-03-05e.cdr
figure). Through the stabilising
Temperature in a Cylinder
During Water Cooling
effect of the cylinder core,

Figure 3.5
mm
17,5
24
tensile stress builds up at the edge areas while the core is exposed to pressure stress. Resulting volume differences between core and edge are balanced by elastic and plastic deformations. When cooling is completed, edge and core are on the same temperature level, the
plastically stretched edge now supports the unstressed core, so that pressurestresses are
present in the edge areas and tensile residual stresses in the core.
300
tension
pressure
N/mm
200
tension
Stresses in the central rod
Volume differences between edge and core

at start of cooling
tension
pressure
tension
Compensation of volume differences

by plastic deformation and stresses
at start of cooling
pressure
100
-100
-200
B'
tension
pressure
br-er03-06e.cdr
Compensation of volume differences

by plastic deformation and stresses
at end of cooling
-300
0
ISF 2002
400
600
br-er03-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
Residual Stress Development

by Warming the Central Rod
Volume Changes During Cooling
Figure 3.6
200
Temperature of the central rod
Figure 3.7
These changes are principally shown once again in Figure 3.7 with the 3-rod model. A warming of the middle rod causes at first an elastic expansion of the outer rods, the inner rod is
exposed to pressure stress (line A-B). Along the line B-C the rod is plastically deformed, because pressure stresses have exceeded the yielding point. At point C, the cooling of the rod
starts, it is exposed to tensile stress due to shrinking. Along the line D-E the rod is plastically
deformed due to the influence of the counter members beeing in tension. At the point E the
system has cooled down to its initial temperature. This point represents the remaining residual stress condition of this construction. If heating is stopped before point C is reached and
cooled down to the initial temperature, then stress increase in the centre rod will be in parallel
25
with the elastic areas. Starting with point B, the same residual stress condition is present as
in a case of heating up to a temperature above 600C.
Figure 3.8 divides the development of residual stresses in welded seams in three different
mechanisms.
Shrinking stresses: these are stresses formed through uniform cooling of the seam.
Caused by expansion restriction of the colder areas at the edge of the weld and base material , tensile stresses develop along and crosswise to the seam.
Quenching stresses: If cooling is not homogenous, the surface of the weld cools down
faster than the core areas. If the high-temperature limit of elasticity is exceeded due to buildup stress differences, pressure stresses will be present at the weld surface after cooling. In
contrast, the core shows tensile stresses in cold condition (see also Figure 3.6).
Transition stresses: Transitions in the ferrite and perlite stage cause normally only residual
stresses, because within this temperature range the yield strength of the steel is so low that
generated stresses can be undone by plastic deformations.
This is not the case with transitions in the Bainite and martensite stage. A transition of the
austenite causes an increase in volume (transition cfc in cbc, the cfc lattice has a higher density, additional volume increase through lat+y
tice deformation). In the case of a homoge-
-x
nous transition, the weld will consequently

unfold pressure stresses. If the transition of
+x
the edge areas happens earlier than the transition of the slower cooling core, plastic de-
-y
2. Quenching stresses
1. Shrinking stresses
+x
-x
+s +y
formations of the core area may be present

similar to quenching (see above: quenching
-x
-s -y
+x
stresses). In this case, the weld surface will

3. Transformation stresses
show tensile stresses after cooling.

Generally these mechanisms cannot be
separated accurately from each other, thus
4. Overlap options
of case 1., 2. and 3.
+s +y
+s +y
inhomogenuous
transformation
-x
+x
-x
+x
the residual stress condition of a weld will

represent an overlap of the cases as shown
in the 4th figure. This overlap of the different
homogenuous
transformation
-s -y
br-er03-08.cdr
-s -y
ISF 2002
Stress Distributions and Superpositions

Perpendicular to Welded Joint
mechanisms makes a forecast of the remaining residual stress condition difficult.

Figure 3.8
26
Figure 3.9 shows the building-up of residual
Temperature
distribution
Seam
Stress
distribution sX
ogy to the 3-rod model of Figure 3.7. This fig-
1. cut A-A
DT ~ 0
stresses crosswise to a welded seam in anal-
stress-free
ure considers only shrinking residual stresses.

Before application of welding heat, the seam
2. cutt B-B
area is stress-free (cut A-A). At the weldpool

tension
weldpool
B
the highest temperature of the welding cycle
area of plastic
deformations
pressure
can be found (cut B-B), metal is liquid. At this

point, there are no residual stresses, because
3. cut C-C
molten metal cannot transmit forces at the

D
weldpool. Areas close to the joint expand

through welding heat but are supported by
M'
4. cut D-D
residual stresses
areas which are not so close to the seam.
DT = 0
Thus, areas close to the joint show compresbr-er03-09e.cdr
ISF 2002
Formation of Residual Stresses

Caused by Welding Heat
sion stress, areas away from the joint tensile

stress. In cut C-C the already solidified weld
metal starts to shrink and is supported by
Figure 3.9
areas close to the seam, the weld metal

shows tensile stresses, the adjacent areas
compression stresses. In cut D-D is the temperature completely balanced, a residual
stress condition is recognised as shown in
the lower right figure.
31 15 mm
15 mm
material
S235JR (St 37)
103
a
a
Figure 3.10 shows how much residual

stresses are influenced by constraining ef-
1.
a = 100 mm
s = 800 N/mm
fects of adjacent material. The resulting
2.
a = 150 mm
s = 530 N/mm
stress in the presented case is calculated
3.
a = 200 mm
s = 400 N/mm
according to Hooke:
4.
a = 250 mm
s = 300 N/mm
= E
5.
a = 300 mm
s = 270 N/mm
br-er03-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
Shrinking Stresses in a
Firmly Clamped Plate
Elongation is calculated as l/a ( l is the

length change due to shrinking). With conFigure 3.10
27
stant joint volume will shrinking and l always have the same value. Thus the elongation
depends only on the value a. The smaller the a is chosen, the higher are the resulting
stresses.
Effects of transition on cooling can be estimated from Figure 3.11. Here curves of temperature- and length-changes of ferritic and austenitic steels are drawn. It is clear that a ferritic
lattice has a higher volume than an austenitic lattice at the same temperature.
A steel which transforms from austenite to one of the ferrite types increases its volume at the
critical point. This sudden rise in volume can be up to 3% in the case of martensite formation.
Longitudinal expansion Dl
welding sample 300 x 10 x 30 (70,140)

groove angle 60, depth 4,5 mm
firm
clamping
force
sensor
el
el
thermo
couples
links
ste
nit
ic
ste
ic
t
rri
fe
ste
au
to calculator
1000
600
800
14
m
tra ild
ns ste
fo el
rm w
at ith
io
n
800
200
Temperature
Force
elektrode
400
600
heat affected
zone
400
force
Temperature [C]
200
temperature
-200
0 -1
10
100
101
102
103
104
105
Time
br-er03-11e.cdr
ISF 2002
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Force Measurement
During Cooling of a Weld
Longitudinal Expansion of
Various Steels
Figure 3.11
ISF 2002
Figure 3.12
To record the effects of this behaviour on the stress condition of the weld, sample welds are
carried out in the test device outlined in Figure 3.12. Thermo couples measure the T-t curve
at the weld seam, a force sensor records the force which tries to bend the samples.
The lower picture shows the results of such a test.
The temperature behaviour at the fusionline as well as the force necessary to hold the sample over the time is plotted.
28
In the temperature range above 600C the force sensor registers a tensile force which is
caused by the shrinking of the austenite. Between 600 and 400C a large drop in force can
be seen, which is caused by the transition of the austenite. The repeated increase of the
force is based on further shrinking of the ferrite.
With the help of TTT diagrams
of base material and welding
steel
austenitic
S690QL (StE 70)
consumable,
consumable
electrode
austenitic
austenitic
surface weld
surface weld
the
transition
temperatures and/or tempera-
sample shape
(V-groove, 60)
ture areas for the individual
type of
welding
zones of the welded joint can
S690QL (StE 70)

high-strength
surface weld
position of the HAZ
temperature it can be clearly
residual stress
distribution sL
pressure
data and with the course of
tension
be determined. With these
determined in which part of
ISF 2002
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the curve the force drop is
Influence of Material Combination

on Residual Stress Distribution in a Weld
caused by the transition of the

welding consumable and in
Figure 3.13
which part by transition in the heat affected

542'
28'
151'
zone (HAZ).
These results can be used to determine the
longitudinal residual stresses transversal to
the joint, as shown in Figure 3.13. During
140
welding of austenitic transition-free materials
Angle change
%
100
only tensile residual stresses are caused in
80
60
the welded area according to Figure 3.8. If an
40
20
austenitic electrode is welded to a StE 70,

transitions occur in the area of the heat af-
f = 1
f = 3
f = 7
fected zone which lead to a decrease of ten-
f = 13
sile stresses. If a high-strength electrode

which has a martensitic transition, is welded
a=5
a=7
a=9
br-er03-14e.cdr
ISF 2002
Influence of Welding Sequence

on Angle Distortion
Figure 3.14
a = 12,5
to a StE 70, then there will be pressure residual stresses in the weld metal and tensile residual stresses in the HAZ.
29
If parts to be welded are not fixed, the shrinking of the weld will cause an angular distortion of
the workpieces, Figure 3.14 . If the workpieces can shrink unrestricted in this way, the remaining residual stresses will be much lower than in case with firm clamping.
Methods to determine residual stresses can be divided into destructive, non-destructive, and
conditionally destructive methods.
The borehole and ring core
method can be considered
plan
section
as conditionally destructive,
Figures 3.15 and 3.16.
a
WSG
In both cases, present residual stresses are released
through partial material removal and the resulting deformations
are
measured by wire
then
workpiece
strain
ISF 2002
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gauges. An essential advan-
Residual Stress Determination

Using Bore Hole Procedure
tage of the borehole method

is the very small material
Figure 3.15
removal, the diameter of the

borehole is only 1 to 5 mm, the bore depth is 1- to 2-times the borehole diameter.
The disadvantage here is that only surface elongations can be measured, thus the results are
limited residual stresses in the surface area of the workpiece.
With the ring core method,
a crown milling cutter is
used to mill a ring groove
around a three-axes wire
strain gauge. The core is
released from the force
effects and stress-relieved.
At the time when the resilience of the core is measured, the detection of the
residual stress distribution
Figure 3.16
30
across the depth is also possible.

Both methods are limited in their suitability for measuring welding residual stresses, because
steep strain gradients in the HAZ may cause wrong measurements.
The table in Figure 3.17
shows a survey of measurement methods for residual stresses and what
causes residual stresses to
be picked-up when using
one of the respective methods.
Figure 3.17
assumption of
stress distribution
Figure 3.18 shows a sur-
measured variable
cutting in layers
vey of the completely destructive
procedures
biaxial
any
of
residual stresses
bending deflection f
curves
reduced curves
sy
sz
tzy
tear f
partial residual stress

relief by Dsz
cutting-in
residual stress recognition.
uniaxial
locally different
linear, tensile residual
stresses on top, down
pressure stresses
drilling
eT
e45
eL
slitting
0.46f
tripleaxial
independent of
smple length sL, sT, sR
uniaxial
linear
symmetrically with
reference to rod axis
length change eL
circumference change eT
tear f
sL
sT
sR
partial residual stress

relief by Dsz
ISF 2002
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Destructive Methods for

Determination of Residual Stresses
Figure 3.18
4.
Classification of Steels,
Welding of Mild Steels
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels
32
In the European Standard DIN EN

10020 (July 2000), the designations
Definition of the term steel

Steel is a material with a mass fraction if iron which is higher
than of every other element, ist carbon content is, in general,
lower than 2% and steel contains, moreover, also other
elements. A limited number of chromium steels might contain a
carbon content which is higher than 2%, but, however, 2% is the
common boundary between steel and cast iron [DIN EN 10020
(07.00)].
(main symbols) for the classification of

steels are standardised. Figure 4.1
shows the definition of the term steel
and the classification of the steel
Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:

l
unalloyed steels
stainless steels
other, alloyed steels
grades
quality classes.
- unalloyed quality steels

- unalloyed special steels
stainless steels
other, alloyed steels
accordance
with
their
chemical composition and the main
Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

unalloyed steels
in
- alloyed quality steels

- alloyed special steels
br-er05-01.cdr
ISF 2004
Definition for the

classification of steels
Figure 4.1
In accordance with the chemical composition the steel grades are classified
into unalloyed, stainless and other
alloyed steels. The mass fractions of
the individual elements in unalloyed
steels do not achieve the limit values
which are indicated in Figure 4.2.
Stainless steels are grades of steel
with a mass fraction of chromium of at
least 10,5 % and a maximum of 1,2 %
of carbon.
Other alloyed steels are steel grades
which do not comply with the definition
of stainless steels and where one
alloying element exceeds the limit
value indicated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
33
As far as the main quality classes are concerned, the steels are classified in accordance with their main characteristics and main application properties into unalloyed,
stainless and other alloyed steels.
As regards unalloyed steels a distinction is made between unalloyed quality steels
and unalloyed high-grade steels.
Regarding unalloyed quality steels, prevailing demands apply, for example, to the
toughness, the grain size and / or the forming properties.
Unalloyed high-grade steels are characterised by a higher degree of purity than
unalloyed quality steels, particularly with regard to non-metal inclusions. A more
precise setting of the chemical composition and special diligence during the manufacturing and monitoring process guarantee better properties. In most cases these
steels are intended for tempering and surface hardening.
Stainless steels have a chromium mass fraction of at least 10,5 % and maximally
1,2 % of carbon. They are further classified in accordance with the nickel content and
the main characteristics (corrosion resistance, heat resistance and creep resistance).
Other alloyed steels are classified into alloyed quality steels and alloyed high-grade
steels.
Special demands are put on the alloyed quality steels, as, for example, to toughness,
grain size and / or forming properties. Those steels are generally not intended for
tempering or surface hardening.
The alloyed high-grade steels comprise steel grades which have improved properties
through precise setting of their chemical composition and also through special manufacturing and control conditions.
34
The European Standard DIN EN 10027-1 (September 1992) stipulates the rules for
the designation of the steels by means of code letters and identification numbers.
The code letters and identification numbers give information about the main application field, about the mechanical or physical properties or about the composition.
The code designations of the steels are divided into two groups. The code designations of the first group refer to the application and to the mechanical or physical
properties of the steels. The code designations of the second group refer to the
chemical composition of the steels.
l S = Steels for structural steel engineering
e.g. S235JR, S355J0
According to the utilization of the
l P = Steels for pressure vessel construction

e.g. P265GH, P355M
steel and also to the mechanical or
l L = Steels for pipeline construction

e.g. L360A, L360QB
physical properties, the steel grades

of the first group are designated with
l E = Engineering steels
e.g. E295, E360
different main symbols (Fig. 4.3).
l B = Reinforcing steels
e.g. B500A, B500B
l Y = Prestressing steels
e.g. Y1770C, Y1230H
l R = Steels for rails (or formed as rails)
e.g. R350GHT
l H = Cold rolled flat-rolled steels with higher-strength
drawing quality
e.g. H400LA
l D = Flat products made of soft steels for cold reforming
e.g. DD14, DC04
l T = Black plate and tin plate and strips and also specially
chromium-plated plate and strip
e.g. TH550, TS550
l M = Magnetic steel sheet and strip
e.g. M400-50A, M660-50D
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ISF 2004
Classification of steels in accordance

with their designated use
Figure 4.3
35
An example of the code designation structure with reference to the usage and the
mechanical or physical properties for steels in structural steel engineering is explained in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
36
For designating special features of the steel or the steel product, additional symbols
are added to the code designation. A distinction is made between symbols for special demands, symbols for the type of coating and symbols for the treatment condition. These additional symbols are stipulated in the ECISS-note IC 10 and depicted
in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.
Symbol1)2)
Coating
+A
+ AR
+ AS
+ AZ
+ CE
+ Cu
+ IC
+ OC
+S
+ SE
+T
+ TE
+Z
+ ZA
+ ZE
+ ZF
+ ZN
hot dipped
aluminium, cladded by rolling
coated with Al-Si alloy
coated with Al-Tn alloy (>50% Al)
electrolytically chromium-plated
copper-coated
inorganically coated
organically coated
hot-galvanised
electrolytically galvanised
upgraded by hot dipping with a lead-tin alloy
electrolytically coated with a lead-tin alloy
hot-galvised
coated with Al-Zn alloy (>50% Zn)
electrolytically galvanised
diffusion-annealed zinc coatings (galvannealed, with diffused Fe)
nickel-zinc coating (electrolytically)
1
2
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure S may precede,
for example +SA

ISF 2004
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Symbols for the coating type
Figure 4.5
Symbol1)2)
treatment condition
+A
+ AC
+C
softened
annealed for the production of globular carbides
work-hardened (e.g., by rolling and drawing), also a distinguishing
mark for cold-rolled narrow strips)
cold-rolled to a minimum tensile strength of nnn MPa/mm
cold-rolled
thermoformed/cold formed
slightly cold-drawn or slightly rerolled (skin passed)
quenched or hardened
treatment for capacity for cold shearing
solution annealed
untreated
+ Cnnn
+ CR
+ HC
+ LC
+Q
+S
+ ST
+U
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure T may precede,
for example +TA

ISF 2004
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Symbols for the treatment condition
Figure 4.6
37
Figure 4.7 shows an example of the novel designation of a steel for structural steel
engineering which had formerly been labelled St37-2.
The steel St37-2 (DIN 17100) is, according to the new standard (DIN EN 10027-1),
designated as follows:
S235 J 2 G3
further property
(RR = normalised)
Steel for structural steel engineering
ReH 235 MPa/mm2
test temperature 20C

impact energy 27 J
S = steels for structural steel engineering

P = steels for pressure vessel construction
L = steels for pipeline construction
E = engineering steels
B = reinforcing steels
ISF 2002
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Steel designation in accordance with DIN EN 10027-1
Figure 4.7
Steel
Stahl
S355J0
(St 52-3)
S500N
(StE500)
P295NH
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
(EH36)
Steel
Stahl
Si
Mn
Cr
Al
Cu
Mo
Ni
Nb
0,20
0,55
1,60
0,040
0,040
0,009
0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7
0,035
0,030
0,30
0,020
0,20
0,020
0,1
0,05
0,22
0,21
0,26
0,35
0,05
0,05
0,15
0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035
0,035
0,40 0,80
0,25 0,5
0,30
0,65
0,02 0,12
0,18
0,1 0,7 - 1,5 0,05

0,35
0,05
0,6
Tensile
strength
Zugfestigkeit
RmRm
[N/mm]
yield point ReeHH

Streckgrenze
[N/mm]
elongation
after fracture
Bruchdehnung
A A
[%]
impact
energy AVV
Kerbschlagarbeit
[J]
-20C
0C
S355J2G3
(St 52-3)
S500N
(StE500)
P295NH
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
(EH36)
510-680
355
20-22
27
31-47
610-780
500
16
460-550
285
>18
510-610
355
22
400-490
355
>22
27
21-39
49 (bei +20C)
76 (bei -10C)
ISF 2004
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Chemical composition and mechanical

parameters of different steel sorts
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8 depicts the chemical composition and the mechanical parameters of different steel grades. The figure explains the influence of the chemical composition on
the mechanical properties.
38
The steel S355J2G2 represents the basic type of structural steels which are nowadays commonly used. Apart from a slightly increased Si content for desoxidisation it
this an unalloyed steel.
S500N is a typical fine-grained structural steel. A very fine-grained microstructure
with improved tensile strength values is provided by the addition of carbide forming
elements like Cr and Mo as well as by grain-refining elements like Nb and V.
The boiler steel P295NH is a heat-resistant steel which is applied up to a temperature
of 400C. This steel shows a relatively low strength but very good toughness values
which are caused by the increased Mn content of 0,6%.
S355J2G1W is a weather-resistant structural steel with mechanical properties similar
to S355J2G2. By adding Cr, Cu and Ni, formed oxide layers stick firmly to the workpiece surface. This oxide layer prevents further corrosion of the steel.
S355G3S belongs to the group of shipbuilding steels with properties similar to those
of usual structural steels. Due to special quality requirements of the classification
companies (in this case: impact energy) these steels are summarised under a special
group.
39
The steel grades are classified into four subgroups according to the chemical composition (Fig. 4.9):
Unalloyed steels (except free-cutting steels) with a Mn content of < 1 %
Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn content > 1 %, unalloyed free-cutting
steels and alloyed steels (except high-speed steels) with individual alloying
element contents of less than 5 percent in weight
Alloyed steels (except high-speed steels), if, at least for one alloying element
the content is 5 percent in weight
High-speed steels
The unalloyed steels with Mn contents of < 1% are labelled with the
code letter C and a number which
complies with the hundredfold of the
mean value which is stipulated for the
carbon content.
Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn
content > 1 %,
unalloyed free-
cutting steels and alloyed steels

(individual alloying element contents < 5 %) are labelled with a number which also complies with a
hundredfold of the mean value which
is stipulated for the carbon content,
the chemical symbols for the alloying
elements, ordered according to the
decreasing contents of the alloying
Figure 4.9
elements and numbers, which in the

sequence of the designating alloying
elements give reference about their content. The individual numbers stand for the
medium content of the respective alloying element, the content had been multiplied
40
by the factor as indicated in Fig. 4.9 / Table 4.1 and rounded up to the next whole
number.
The alloyed steels are labelled with the code letter X, a number which again complies with the hundredfold of the mean value of the range stipulated for the carbon
content, the chemical symbols of the alloying elements, ordered according to decreasing contents of the elements and numbers which in sequence of the designating
alloying elements refer to their content.
High-speed steels are designated with the code letter HS and numbers which, in the
following sequence, indicate the contents of elements:: tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co).
The European Standard DIN EN 10027-2 (September 1992) specifies a numbering

system for the designation of steel grades, which is also called material number
system..
The structure of the material number is as follows:
1.
XX
XX (XX)
Sequential number
The digits inside the brackets are intended
for possible future demands.
Steel group number (see Fig. 4.10)
Material main group number (1=steel)

Figure 4.10 specifies the material numbers for the material main group steel.
Figure 4.10
41
42
The influence of the austenite grain size on the transformation behaviour has been
explained in Chapter 2. Figure 4.11 shows the dependence between grain size of the
austenite which develops during the welding cycle, the distance from the fusion line
and the energy-per-unit length from the welding method. The higher the energy-peruntil
length,
the
bigger the austenite grains in the
13
HAZ and the width
Austenite grain size index according

to DIN 50601
Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm
11
9
12
18
of
36
the
HAZ
in-
creases.
Such
coarsened austenite grain decreases
the critical cooling

3
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
Distance of the fusion line
0,8
mm
1,0
ISF 2004
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Influence of the energy-per-unit

length on the austenite grain size
time, thus increasing the tendency of

the steel to harden.
Figure 4.11
With fine-grained structural steels it is tried to suppress the grain growth with alloying
elements. Favourable are nitride and carbide forming alloys. They develop precipitations which suppress undesired grain growth. There is, however, a limitation due to
the solubility of these precipitations, starting with a certain temperature, as shown in
Figure 4.12. Steel 1 does not contain any precipitations and shows therefore a continuous grain growth related to temperature. Steel 2 contains AIN precipitations which
are stable up to a temperature of approx. 1100C, thus preventing a growth of the
austenite grain.
43
With
Grain size index according to DIN 50601
mm
1
8
6
Medium fibre length
10
8
6
-1
10-2
8
6 10
higher
temperatures,
-4
precipitations dissolve and cannot
-2
suppress a grain growth any more.
Steel 3 contains mainly titanium car-
bonitrides of a much lower grain-
refining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4
is a combination of the most effective

properties of steels nos. 2 and 3.
8
Steel 1
Steel 2
Steel 3
Steel 4
10
-3
12
900
1000
1100
1200
Austenitization temperature
1300
The importance of grain refinement

for the mechanical properties of a
1400
steel is shown in Figure 4.13. Pro-
Steel
%C
% Mn
% Al
%N
% Ti
0,21
1,16
0,004
0,010
0,17
1,35
0,047
0,017
0,18
1,43
0,004
0,024
0,067
0,19
1,34
0,060
0,018
0,140
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vided the temperature keeps constant, the yield strength of a steel

increases with decreasing grain size.
ISF 2004
This influence on the yield point Rel is
Austenite grain size as a function

of the austenitization temperature
specified
in
Rel = i + K
Figure 4.12
According
to
1
d
propor-
tional to the root of

the medium grain
N/mm
800
Yield point or 0,2 boundary
the yield point is
Temperature in C:
700
-193
-185
600
-170
-155
-100
300
-40
stands for the inter-
200
diameter d.
-180
500
400
+20
0
nal friction stress of
5
6
-1/2
Grain size d
grain
for
is
mm-1/2
10
Connection between
yield point and grain size
boundary
resistance K
measure
The
ISF 2004
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material.
Hall-Petch-law:
900
law, the increase of

inversely
the
the
above-mentioned
the
these
Figure 4.13
the
influence of the grain size on the forming mechanisms. Apart from this increase of the
yield point, grain refinement also results in improved toughness values. As far as
44
structural steels are concerned, this means the improvement of the mechanical properties without any further alloying. Modern fine-grained structural steels show improved mechanical properties with, at the same time, decreased content of alloying
elements. As a consequence of this chemical composition the carbon equivalent
decreases, the weldability is improved and processing of the steel is easier.
The major advanSteel
type
Stahlsorte
S235JR
(St37-2)
S355J2G3
(St52-3)
S690Q
(StE690)
S890Q
(StE890)
S960Q
(StE960)
Verhltnis
Ratio
S235JR - S960Q
N/mm2
215
345
690
890
960
1:5
Plate
thickness
Blechdicke
mm
50
31
14,4
11
10
5:1
Yield
point
Streckgrenze
Weld cross-section
Nahtquerschnitt
mm2
870
370
100
60
50
17 : 1
Welding
wire 1.2
Schweidraht
1.2
mm
SG2
SG3
NiMoCr
X 90
X 96
Welding
wire costs
Schweidrahtkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
2,4
3,2
3,3
1 : 3,3
Steel costs
Stahlkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
1,2
1,9
2,3
2,4
1 : 2,4
Weld metal costs

Schweigutkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
5,3
2,3
1,5
1,16
5,3 : 1
Special
weld costs
Spez. Schweinahtkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
12
5,1
1,8
1,18
12 : 1
Costs ratio inclusive

base
Kostenverhltnis
inklusive
materials
Grundwerkstoffe
Randbedingungen:
Boundary condition:
tages of microalloyed
fine-grained
structural steels in
comparison
with
conventional structural
5:1
steels
shown
Schweiverfahren
= MAG
welding
process = MAG
in
are
Figure
Deposition
rate = 3 kg=welding
wire/h, weld /shape
X -60 X - 60
Abschmelzleistung
3 kg Schweidraht
h, Nahtform
4.14. Due to the
Costs
labour
and equipment == 60
30/h
Lohn-ofund
Maschinenkosten
DM / h
Special
costs = weld filler
materials + welding
Spez. weld
Schweinahtkosten
= Schweizusatzwerkstoffe
+ Schweien
considerably better
Berechnungsgrundlage
=szul = Re / 1.5
Calculation
base = szul = Re/1.5
ISF 2004
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mechanical proper-
Influence of the steel selection on the

producing costs of welded structures
ties of the finegrained
Figure 4.14
structural
steel in comparison
with unalloyed structural steel, substantial savings of material are possible. This
leads also to reduced joint cross-sections and, in total, to lower costs when making
welded steel constructions.
Based
on
steels
the
alloyed
unalloyed
classification
Figure
4.2,
of
Fig-
low-alloyed
mild steel
higher-carbon steel
Hardening
Underbead cracking
ure 4.15 divides the

steels with regard
rimmed steel
to their problematic
cutting of
segregation
zones
processes
during
welding. When it
killed steel duplex killed steel
cold brittleness
(coarse-grained recrystallization
after critical treatment)
stress corrosion cracking
safety from brittle fracture
comes to unalloyed
high-alloyed
hardening
corrosion
tool steels
special properties are
resistant steels
achieved, for example:
Hardening,
special
properties
heat resistance,
are achieved
tempering resistant,
high-pressure hydrogen resistance,
toughness at low temperatures,
surface treeatment condition, etc.
ferritic
pearlitic-martensitic
austenitic
grain increase in
the weld interfaces
hardening
embrittlement
formation
of chromium
carbide
grain desintegration
stress corrosion
cracking hot cracks
(sigma phase
embrittlement)
Post-weld treatment for

highest corrosion resistance
ISF 2004
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steels, only ingot
Classification of steels with

respect to problems during welding
Figure 4.15
45
casts, rimmed and semi-killed steels are causing problems. Killing means the removal of oxygen from the steel bath.
Figure 4.16 shows cross-sections of ingot blocks with different oxygen contents.
Rimming steels with increased oxygen content show, from the outside to the inside,
three different zones after solidification: 1.: a pronounced, very pure outer envelope,
2.: a typical blowhole formation (not critical, blowholes are forged together during
rolling), 3.: in the
centre
segregated
clearly
zone
where unfavourable
elements like sulphur and phosphorus are enriched.
0,025
0,012
During rolling, such
0,003
fully killed steel
semi-killed steel
zones are stretched
rimmed steel
along the complete
Figures: mass content of oxygen in %

ISF 2004
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length of the rolling
Ingot cross-sections
after different casting methods
profile.
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17 shows important points to be observed during welding such steels. Due
to their enrichment with alloy elements, the segregation zones are more transformation-inert than the
outer
envelope
and are inclined to

hardening.
In
addition, they are

sensitive
to
cracking,
as,
hotin
these zones, the
C
E
elements phosphorus
are
and
sulphur
ISF 2004
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enriched.
Example of unfavourable (a) and

favourable (b) welds
Figure 4.17
46
Therefore, touching such segregation zones during welding must be avoided by all
means.
In the case of lowalloy
steels,
the
Microstructures
Average Brinell Hardness (Approximately)
Ferrite
80
Austenite
250
Perlite (granular)
200
welding
Perlite (lamellar)
300
observed.
Sorbite
350
Troostite
400
Cementite
600 - 650
ness
Martensite
400 - 900
various microstruc-
problem
of
HAZ
hardening
during
must
be
Figure
4.18 shows hardof
tures. The highest
ISF 2004
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values
hardness
Hardness of Several Microstructures
values
can be found with

Figure 4.18
martensite
and
cementite. Hardness values of cementite are of minor importance for unalloyed and
low-alloy steels because its proportion in these steels remains low due to the low Ccontent.
However, hardening because of martensite formation is of greatest importance as the
martensite proportion in the microstructure depends mainly on the cooling time.
Figure 4.19 shows
the essential influHV
HRC
strength,
calculated at
max. hardness
N/mm2
root cracking
presumable
400
41
1290
70
root cracking
possible
400 - 350
41 - 36
1290 - 1125
70 - 60
no root cracking
350
36
1125
60
sufficient operational safety

without heat treatment
280
28
900
30
maximum hardness
ence of the martensite
content
in
the HAZ on the

crack formation of
welded
joints.
Hardening through
martensite
forma-
with maximum
martensite
content
%
If too much martensite develops in the heat affected zone during welding (below or next to the weld),
a very hard zone will be formed which shows often cracks.
tion is not to be
ISF 2004
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expected with pure
Influence of Martensite Content
carbon steels up to
about
0,22%,
Figure 4.19
47
because the critical cooling rate with these low C-contents is so high that it normally
wont be reached within the welding cycle. In general, such steels can be welded
without special problems (e.g., S. 235).
In addition to carIIW
C - qu. = C +
Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni
+
+
6
5
15
Stout
C - qu. = C +
Mo Ni Cu
Mn Cr + Mn
+
+
+
6
10
20 40
Ito and Bessyo
PCM = C +
Mannesmann
C - qu.PLS = C +
Hoesch
C - qu. = C +
C ET
Thyssen
bon, all other alloy

elements are important
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
+
+
+
+ + 5B
30
20
60 15 10
site
formation
in
the welding cycle,
Si + Mn + Cu + Cr + Ni + Mo + V
20
as they have sub-
Mn + Mo Cr + Cu Ni
= C+
+
+
10
20
40
stantial
PLS = pipeline steels
it
comes to marten-
Si Mn + Cu Cr Ni Mo V
+
+
+
+
+
25
16
20 60 40 15
C-qu.= carbon equivalent (%)
when
influence
on the transforma-
PCM = cracking parameters (%)

ISF 2002
Br-er-05-20.cdr
tion behaviour of
Definition of C - Equivalent
steels
Figure 4.20
(see
Fig. 2.12 ). It is not

appropriate just
to take the carbon content as a measure for the hardening tendency of such steels.
To estimate the weldability, several authors developed formulas for calculating the
so-called carbon equivalent, which include the contribution of the other alloy elements to hardening tendency, (Fig. 4.20). As these approximation formulas are empirically determined
as
for
0,35
Tp ==750
CET
- 150- 150
Tp
750
CET
delta Tp
HD HD0,35
- 100
delta
Tp= 62
= 62
- 100
80
200
the
delta Tp [C]
and
100
250
hardening tendency
Tp [ C]
150
100
d = 30
mm
d = 30
mm
HD HD
= 4= 4
1 kJ/mm
Q = Q1=kJ/mm
0
0,2
tions
like
0,3
0,4
CET
= =0,33
%
CET
0,33 %
= 30mm
mm
d =d30
kJ/mm
Q =Q1= 1kJ/mm
0
0
0,5
60
heat
10
15
20
25
Wasserstoffgehalt
Hydrogen
contentHD
of des
theSchweigutes
weld metal [%]
Kohlenstoffquivalent
CET [%]
Carbon aquivalent
plate
40
delta TpTp
= 160
tanhtanh
(d/35) (d/35)
- 110 - 110
delta
= 160
thickness,
40
20
50
the general condi-
60
delta Tp
CETCET
- 32)-Q32)
- 53Q
CET
+ 32
delta
Tp= (53
= (53
- 53
CET + 32
20
50
CET = 0,4 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,4 %
CET = 0,2 %
delta Tp [C]
input, etc., are also
delta Tp [C]
40
30
-20
-40
20
-60
of importance, the
10
CET
0,4
CET ==0,4
%%
HD =
2 2
HD
QQ== 11kJ/mm
kJ/mm
carbon
equivalent
cannot be a com-
20
40
60
80
100
-80
d =d50
= 50mm
mm
=8
HDHD
=8
-100
0
0,5
Tp =697 CET + 160 tanh (d/35) + 62 HD
mon limit value for

the weldability.
For the determina- Figure 4.21
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
Wrmeeinbringen
Heat input Q [kJ/mm]
Blechdicke d [mm]
Plate thickness
br-er05-21.cdr
0,35
+ (53 CET - 32) Q - 328
Source:
Quelle: DIN EN 1011-2
Calculation of the preheating temperatures
ISF 2005
48
tion of the preheating temperature Tp, the formula as shown in Figure 4.21 is used.
The effects of the chemical composition which is marked by the carbon equivalent
CET, the plate thickness d, the hydrogen content of the weld metal HD and the heat
input Q are considered.
The essential factor
to martensite forma-
Temperature T
Tmax
tion in the welding

cycle is the cooling
time. As a measure
800
of cooling time, the

DT
time of cooling from
500
800 to 500C (t8/5) is
t8/5
defined (Fig. 4.22).

t800
t500
The
Time t
temperature
ISF 2004
br-er-05-22.cdr
range was selected
Definition of t8/5
in such a way that it

covered the most
Figure 4.22
important structural transformations and that the time can be easily transferred to the
TTT diagrams.
Figure 4.23
shows
2000
measured
time-
temperature
distri-
ity of a weld. Peak

values
and
dwell
times depend obvi-
Temperature T
butions in the vicin-
1500
of
B
500
C
the
0
0
measurement
10mm
1000
ously on the location
and
50
100
150
200
are clearly strongly

determined by the
conduction Figure 4.23
conditions.
250
300
Time t
ISF 2004
br-er-05-23.cdr
heat
Temperature-time curves
in the adjacence of a weld
49
With the use of thinner plates with complete heating of the cross-section during welding, the heat conductivity is only carried out in parallel to the plate surface, this is the
two-dimensional heat dissipation.
With thicker plates, e.g. during welding of a blind bead, heat dissipation can also be
carried out in direction of plate thickness, heat dissipation is three-dimensional.
These two cases
3 - dimensional:
K3
t8 / 5 =
universal formula:
h
U I
1
1
2 p l v 500 - T0 800 - T0
are covered by the
) Uv I 5001- T
formulas given in
extended formula
For low-alloyed steel:
t8 / 5 = 0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0
1
h N 3
800 - T0
Figure 4.24, which

K2
2 - dimensional:
t8 / 5 =
universal formula:
extended formula
For low-alloyed steel:
provide a method
2
2
2

h2
1
1
U I 1

-

4 p l r c v d 2 500 - T0 800 - T0
of calculating the
2
2
2

2
1
1
U I 1
-
h N 2
t8 / 5 = 0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0
2
v d 500 - T0 800 - T0
formula for the transition

thickness of low-alloyed steel:
d =
0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0
U I
h
0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0
v
cooling time t8/5 of
1
1

+
500 - T0 800 - T0
low-alloyed steels.
In the case of a
ISF 2004
br-er-05-24.cdr
three-dimensional
Calculation equation for two- and

three-dimensional heat dissipation
heat
dissipation,
t8/5 it independent
Figure 4.24
of plate thickness.
In the case of two-dimensional heat dissipation it is clear that t8/5 becomes the shorter
the thicker the plate thickness d is. Provided, the cooling times are equal, the plate
thickness can be calculated from these relations where a two-dimensional heat dissipation changes to a three-dimensional heat dissipation.
Figure 4.25 shows
welding methods
the influence of the
TIG-(He)-welding
welding method on
TIG-(Ar)-welding
the heat dissipa-
MIG-(Ar)-welding
tion. With the same
MAG-(CO2)- welding
heat
the
Manual arc welding
is
SA welding
input,
energy
which
transferred to the
base
material
depends
on
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
Relative thermal efficiency degree h

ISF 2004
Br-er-05-25.cdr
the
Relative thermal efficiency degree

of different welding methods
Figure 4.25
50
welding method. This dependence is described by the relative thermal efficiency .

The influence of
the
groove
Type of weld
ge-
2-dimensional
heat dissipation
ometry is covered
weld factor
3-dimensional
heat dissipation
0,45 - 0,67
0,67
0,9
0,67
0,9
0,9
by seam factors
according
to
Fig. 4.26. Empirically determined,

these factors were
introduced for an
ISF 2004
br-er-05-26.cdr
easier calculation.
Weld factors for different

weld geometries
For other groove

geometries, tests Figure 4.26
to measure the
cooling time are recommended.
Fig. 4.27 shows the transition of the two-dimensional to the three-dimensional heat
dissipation for two different preheating temperatures in form of a curve according to
the equation of Fig. 4.24. Above the curve, t8/5 depends only on the energy input, but
not on the plate thickness, heat dissipation is carried out three-dimensionally.
5
cooling time t8/5 [s]
10
15
20
cm
cooling time t8/5 [s]

10
20
30
25
Plate thickness
TA=20C
40
50
TA=200C
3
30
40
3-dimensional
2
60
80
100
150
3-dimensional
60
100
2-dimensional
2-dimensional
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
10
20
30
40
Heat input E.h.Nn [kJ/cm]

ISF 2004
Br-er-05-27.cdr
Transition From Two to Three

Dimensional Heat Flow
Figure 4.27
50
51
Fig. 4.28 shows the
possible range of
20
heat input depend-
kJ/cm
ing on the elec-
-spray
arc
trode diameter. It is
Heat input
12
clear that a rela-
tively large working
4
-short arc
3,25 4
5
6
Manual metal arc welding
0,8 1,0 1,2 1,6

MAGC-, MAGMmethod
range is available
for
2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0

SA-welding
ISF 2004
br-er-05-28.cdr
arc
procedures.
variation
Heat Inputs of
Various Welding Methods
welding
of
A
the
energy-per-unit
Figure 4.28
length
can
be
carried out by alteration of the welding current, the welding voltage and the welding
speed.
Fig. 4.29 depicts variations of the heat
Stick electrode
(mm)
2,5
3,25
4,0
5,0
6,0
input during manual metal arc weld-
Current intensity (A)
90
135
180
235
275
ing. The shorter the fused electrode
Current intensity (A)
75
120
140
190
250
distance, i.e., the shorter the extracted length, the higher the energy-
35
per-unit length.
kJ/cm
Energy-per-unit length
25
20
6,0mm x 450mm
15
5,0mm x 450mm
10
4,0mm x 450mm
3,25mm x 350mm
5
0
2,5mm x 350mm
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 mm 600
run-out length
br-er05-29.cdr
ISF 2004
Energy-per-unit length as a
function of the run-out length
Figure 4.29
52
In order to minimize calculation efforts in practice, the specified relations were

transferred into nomograms from which permissible welding parameters can be read
out, provided some additional data are available. Fig. 4.30 shows diagrams for twodimensional heat dissipation, where a dependence between energy-per-unit length,
cooling time and preheating temperature is given, depending on the plate thickness. .
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
Cooling time t8/5 in s
10
d = 7,5 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
10
d = 10 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
10
d = 15 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
transition to
3-dimensional
heat flow
10
20C
d = 20 mm
7
5
br-er05-30.cdr
7 8 9 10
15 20
30
kJ/cm 50
Heat input E
ISF 2004
Dependence of E, t8/5 and

d During SA - Welding
Figure 4.30
If a fine-grained structural steel is to be welded, the steel manufacturer presets a

certain interval of cooling times, where the steel characteristics are not too negatively
affected. The user lays down the plate thickness and, through the selection of a
welding method, a specified range of heat input E. Based on the data E and t8/5 the
diagram provides the required preheating temperature for welding the respective
plate thickness.
With the transition to thicker plates,
Transition thickness d
50
mm
40
the diagrams in Fig. 4.31 apply. The
aera of
3-dimensional
heat flow
30
T0
20
15
10
9
8
7
0 C
C 20 C
2 50
00
1
C
1 50
C
20
upper part of the figure determines

whether a two-dimensional or a threedimensional heat dissipation is pre-
area of
2-dimensional
heat flow
sent. For the three-dimensional heat

dissipation, the lower diagram applies
7 8 9 10
15 20
30
kJ/cm 50
where the same information can be
Heat input E
50
s
40
determined,
Cooling time t8/5
independent
of
thickness, as with Fig. 4.30.
30
20
15
25
T
20
15
C
10
10
9
8
7
53
7 8 9 10
C
20
15 20
30
Heat input E
br-er05-31.cdr
kJ/cm 50
ISF 2004
Dependence of
E, T0, t8/5 And d
Figure 4.31
The
relation
be-
tween current and
35
V
voltage for MAG
gas composition:
C1 100% CO2
M21 82% Ar + 18% CO2
M23 92% Ar + 8% O2
C1
M21
30
in Fig. 4.32
and
the used shielding

gas is one of the
Welding voltage
M23
welding is shown
25
20
15
parameters. Welding
voltage
mixed arc
contact tube distance ~15mm
150
and
welding current, or
3,5
br-er-05-32.cdr
wire feed speed,
4,5
spray arc
contact tube distance ~19mm
200
250
Welding current
300
5,5
7,0
Wire feed
9,0
10,5
8,0
m/min
ISF 2004
Dependence of Current And Voltage During

MAG-Welding, Solid Wire, 1.2 mm
determine the type

of arc.
short arc
Figure 4.32
plate
54
The diagram in Fig. 4.33 demonh'UP = 1

h'MAG = 0,85
dU max = 32 mm
dU min = 15 mm
F3 = 0,67
F2 = 0,67
t8/5 max = 30 s
t8/5 min = 6 s
Emax = 66 kJ/cm
Emin = 14 kJ/cm
ness, heat input E and cooling time
60
fillet welds
T0= 150 C
kJ/cm
30s
70
t8/5
kJ/cm
temperature of T0 = 150C. If d and
59
50
53
20s
41
35
30
15s
heat input can be determined with the
Heat input E
MAG - weldind
47
40
35
help of this diagram. The kinks of the

curves mark the transition between
29
25
10s
20
two-dimensional
and
three-
23
dimensional heat dissipation.
18
15
for fillet welds at a preheating
t8/5 are given, the acceptable range of
25s
toughness affection
45
Heat input E
SA - welding
strates the dependence of plate thick-
6s
12
10
cracking tendency
5
0
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
6
mm
0
40
ISF 2004
br-er05-33.cdr
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.33
Fig. 4.34 shows the same dependF3 = 0,9

F2 = 0,9
t8/5 max = 30 s
t8/5 min = 6 s
Emax = 49 kJ/cm
Emin = 10 kJ/cm
60
70
butt welds
T0= 150 C
kJ/cm
kJ/cm
50
59
toughness affection
45
30s
40
53
47
25s
35
30
20s
25
41
35
29
15s
20
23
15
10s
18
10
6s
12
cracking tendency
5
0
Heat input E
MAG - welding
preparation.
h'UP = 1
h'MAG = 0,85
dU max = 34 mm
dU min = 15 mm
Heat input E
SA - welding
ence for butt welds with V groove
br-er05-34.cdr
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
mm
6
0
40
ISF 2004
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.34
55
The curve family in Fig. 4.35 shows the dependence of the heat input from the welding speed as well as the acceptable working range. The parameters of the curves 1
to 8 in the table
curve
25
kJ/cm
29
27
24
22
20
19
18
17
300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125
from Figures 4.32
5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
and 4.34 and apply
vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0
20
1
2
Heat input E
have been taken
wor
king
15
rang
only
related
conditions like wire
6
7
10
for
5
8
diameter,
wire
feed,
0
10
15
20
25
30
35 40
45
Welding speed vS
50 cm/min 60
welding
voltage, etc.
MAG/ M21 (82% Ar, 18% CO)

ISF 2004
br-er-05-35.cdr
E as a Function of Welding Speed,

Solid Wire, 1.2mm
Figure 4.35
shows
Sheet
Nr. 0916).
In this example, a
plate thickness of
15 mm and a cooling
time
t8/5
be-
29
27
24
22
20
19
18
17
59
300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125
toughness affection
45
53
30s
40
47
25s
35
30
20s
25
10s
15
10
6s
cracking tendency
5
0
41
35
29
15s
20
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
mm
curve
kJ/cm
23
18
16
12 13
6
0
40
vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0
5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
25
kJ/cm
20
1
2
heat input E
Reference
SA - welding
(according to DVS-
70
butt welds
T0= 150 C
50
Heat input E
for such diagrams
60
kJ/cm
MAG - welding
a reading example
Heat input E
Figure 4.36
16
15
13
work
ing
3
4
rang
5
6
7
10
33
0
10
15
20
25
41
30
35 40
45
Welding speed vS
50 cm/min 60
ISF 2004
br-er-05-36.cdr
Determination of Welding Speed

for MAG - Welding
tween 10 and 20 s
are given. In this
case, the maximum
Figure 4.36
cooling time for MAG welding is 15 s. A solid wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm at 29V
and 300A is used.
The left diagram provides heat input values between 13 and 16 kJ/cm, based on the
given data. Using these values, the acceptable range of welding speeds can be
taken from the diagram on the right.
Fig. 4.37 presents a simplification of
56
800
C
the determination of the microstruc-
700
tural composition and cooling time

subject to peak temperatures which
Temperature
occur in the welding cycle. In the
line. The point of intersection of the
500
400
M
Peak temperature
1000C
1400C
200
HV30=400
300
200
1400
Peak temperature
the point of heat input at the lower
P
B
300
lower diagram, the point of the plate

thickness at the top line is linked with
600
B+M
F+B
1000
Arc3
800
Arc1
linking line with the middle scale

600
represents the cooling time t8/5 .
middle diagram in which transition
plate thickness
40
If the peak temperature of the welding

cycle is known, one can read from the
30
two-dimensional
10
25
three-dimensional
20
100
15
10 9 8
1000
t8/5
5 mm 4
300 200 100
2 3
10
20
50 100 200 400 s 1000

0
100 C
200
t8/5
preheating temperature
energy-per-unit length
6
field the final microstructures are
F+P
1200
10
20
30
40
50 kJ/cm 70
bie5-37.cdr
formed. The advantage of the determination of microstructures compared
ISF 2004
Peak temperature/cooling time

diagram for the determination
of t8/5 and the structure
with the upper TTT diagram is that Figure 4.37

a TTT diagram applies only for exactly one peak temperature, other peak temperatures are disregarded. The disadvantage of the PTCT diagram (peak temperature
cooling time diagram) is the very expensive determination, therefore, due to the
measurement efforts a systematic application of this concept to all common steel
types is subject to failure.
5.
Welding of High-Alloy Steels,
Corrosion
5. Welding of High-Alloy Steels, Corrosion
58
Basically stainless steels are characterised by a chromium content of at least 12%. Figure
5.1 shows a classification
of
corrosion
corrosion-resistant steels
resistant
steels. They can be sin-
stainless
steels
gled out as heat- and

scale-resistant
scale- and heat-resistant

steels
and
stainless steels, depend-
perlitic
martensitic
semi-ferritic
ferritic
X40Cr13
X10Cr13
X8Cr13
ferritic-austenitic
austenitic
ing on service temperaX20CrNiSi25-4
ture. Stainless steels are

used at room temperature
conditions and for water-
non-stabilized
stabilized
(austenite with
delta-ferrite)
X12CrNi18-8
(austenite without
delta-ferrite)
X8CrNiNb16-13
ISF 2002
br-er-06-01e.cdr
based media, whilst heatClassification of Corrosion-Resistant Steels
and scale-resistant steels

are applied in elevated
Figure 5.1
temperatures and gaseous

media.
Depending on their microstructure, the alloys can be divided into perlitic-martensitic, ferritic,
and austenitic steels. Perlitic-martensitic steels have a high strength and a high wear resistance, they are used e.g. as knife steels. Ferritic and corrosion resistant steels are mainly
used as plates for household appliances and other decorative purposes.
The most important group are austenitic steels, which can be used for very many applications
and which are corrosion resistant against most media. They have a very high low temperature impact resistance.
Based on the simple Fe-C
T
T
A4
T
d
phase diagram (left figure),

d
Figure 5.2 shows the ef-
A4
A4
g
A3
a(d)
fects
of
two
different
A3
A3
a
groups of alloying elements
on the equilibrium diagram.

Alloy elements in %
Alloy elements in %
Chromium
Vanadium
Molybdenum
Aluminium
Silicon
Alloy elements in %
Ferrite
Nickel
Manganese
Cobalt
developers
with
chromium as the most important element cause a

ISF 2002
br-er-06-02e.cdr
Modifications to the Fe-C Diagram

by Alloy Elements
Figure 5.2
strong reduction of the aus-
59
tenite area, partly with downward equilibrium line according to Figure 5.2 (central figure).
With a certain content of the related element, there is a transformation-free, purely ferritic
steel.
An opposite effect provide austenite developers. In addition to carbon, the most typical member of this group is nickel.
Element
Steel type, no.
Effect
Carbon
l
l
l
Chromium
l
All types
l
l
l
Increases the strength, supports development

of precipitants which reduce corrosion
resistance, increasing C content reduces
critical cooling rate
All types
l
Works as ferrite developer, increases

oxidation- and corrosion-resistance
Nickel
l
l
All types
Works as austenite developer, increases

toughness at low temperature, grain-refining
Oxygen
l
Special types l
Works as strong austenite developer

(20 to 30 times stronger than Nickel)
Niobium
l
1.4511,1.4550,
1.4580 u.a.
Binds carbon and decreases tendency to

intergranular corrosion
Increases austenite stabilization, reduces hot

crack tendency by formation of manganese
sulphide
Improves creep- and corrosion-resistance
Molybdenum 1.4401,1.4404,
l
1.4435 and others. against reducing media, acts as ferrite
l
developer
l
1.4005, 1.4104,
Phosphorus,
1.4305
Improve machinability, lower weldability,
selenium, or
l
reduce slightly corrosion resistance
l
sulphur
l
Silicon
l
Titanium
l
l
All types
l
l
the austenite area to Figure 5.2 (right figure)

and form a purely austenitic and transforma-
All types
l
l
Manganese
l
l
Austenite developers cause an extension of
tion-free steel.
The table in Figure 5.3 summarises the effects of some selected elements on high alloy
steels.
Improves scale resistance, acts as ferrite

developer, all types are alloyed with small
contents for desoxidation
Aluminium
l
1.4510, 1.4541,
Binds carbon, decreases tendency to
1.4571 and others intergranular corrosion, acts as a grain refiner
l
and as ferrite developer
Type 17-7 PH
Works as strong ferrite developer, mainly
l
used as heat ageing additive
Copper
l
l
l
Type 17-7 PH,

1.4505, 1.4506
l
l
Improves corrosion resistance against certain

media, decreases tendency to stress
corrosion cracking, improves ageing
br-er06-03e.cdr
ISF 2002
Effects of Some Elements

in Cr-Ni Steel
Figure 5.3
The binary system Fe-Cr in Figure 5.4 shows

the influence of chromium on the iron lattice.
Starting with about 12% Cr, there is no more
transformation into the cubic face-centred
lattice, the steel solidifies purely as ferritic. In
the temperature range between 800 and
500C this system contains the intermetallic
-phase, which decomposes in the lower
temperature range into a low-chromium -
Figure 5.4
solid solution and a chromium-rich -solid

solution. Both, the development of the -phase and of the unary --decomposition cause a
60
strong embrittlement. With higher alloy steels, the diffusion speed is greatly reduced, therefore both processes require a relatively long dwell time. In case of technical cooling, such
embrittlement processes are suppressed by an increased cooling speed.
Nickel is a strong austenite developer, see Figure 5.5 Nickel and iron develop in this system
under elevated temperature a complete series of face-centred cubic solid solutions. Also in
1600
C
1400
Fe Ni3
the binary system Fe-Ni

S+d
S+g
decomposition
d+g
in the lower temperature
1200
range take place.
Temperature
processes
1000
Along two cuts through the
800
ternary system Fe-Cr-Ni,

600
a
Figure 5.6 shows the most
a+g
400
important
Fe Ni3
200
phases
which
develop in high alloy steels.
0
Fe
20
10
30
50
40
60
70
80
90 % Ni
Nickel
br-er-06-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
A solidifying alloy with 20%
Binary System Fe - Ni
Cr and 10% Ni (left figure)

forms at first -ferrite. -
Figure 5.5
ferrite is, analogous to the

60 % Fe
70 % Fe
1600
C
1600
C
1500
S+g
S+d
1400
S+d+g
1400
from the melt solidifying
S+g
S+d
body-centred
1300
1200
g
d+g
cubic
solid
solution. However -ferrite
1200
d
d+g
1100
1100
is developed by transfor-
1000
1000
mation of the austenite, but
900
900
800
800
700
d+s
d+
g+
s
Temperature
1300
Fe-C diagram, the primary
1500
S+d+g
d+g+s
is of the same structure

g+s
d+s
g+s
from the crystallographic
700
10
15
30
25
20
15
20 % Ni
10 % Cr
10
15
20
40
35
30
25
20
% Ni
15
% Cr
point of view, see Figure
ISF 2002
br-er-06-06e.cdr
Sections of the Ternary System Fe-Cr-Ni
Figure 5.6
25
5.4.
61
During an ongoing cooling, the binary area ferrite + austenite passes through and a transformation into austenite takes place. If the coolls
ing is close to the equilibrium, a partial transst

ee
rri
tic
ee
st
takes place in the temperature range below
st
st
en
en
iti
c
si
tic
Au
Au
800C. Primary ferritic solidifying alloys show
4.
3.
2.
iti
cfe
ls
ls
st
ee
ls
st
ee
M
ar
te
n
rri
tic
Fe
1.
formation of austenite into the brittle -phase
0.1
0.1
1.2
0.1
0.1
Si
max.
1.0
max.
1.0
max.
1.0
max.
1.0
Mn
max.
1.0
max.
1.5
max.
2.0
max.
2.0
Cr
15
18
12
18
17
26
24
28
Mo
up to
2.0
up to
1.2
up to
5.0
up to
2.0
Ni
1.0
2.5
7
26
4
7.5
a reduced tendency to hot cracking, because

-ferrite can absorb hot-crack promoting elements like S and P. However primary austenitic solidifying alloys show, starting at a certain
up to
2.2
Cu
Nb
Ti
Al
alloy content, no transformations during cool+
ing (14% Ni, 16% Cr, left figure). Primary austenitic solidifying alloys are much more
susceptible to hot cracking than primary fer-
+ indicates that the alloy

elements can be added in
a defined content to achieve
various characteristics
N
+
ritic solidifying alloys, a transformation into the
br-er06-07e.cdr
-phase normally does not take place with
ISF 2002
Typical Alloy Content of

High-Alloy Steels
these alloys.
Figure 5.7 shows some typical compositions
Figure 5.7
of certain groups of high alloy steels.
The diagram of Strau and Maurer in Figure 5.8 shows the influence on the microstructure
formation of steels with a C-content of 0,2%. The classification of high-alloy steels in Figure
5.1 is based on this dia-
28
gram. If a steel only con-
%
24
tains C, Cr and Ni, the

austenite
Nickel
20
lowest austenite corner will
16
be at 18% Cr and 6% Ni.
12
And also other elements
austen
ensite
martensite / troostite / sorbite

ferrite / perlite
ite / ma
rt
austenite / ferrite
austenite
/ martens
ite / ferrite
martensite / ferrite
6
10
12
14
Chromium
16
18
20
22
ISF 2002
br-er-06-08e.cdr
Maurer - Diagram
24 % 26
than Ni and Cr work as an

austenite or ferrite developer.
The
these
elements
is
of
de-
scribed by the so-called

chromium
Figure 5.8
influence
and
nickel
62
equivalents. The Schaeffler diagram reflects additional alloy elements, Figure 5.9. It represents molten weld metal of high alloy steels and determines the developed microstructures
after cooling down from very high temperatures. The diagram was always prepared considering identical cooling conditions, the influence of different cooling speeds is here disregarded.
The areas 1 to 4 in this diagram limit the chemical compositions of steels, where specific defects may occur during welding.
Depending on the composition, purely ferritic chromium steels have a tendency to embrittlement by martensite and therefore to hot cracking (area 2) or to embrittlement due to strong
Nickel-equivalent = %Ni + 30x%C + 0,5x%Mn
grain growth (area 1).

A cause for this strong grain
growth during welding is the
greatly increased diffusion
speed in the ferrite compared with austenite. After
reaching
temperature,
diffusion-start
Figure
5.10
30
28
26
0%
24
austenite
t
rri
Fe
5%
10
22
20
20
A+F
16
40%
18
A +M
14
80 %
12
10
8
100%
martensite
F
+
M
00
6
4
A+M+F
M+F
ferrite
8
10
12 14 16
18
20 22 24
26 28
30 32
34
36 38
40
Chromium-equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 1,5x%Si + 0,5x%Nb
shows that ferritic steels

have
hardening crack susceptibility

(preheating to 400C!)
hot cracking susceptibility above 1250C
considerably
grain growth above 1150C

ISF 2002
br-er-06-09e.cdr
stronger grain growth than
Schaeffler Diagram With Border Lines of

Weld Metal Properties to Bystram
austenites. Therefore high

alloyed ferritic steels are to
sigma embrittlement
between 500-900C
Figure 5.9
be considered as of limited
weldability.
6000
m
The area 3 marks a possible
5000
embrittlement of the material

due to the development of
-phase. As explained in
5.6, this risk occurs with increased
increased
ferrite
contents,
chromium
grain size
4000
3000
2000
1000
ferritic steel
con-
tents, and sufficiently slow
austenitic steel
200
400
600
800
1000
temperature
cooling speed.
br-er-06-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
Grain Size as a Function of Temperature
Figure 5.10
1200
63
Finally, area 4 marks the strongly increased tendency to hot cracking in the austenite. Reason is, that critical elements responsible for hot cracking like e.g. sulphur and phosphorous
have only very limited solubility in the austenite. During welding, they enrich the melt residue,
promoting hot crack formation (see also chapter 9 - Welding Defects).
There is a Z-shaped area in the centre of the diagram which does not belong to any other
endangered area. This area of chemical composition represents the minimum risk of welding
defects, therefore such a composition should be adjusted in the weld metal. Especially when
welding austenitic steels one tries to aim at a low content of -ferrite, because it has a much
greater solubility of S and P, thus minimising the risk of hot cracking.
The Schaeffler diagram is not only used for determining the microstructure with known
chemical composition. It is also possible to estimate the developing microstructures when
welding different materials with or without filler metal. Figures 5.11 and 5.12 show two examples for a determination of the weld metal microstructures of so-called 'black and white' joints.
28
28
24
10
9
8
40
3
: =1:1
80
20%
A+F
100
%
A+M+F
M+F
Nickel-equivalent
12
20
20
A+M
16
40
M
12
20%
123
A+M
: =1:1
+
8
4
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
S235JR (St 37)
Welding consumable
12
16
20
24
Chromium-equivalent
28
32
X8Cr17 (W.-Nr. 1.4510)

21% Cr, 14% Ni, 3% Mo
S235JR (St 37)
Welding consumable
Weld metal under 30 % dilution (= base metal amount)
br-er06-11e.cdr
ISF 2002
X10CrNiTi18-9 (W.-No. 1.4541)

21% Cr, 14% Ni, 3% Mo
Weld metal under 30 % dilution (= base metal amount)
br-er06-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
Application Example of
Schaeffler - Diagram
Application Example of
Schaeffler - Diagram
Figure 5.11
100
%
A+M+F
Chromium-equivalent
A+F
M+F
F
0
80
10
Nickel-equivalent
20
16
24
A
20
Figure 5.12
36
64
The ferrite content can only be measured with a relatively large dispersal, therefore DeLong
proposed to base a measurement procedure on standardized specimens. Such a system
makes it possible to measure comparable values which don't have to match the real ferrite
content. Based on these measurement values, the ferrite content is no longer given in percentage, but steels are grouped by ferrite numbers. In addition to ferrite numbers, DeLong
proposed a reworked Schaeffler diagram where the ferrite number can be determined by the
chemical composition, Figure 5.13. Moreover, DeLong has considered the influence of nitrogen as a strong austenite developer (effects are comparable with influence of carbon). Later
on, nitrogen was included into the nickel-equivalent of the Schaeffler diagram.
Nickel-equivalent = %Ni + 30 x %C + 30 x %N + 0,5 x %Mn
21
20
te
rri
fe
19
nu
austenite
18
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
16
of high alloy steels is their

4
6
d
re
su
ea
ym
all .-%
tic vol
e
n in
ag s
m nt 0%
ly te
er con
2%
rm
fo rrite
4%
Sc
e
f
ha
effl
6% %
er6
au
7, 2%
ste
nite
9, 7%
,
-m
art
10 ,3%
en
site
12 ,8%
-lin
13
e
17
The most important feature
r
be
m
0
2
corrosion resistance start-
8
10
12
14
16
18
ing with a Cr content of

12%. In addition to the
problems during welding
described by the Schaeffler
austenite + ferrite
diagram, these steels can

17
18
26
25
19
20
21
22
23
24
Chromium-equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 1,5 x %Si + 0,5 x %Nb
27
ISF 2002
br-er-06-13e.cdr
be negatively affected with

view to their corrosion re-
De Long Diagram
sistance caused by the

Figure 5.13
welding process.
Figure
air
O
5.14 shows schematically
2Fe+++O+H2O 2Fe++++2OH-
the processes of electro-
OHFe+++
lytic
corrosion
under
water
drop of water on a piece of
O2
OH
H2O
iron. In such a system a
2Fe++
cathode
anode
4e-
potential difference is a
2Fe 2Fe+++4e-
precondition for the development of a local element
Fe(OH)3
O2+2H2O+4e 4OH
-
iron
ISF 2002
br-er-06-14e.cdr
consisting of an anode and
Corrosion Under a Drop of Water
a cathode. To develop
Figure 5.14
65
such a local element, a different orientation of grains in the steel is sufficient. If a potential
difference under a drop of water is present, the chemically less noble part reacts as an anode, i.e. iron is oxidised here and is dissolved as Fe2+-ion together with an electron emission.
Caused by oxygen access through the air, a further oxidation to Fe3+ takes place. The cathodic, chemically nobler area develops OH- ions, absorbing oxygen and the electrons. Fe3+and OH--ions compose into the water-insoluble Fe(OH)3 which deposits as rust on the surface (note: the processes here described should serve as a principal explanation of electrochemical corrosion mechanisms, they are, at best, a fraction of all possible reactions).
If the steel is passivated by chromium, the corrosion protection is provided by the development of a very thin chromium oxide layer which separates the material from the corrosive
medium. Mechanical surface damages of this layer are completely cured in a very short time.
passive layer
active
dissolution
passive layer
gap
tensile stress
active dissolution
of the crack base
pitting corrosion
passive layer
stress corrosion cracking

passive layer
activly dissolved
grain boundary
chromium
depleted zones
active
dissolution
of the gap
crevice corrosion
grain boundary
carbides
intergranular corrosion
incorrect
br-er06-15e.cdr
Figure 5.15
ISF 2002
br-er06-16e.cdr
correct
ISF 2002
Figure 5.16
The examples in Figure 5.15 are more critical, since a complete recovery of the passive layer
is not possible from various reasons.
66
If crevice corrosion is present, corrosion products built
up in the root of the gap and
oxygen has no access to
restore the passive layer.
Thus narrow gaps where the
corrosive medium can accumulate are to be avoided
by introducing a suitable design, Figure 5.16.
br-er-06-17e.cdr
Pitting Corrosion of a Steel

Storage Container
With pitting corrosion, the
Figure 5.17
chemical composition of the

attacking medium causes a
local break-up of the passive layer. Especially salts, preferably Clions, show this behaviour.
This local attack causes a dissolution of the material on the damaged points, a depression
develops. Corrosion products accumulate in this depression, and the access of oxygen to the
bottom of the hole is obstructed. However, oxygen is required to develop the passive layer,
therefore this layer cannot be completely cured and pitting occurs, Figure 5.17.
Stress-corrosion cracking occurs when the material displaces under stress and the passive
layer tears, Figure 5.18. Now the unprotected area is subjected to corrosion, metal is dissolved and the passive
layer redevelops (figures 13). The repeated displace1
ment
and
repassivation
causes a crack propagation.

7
offset;
passive layer;
10
11
metal surface;
dislocation
12
Stress
cracking
corrosion
takes
mainly
place in chloride solutions.

The crack propagation is
transglobular, i.e. it does
br-er-06-18e.cdr
Model of Crack Propagation

Through Stress Corrosion Cracking
Figure 5.18
not
follow
boundaries.
the
grain
67
Figure 5.19 shows the expansion-rate dependence of stress corrosion cracking. With very
low expansion-rates, a curing of the passive layer is fast enough to arrest the crack. With
very high expansion-rates, the failure of the specimen originates from a ductile fracture. In
the intermediate range, the material damage is due to stress corrosion cracking.
Figure 5.20 shows an example of crack propagation at transglobular stress corrosion cracking. A crack propagation speed is between 0,05 to 1 mm/h for steels with 18 - 20% Cr and 8 20% Ni. With view to welding it is important to know that already residual welding stresses
Sensitivity to stress corrosion cracking
may release stress corrosion cracking.
complete
cover layer
tough fracture
T=RT
SpRK
e2
e1
Elongation speed e
br-er06-19E.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er06-20e.cdr
Transgranular
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Influence of Elongation Speed on

Sensitivity to Stress Corrosion Cracking
Figure 5.19
ISF 2002
Figure 5.20
The most important problem in the field of welding is intergranular corrosion (IC).
It is caused by precipitation of chromium carbides on grain boundaries.
Although a high solubility of carbon in the austenite can be expected, see Fe-C diagram, the
carbon content in high alloyed Cr-Ni steels is limited to approximately 0,02% at room temperature, Figure 5.21.
68
The reason is the very high affinity of chromium to carbon, which causes the precipita-
to Bain and Aborn
Heat treatment temperature
1200
tion of chromium carbides Cr23C6 on grain
C
1100
boundaries, Figure 5.22. Due to these precipitations, the austenite grid is depleted of
1000
chromium content along the grain boundaries

A
900
and the Cr content drops below the parting

limit. The diffusion speed of chromium in aus-
800
tenite is considerably lower than that of car700
bon, therefore the chromium reduction cannot
600
0
0.05
0.1 0.15 0.2

Carbon content
0.25 % 0,3
be compensated by late diffusion. In the depleted areas along the grain boundaries (line
2 in Figure 5.22) the steel has become susceptible to corrosion.
br-er06-21e.cdr
ISF 2002
Carbon Solubility of
Austenitic Cr - Ni Steels
Only after the steel has been subjected to

sufficiently long heat treatment, chromium will
Figure 5.21
diffuse to the grain boundary and increase the
C concentration along the

1 - homogenuous starting condition
2 - start of carbide formation
3 - start of concentration balance
4 - regeneration of resistance limit
grain boundary (line 3 in

Figure 5.22). In this way, the
corrosion
resis-
tance can be restored (line 4

in Figure 5.22).
Figure 5.23 explains why the
IC is also described as intergranular
2
4
Chromium content of austenite
complete
resistance limit
3
disintegration.
br-er-06-22e.cdr
Distance from grain boundary
Due to dissolution of deSensibility of a Cr - Steel
pleted areas along the grain

boundary, complete grains
break-out of the steel.
Figure 5.22
ISF 2002
69
The precipitation and repassivation
mechanisms
described in Figure 5.22

are covered by intergranular corrosion diagrams according to Figure 5.24.
Above a certain temperature carbon remains dissolved in the austenite
ISF 2002
br-er-06-23e.cdr
(see also Figure 5.21).
Grain Disintegration
Below this temperature, a

carbon precipitation takes
Figure 5.23
place. As it is a diffusion
controlled
process,
the
precipitation occurs after a

incubation
time
which depends on temperature (line 1, precipitation characteristic curve).

During stoppage at a constant
temperature,
the
3
Reciprocal of heat treatment temperature 1/T
certain
unsaturated austenite
austenite chromium carbide (M23C6)

no intergranular disintegration
austenite + chromium caride (M23C6) sensitive

to intergranular disintegration
oversaturated
austenite
parting limit of the steel is

Heat treatment time (lgt)
regained by diffusion of
chromium.
br-er-06-24e.cdr
1 incubation time
2 regeneration of resistance limit
3 saturation limit for chromium carbide
ISF 2002
Area of Intergranular Disintegration

of Unstabilized Cr - Steels
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25 depicts characteristic precipitation curves of a ferritic and of an austenitic steel.
Due to the highly increased diffusion speed of carbon in ferrite, shifts the curve of carbon
precipitation of this steel markedly towards shorter time. Consequently the danger of intergranular corrosion is significantly higher with ferritic steel than with austenite.
70
As carbon is the element that triggers the intergranular corrosion, the intergranular corrosion
diagram is relevantly influenced by the c content, Figure 5.26.
By decreasing the carbon content of steel,
the start of carbide precipitation and/or the
start of intergranular corrosion are shifted
towards
lower temperatures
and
longer
quench
temperature
times. This fact initiated the development of
precipitation curves for

17% Cr steel
ELC-steels
(Extra-Low-Carbon)
18-8-Cr-Ni steel
Tempering temperature
so-called
where the C content is decreased to less

than 0,03%
During welding, the considerable influence of
cooling curve
carbon is also important for the selection of

the shielding gas, Figure 5.27. The higher the
CO2-content
of
the
shielding
gas,
Tempering time
the
br-er06-25e.cdr
stronger is its carburising effect. The C-
Precipitation Curves of Various

Alloyed Cr Steels
content of the weld metal increases and the

steel becomes more susceptible to inter-
ISF 2002
Figure 5.25
granular corrosion.
An often used method to
1000
C
900
avoid intergranular corro-
800
sion is a stabilisation of the

steel by alloy elements like
700
Temperature
0.07%C
0.05%C
0.03%C
niobium and titanium, Fig-
600
ure 5.28. The affinity of
0.025%C
these elements to carbon is
500
significantly
higher
than
that of chromium, therefore

400 1
10
br-er-06-26e.cdr
102
104
103
105
Time
Influence of C-Content
on Intergranular Disintegration
106
ISF 2002
carbon is compounded into

Nb- and Ti-carbides. Now
carbon cannot cause any
Figure 5.26
chromium depletion. The
71
proportion of these alloy elements depend on the carbon content and is at least 5 times
higher with titanium and 10 times higher with niobium than that of carbon. Figure 5.28 shows
the effects of a stabilisation in the intergranular corrosion diagram. If both steels are subjected to the same heat treatment (1050C/W means heating to 1050C and subsequent water quenching), then the area of intergranular corrosion will shift due to stabilisation to
significantly longer times. Only with a much higher heat treatment temperature the intergranular corrosion accelerates again. The cause is the dissolution of titanium carbides at sufficiently high temperature. This carbide dissolution causes problems when welding stabilised
steels. During welding, a narrow area of the HAZ is heated above 1300C, carbides are dissolved. During the subsequent cooling and the high cooling rate, the carbon remains dissolved.
0.058 % C
0.53 % Nb
Nb/C = 9
C
600
0.030 % C
0.51 % Nb
Nb/C = 17
0.018 % C
0.57 % Nb
Nb/C = 32
M2
550
M1
500
S1
450
700
0,5
2,5
10
50
25
100
250
600
550
500
1000
Heat treatment time
A r [% ]
C O2
O2
S 1
99
M 1
90
M 2
82
18
br-er06-27e.cdr
10000
unstabilized
650
1300C
/W
600
1050C
/W
550
500
450
0,3
ISF 2002
1000
800
C
700
1
3
W.-No.:4541
X5CrNiTi18-10
10
30
100
Time
300
1000
10000
stabilized
br-er06-28e.cdr
ISF 2002
Influence of Stabilization
Influence of Shielding Gas

Figure 5.27
300
X5CrNi18-10
C o m p o sitio n
S hie ld ing g a s
1050C
/W
650
450
0,3
1
3
10
30
100
Time
W.-No.:4301 (0,06%)
400
0,2
800
C
700
Figure 5.28
If a subsequent stress relief treatment around 600C is carried out, carbide precipitations on
grain boundaries take place again. Due to the large surplus of chromium compared with niobium or titanium, a partial chromium carbide precipitation takes place, causing again inter-
72
granular susceptibility. As this susceptibility is limited to very narrow areas along the welded
joint, it was called knife-line attack because of its appearance. Figure 5.29.
In stabilised steels, the chromium carbide represents an unstable phase, and with a sufficiently long heat treatment to transform to NbC, the steel becomes stable again. The stronger
the steel is over-stabilised, the lower is the tendency to knife-line corrosion.
Nowadays the importance
of Nickel-Base-Alloys increases constantly. They
are ideal materials when it
comes
to
components
which are exposed to special conditions: high temperature, corrosive attack,

low temperature, wear rebr-er-06-29e.cdr
sistance, or combinations
Knife-Line Corrosion
hereof. Figure 5.30 shows

one of the possible group-
Figure 5.29
ing of nickel-base-alloys.
Materials listed there are selected examples, the total number of available materials is many
times higher.
Group A consists of nickel
alloys. These alloys are
Alloy
Chem. composition
Alloy
Nickel 200
Ni 99.6, C 0.08
Duranickel 301 Ni 94.0, Al 4.4, W 0.6
Nickel 212
Nickel 222
Ni 97.0, C 0.05, Mn 2.0

Ni 99.5, Mg 0.075
Incoloy 925
Ni 42.0, Fe 32.0, Cr 21.0, Mo 3.0, W 2.1, Cu 2.2, Al 0.3
Ni-Span-C 902 Y2O3 0.5, Ni 42.5, Fe 49.0, Cr 5.3, W 2.4, Al 0.5
Monel 400
Ni 66.5, Cu 31.5
Monel K-500
Ni 65.5, Cu 29.5, Al 2.7, Fe 1.0, W 0.6
Monel 450
Ni 30.0, Cu 68.0, Fe 0.7, Mn 0.7
Inconel 718
Ni 52.0, Cr 22.0, Mo 9.0, Co 12.5, Fe 1.5, Al 1.2
Ferry
Group C
Ni 45.0, Cu 55.0
Inconel X-750 Ni 61.0, Cr 21.5, Mo 9.0, Nb 3.6, Fe 2.5

Nimonic 90
Ni 77.5, Cr 20.0, Fe 1.0, W 0.5, Al 0.3, Y2O3 0.6
Inconel 600
Ni 76.0, Cr 15.5, Fe 8.0
Nimonic 105
Ni 76.0, Cr 19.5, Fe 112.4, Al 1.4
Nimonic 75
Ni 80.0, Cr 19.5
Incoloy 903
Ni 39.0, Fe 34.0, Cr 18.0, Mo 5.2, W 2.3, Al 0.8
Nimonic 86
Ni 64.0, Cr 25.0, Mo 10.0, Ce 0.03
Incoloy 909
Ni 58.0, Cr 19.5, Co 13.5, Mo 4.25, W 3.0, Al 1.4
Incoloy 800
Ni 32.5, Fe 46.0, Cr 21.0, C 0.05
Inco G-3
Ni 38.4, Fe 42.0, Cu 13.0, Nb 4.7, W 1.5, Al 0.03, Si 0.15
Incoloy 825
Ni 42.0, Fe 30.0, Cr 21.5, Mo 3.0, Cu 2.2, Ti 1.0
Inco C-276
Ni 38.4, Fe 42.0, Cu 13.0, Nb 4.7, W 1.5, Al 0.03, Si 0.4
Inco 330
Ni 35.5, Fe 44.0, Cr 18.5, Si 1.1
Group E
Group A
Chem. Composition
characterized by moderate
Group D1
Group B
Group D2
Monel R-405
mechanical strength and

high degree of toughness.
They can be hardened only
by cold working. The alloys
are quite gummy in the annealed or hot-worked con-
Ni 66.5, Cu 31.5, Fe 1.2, Mn 1.1, S 0.04
dition,
and
cold-drawn
ISF 2002
br-er-06-30e.cdr
material is recommended
Typical Classification of Ni-Base Alloys
Figure 5.30
for best machinability and

smoothest finish.
73
Group B consists mainly of those nickel-copper alloys that can be hardened only by cold
working. The alloys in this group have higher strength and slightly lower toughness than
those in Group A. Cold-drawn or cold-drawn and stress-relieved material is recommended for
best machinability and smoothest finish.
Group C consists largely of nickel-chromium and nickel-iron-chromium alloys. These alloys
are quite similar to the austenitic stainless steels. They can be hardened only by cold working
and are machined most readily in the cold-drawn or cold-drawn and stress-relieved condition.
Group D consists primary of age-hardening alloys. It is divided into two subgroups:
D 1 Alloys in the non-aged condition.
D 2 Aged Group D-1 alloys plus several other alloys in all conditions.
The alloys in Group D are characterized by high strength and hardness, particularly when
aged. Material which has been solution annealed and quenched or rapidly air cooled is in the
softest condition and does machine easily. Because of softness, the non-aged condition is
necessary for trouble free drilling, tapping and all threading operations. Heavy machining of
the age-hardening alloys is best accomplished when they are in one of the following conditions:
1. Solution annealed
2. Hot worked and quenched or rapidly air cooled
Group E contains only one material: MONEL R-405. It was designed for mass production of
automatically machined screws.
Due to the high number of possible alloys with different properties, only one typical material
of group D2 is discussed here: Material No. 2.4669, also known as e.g. Inconel X-750.
The aluminium and titanium containing 2.4669 is age-hardening through the combination of
these elements with nickel during heat treatment: gamma-primary-phase (') develops which
is the intermetallic compound Ni3(Al, Ti).
During solution heat treatment of X-750 at 1150C, the number of flaws and dislocations in
the crystal is reduced and soluble carbides dissolve. To achieve best results, the material
74
should be in intensely worked condition before heat treatment to permit a fast and complete
recrystallisation. After solution heat treatment, the material should not be cold worked, since
this would generate new dislocations and affect negatively the fracture properties.
The creep rupture resistance of X-750 is due to an even distribution of the intercrystalline '
phase. However, fracture properties depend more on the microstructure of the grain boundaries. During an 840C stabilising heat treatment as part of the triple-heat treatment, the fine '
phase develops inside the grains and M23C6 precipitates onto the grain boundaries. Adjacent
to the grain boundary, there is a ' depleted zone. During precipitation hardening (700C/20
h) ' phase develops in these depleted zones. ' particles arrest the movement of dislocations, this leads to improved strength and creep resistance properties.
During the M23C6 transformation, carbon is stabilised to a high degree without leaving chromium depleted areas along the grain boundaries. This stabilisation improves the resistance
of this alloy against the attack of several corrosive media.
With a reduction of the precipitation temperature from 730 to 620C as required for some
special heat treatments additional ' phase is precipitated in smaller particles. This enhances the hardening effect and improves strength characteristics.
Further metallurgical discussions about X-750, can be taken from literature, especially with
view to the influence of heat treatment on fracture properties and corrosion behaviour.
The recommended processes for welding of X-750 are tungsten inert gas, plasma arc, electron beam, resistance, and pressure oxy arc welding.
During TIG welding of INCONEL X-750, INCONEL 718 is used as welding consumable. Joint
properties are almost 100% of base material at room temperature and about 80% at 700 820C. Figure 5.31 shows typical strength properties of a welded plate at a temperature
range between -423 and 1500F (-248 820C).
Before welding, X-750 should be in normalised or solution heat treated condition. However, it
is possible to weld it in a precipitation hardened condition, but after that neither the seam nor
the heat affected zone should be precipitation hardened or used in the temperature range of
precipitation hardening, because the base material may crack. If X-750 was precipitation
hardened and then welded, and if it is likely that the workpiece is used in the temperature
range of precipitation hardening, the weld should be normalised or once again precipitation
hardened. In any case it must be noted that heat stresses are minimised during assembly or
welding.
75
X-750 welds should be solution heat treated before a precipitation hardening. Heating-up
speed during welding must be from the start fast and even touching the temperature range of
precipitation hardening only as briefly as possible. The best way for fast heating-up is to insert the welded workpiece into a preheated furnace.
Sometimes a preheating before welding is advantageous if the component to be welded
has a poor accessibility, or the welding is complex, and especially if the assembly proves to
be too complicated for a post heat treatment. Two effective welding preparations are:
1. 1550F/16 h, air cooling
2. 1950F/1 h, furnace cooling with 25-100F/h up to 1200F, air
A repair welding of already fitted parts should be followed by a solution heat treatment (with a
fast heating-up through the temperature range of precipitation hardening) and a repeated
precipitation hardening.
A cleaning of intermediate layers must be carried out to remove the oxide layers which are
formed during welding. (A complete isolation
of the weld metal using gas shielded processes is hardly possible). If such films are not
removed on a regular basis, they can become
thick enough to cause material separations
together with a reduced strength. Brushing
with wire brushes only polishes the surface,
the layer surface must be sand-blasted or
ground with abrasive material. The frequency
of cleaning depends on the mass of the developed oxides. Any sand must be removed
before the next layer is welded.
X-750 can be joined also by spot-, projection-,
seam-, and flash butt welding. The welding
equipment must be of adequate performance.
X-750 is generally resistance welded in normalized or solution heat treated condition.
Figure 5.31
6.
Welding of Cast Materials
6. Welding of Cast Materials
77
Figure 6.1 provides

a summary of the
different cast iron
materials.
In
this
connection it is only
referred to cast iron,
cast steel and malleable
steel,
as
special cast materials,
due
to their
poor weldability, are

of no importance in
Figure 6.1
welding.
Designation according to the material code (DIN EN 1560)
Figure 6.2 shows the designation of

the cast material in accordance with
e.g.: EN-GJ L F 150
DIN EN 1560. A distinction is made

1
Position 1:
Position 2:
Position 3:
Position 4:
Position 5:
EN
GJ
L
F
150
Position 6:
2 34
between the designation according to
standardised material
cast material
graphite structure (lamellar graphite)
microstructure (ferritic)
mechanical properties (Rm= 150 N/mm2)
chemical composition (high alloyed)
optionally
the material code and the designation according to the material number. In Figure 6.2, examples of two
materials are specified.
Designation according to the material number
e.g.: EN- J L 1271

1 23
Position 1:
Position 2:
Position 3:
Position 4:
Position 5:
Position 6:
EN
J
L
1
27
1
4,5,6
standardised material
cast material
graphite structure (lamellar graphite)
number for the main characteristic
material identification number
special requirement
br-er07-02e.cdr
ISF 2004
Designation of Materials
Figure 6.2
78
Figure 6.3 depicts a survey of the mechanical properties and the chemical compositions of several customary cast materials. As to its analysis and mechanical properties which are very different from other cast materials, cast steel constitutes an
exception to the rule.
In Figure 6.4 the stable and the metastable iron-carbon diagram are shown. The differences between
the cast material
Iron Cast Material
Rp0,2
Rm
2
2
N/mm N/mm
EN-GJL-300
EN-GJS-400-15
EN-GJMW-400-12
GS38
EN/ GJL/300
EN -GJS -400 -15
EN -GJMW -400 -12
GS 38
are best explained
Mechanical
Properties
250
200
190
300
400
380
380
Chemical Analysis
A
%
15
12
25
Si
%
%
2,8 1,4
3,7 2,2
3,2 0,5
0,15 0,47
Mn
%
%
%
1,0 < 0,2 < 0,12
0,5 0,05 0,01
0,3 < 0,12 0,25
0,35 0,045 0,054
spheroidal graphite
has
tween
carbon
of
2,8
beand
4,5%. Through the

ISF 2004
Characteristics and Analyses

of Cast Materials
with lamellar and
contents
- lamellar graphite cast iron

- nodular graphite cast iron
- decarburizing annealed malleable cast iron
(former : white -heart malleable cast iron)
- cast steel
br-er-07-03e.cdr
this way. Cast iron
addition of alloying
elements,
above
all Si, these mateFigure 6.3
rials solidify following the stable system, i.e., the carbon is precipitated
in
the
form
of
graphite. Malleable
cast
iron
shows
similar C-contents,
the
solidification
from
the
metal,
molten
however,
follows the metastable system. The

Figure 6.4
C-contents of cast
steel, on the other
79
hand, comply with those of common

structural steels, i.e., they are, as a
rule, below 0,8% C.
The structure of a normalised cast iron
which is composed of ferrite (bright)
and pearlite (dark) is shown in Figure
6.5. Since the properties are similar to
those of structural steels these materials are weldable, constructional welding is also possible. It is recommended
to normalise the cast steel parts before
welding. Through this type of heat
treatment, on the one hand the transformation of the cast structure is ob-
br-er07-04e.cdr
ISF 2002
Microstructure of
Normally Glowed Cast Steel
tained, the residual stresses inside the

workpiece are, on the other hand, reFigure 6.5
duced.
From a C-content in the steel cast of

0,15% up, it is recommended to carry
out preheating during welding, the
preheating temperature should follow
the analysis of the material, the workpiece geometry and the welding
method. After welding the cast workpieces are subject to stress-relief annealing.
Figure 6.6 shows the structure of cast
iron with lamellar graphite (grey cast
iron). Apart from their carbon content,
br-er07-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Microstructure of
Lamellar Graphite Cast Iron
Figure 6.6
these materials are characterised by

increased contents of S and P which
80
improves castability. Besides the poor mechanical properties (elongation after fracture of approx. 1%), these chemical properties also impede welding with ordinary
means. It is not possible to carry out constructional welding with grey cast iron. Repair welds of grey cast iron are, in contrast, carried out more frequently as damaged
cast parts are not easily replaceable. For those repair welds, the cast parts must be
preheated (entirely or partly) to temperatures of approx. 650C. Heating and cooling
must be done very slowly as the cast piece may be destroyed already by the thermal
stresses. The highly liquid weld metal also constitutes a problem, and thus the molten
pool must be supported by a carbon pile. Welding may be carried out with similar
filler material (materials of the same composition as the base). If grey cast iron is to
be welded without any preheating, the filler material must, as a rule, be dissimilar (of
different composition to the base metal). During this type of welding, there are always
strong structural changes in the region of the weld which lead to high hardening and
high residual stresses. For the minimisation of these structural changes, a highly ductile filler material is applied. The heat input into the base material should be as low as
possible.
Figure 6.7 depicts
the structural constitution of spheroidal graphite cast
iron. The graphite
spheroidization
achieved
by
is
the
addition of magnesium and cerium.

As, with this type
ISF 2002
br-er-07-06e.cdr
Nodular Graphite Cast Iron
of
graphite,
the
notch actions are

Figure 6.7
considerably
lesser than this is
the case with grey cast iron, this type of cast iron is characterised by substantially
better mechanical parameters with a considerably higher elongation after fracture
and improved ductility. For this reason, the risk of material failure caused by weld
residual stresses or thermal stresses is considerably reduced for spheroidal graphite
81
cast iron. Frequently, nickel-based
alloys are used as filler material. Problems occur in the HAZ where, besides
the ledeburite eutectic alloy system,
also Ni-Fe-martensite is frequently
formed. Both structures lead to extreme hardening in the HAZ which
can
be
removed
only
by
time-
consuming heat treatment.
br-er07-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
Carburizing Annealed Malleable

Cast Iron EN-GJMB-350
Figure 6.8
Figures 6.8 and 6.9 show the structures of

Carburized Annealed Malleable Cast Iron
(6.8) and of Decarburized Annealed Malleable Cast Iron (6.9). The composition of the
malleable cast iron is thus that during solidification, the total of carbon is bound in cemenbr-er07-08e.cdr
tite and precipitated. During a subsequent
Decarburizing Annealed Malleable

Cast Iron EN-GJMW-350
annealing process, the iron carbide disintegrates into graphite and iron.
ISF 2002
Figure 6.9
82
If annealing is carried out in neutral
atmosphere, the structure of Carburized Annealed Malleable Cast Iron
develops. Annealing in oxidising at-
Structure
core zone
: Perlit + (Ferrit) + temper carbon
transition zone : Perlit + Ferrit + temper carbon
surface zone
: Ferrit
mosphere leads to the decarburisation of the workpiece surfaces and

Decarburized Annealed Malleable
Cast Iron is developed, Figure 6.10.
Carburized
Annealed
Malleable
Cast Iron is not weldable. Decarburized Annealed Malleable Cast Iron,

in contrast, is weldable.
white-heart malleable cast iron
br-er07-09e.cdr
ISF 2002
Structure in dependence
of the wall thickness
Figure 6.10
You can see in Figure 6.11 that, also

with malleable cast iron, hardening in
200
the region of the HAZ occurs. For carrying out constructional welds made of
material quality has been developed.
Figure 6.11 shows that this material,
EN-GJMW-400-12, is characterised by
Hardness after Brinell
malleable cast iron parts, a special
GTW-40
150
GTW-S38
100
considerably less hardening. This ma-
material thickness: 7 mm
terial is weldable without any problems

up to a wall thickness of 8 mm.
Testspeciem
50
br-er0-10e.cdr
20
mm
10
Distance of center welding seam
30
ISF 2002
Hardness Process within the

Range of the Heat Influence Zone
Figure 6.11
7.
Welding of Aluminium Alloys
7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys
84
Figure 7.1 compares basic physical properties
Property
Al
Fe
of steel and aluminium. Side by side with different mechanical behaviour, the following
Atomic weight
[g/Mol]
26.9
55.84
Specific weight
[g/cm]
2.7
7.87
fcc
bcc
Lattice
differences are important for aluminium weld-
E-module
[N/mm]
71*10
210*10
R pO,2
PO,2
[N/mm]
ca. 10
ca. 100
R mm
[N/mm]
ca. 50
ca. 200
spec. Heat capacity
[J/(g*C)]
0.88
0.53
[C]
660
1539
[W/(cm*K)]
2.3
0.75
Spec. el. Resistance
[nWm]
28-29
97
Expansion coeff.
[1/C]
Melting point
Heat conductivity
24*10
-6
12*10
Al2O 3
Melting point of oxydes
[C]
2050
- considerably lower melting point compared

with steel
- three times higher heat conductivity
- considerably lower electrical resistance
-6
FeO
Oxydes
ing:
Fe 3O 4
- double expansion coefficient

- melting point of Al203 considerably higher
Fe 2O 3
than that of Al; metal and iron oxide melt ap-
1400
proximately at the same temperature.
1600
(1455)
br-er08-01.cdr
ISF 2002
Basic Properties of Al and Fe
Figure 7.2 compares some mechanical properties of steel with properties of some light
metals. The important advantages of light
Figure 7.1
metals compared with steel are especially
shown in the right part of the figure. If a comparison should be based on an identical stiffness, then the aluminium supporting beam has a 1.44 times larger cross-section than the
steel beam, however only about 50% of its weight.
Figure 7.3 compares qualitatively the stress-strain diagram
of
Aluminium
and
steel. In contrast to steel,

aluminium has a fcc (face
centred
cubic)-lattice
at
room temperature. This is

why there is no distinct yield
point as being the case in a
bcc (body centred cubic)lattice.
Aluminium
is
br-er-08-02.cdr
Deflexions and Weights of

Cantilever Beams Under Load
not
subject to a lattice transFigure 7.2
85
formation during cooling, thus there is no structure transformation and consequently no

danger of hardening in the heat affected zone as with steel.
4
cm
2
low carbon steel
200C
400
1000
1200
600
800
1500
-2
Steel
-4
Stress
8
cm aluminium
6
100C
200
Al-alloy
2
300
400 500
600
-2
-4
-6
-8
-18
Elongation
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ISF 2002
-16
-14
br-er08-04.cdr
Comparison of Stress-Elongation
Diagrams of Al and Steel
Figure 7.3
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
cm
ISF 2002
Isothermal Curves of Steel and Al
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.4 illustrates the effect of the considerably higher heat conductivity on the welding
process compared with steel. With aluminium, the temperature gradient around the welding
point is considerably smaller than with steel. Although the peak temperature during Al welding is about 900C below steel, the isothermal curves around the welding point have a clearly
larger extension. This is due to the considerably higher heat conductivity of aluminium compared with steel.
This special characteristic of Al requires a input heat volume during welding equivalent to
steel.
Figure 7.5 lists the most important alloy elements and their combinations for industrial use.
Due to their behaviour during heat treatment can Al-alloys be divided into the groups hardenable and non-hardenable (naturally hard) alloys.
86
Al Cu Mg
ing consumables.
Al Mg Si
Cu
Aluminium alloys are often welded with conAl Zn Mg
sumable of the same type, however, quite

Mg
often over-alloyed consumables are used to
Al Zn Mg Cu
678
Al alloys together with preferably used weld-
hardenable alloys
Figure 7.6 shows typical applications of some
Al
Zn
Al Si Cu
and to improve the mechanical properties of

Al Si
the seam.
Si
Al Mg
The classification of Al alloys into two groups
Al Mg Mn
Mn
is based on the characteristic that the group

Al Mn
of the non-hardenable alloys cannot increase

br-er08-05.cdr
the strength through heat treatment, in con-
678
Mg and Zn because of their low boiling point)
non-hardenable alloys
compensate burn-off losses (especially with
ISF 2002
Classification of Aluminium Alloys
trast to hardenable alloys which have such a

potential.
The important hardening mechanism for this
Figure 7.5
second group is explained by the figures 7.7 und 7.8. Example: If an alloy containing about
4.2% Cu, which is stable at room temperature, is heat treated at 500C, then, after a sufficiently long time, there will be only a single phase structure present. All alloy elements were
dissolved, Figure 7.8 between point P and Q.
When quenched to room
Al - alloys
Al99,5
AlCuMg1
AlMgSi0,5
AlSi5
AlMg3
AlMg2Mn0,8
AlMn1
Typical use
electrical engineering
mechanical engineering, food
industries
architecture, electrical
engineering, anodizing quality
architecture, anodizing quality
architecture, apparatus-, vehicle-,
shipbuilding engineering, furniture
industry
apparatus-, vehicle-, shipbuilding
engineering
apparatus-, vehicle-engineering,
food industry
W elding consumable
SG-Al 99,5Ti;
SG-Al 99,5
tion, no precipitation will
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
take place. The alloy ele-
SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg4,5Mn;
SG-AlSi5
SG-AlSi5
ments are forced to remain

dissolved, the crystal is out
SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
of equilibrium. If such a
structure is subjected to an
SG-AlMn1;SG-Al99,5T
age hardening at room or
base material - aluminium

percentage of alloy elements without factor
elevated
temperature,
ISF 2002
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Use and Welding Consumables

of Aluminium Alloys
Figure 7.6
temperature in this condi-
precipitation of a second
phase takes place in ac-
87
cordance with the binary system, the crystal tries to get back into thermodynamical equilibrium.
Depending on the level of
stable condition
solution heat treatment
repeated hardening
solidification of alloy elements

in solid solution
hardening temperature, the
quenching
regeneration
oversaturated solid solution,

metastable condition
precipitation takes place in
warm ageing
cold ageing (RT ageing)
ageing at slightly
increased temperature
coherent
precipitations,
cold aged
condition
three possible forms: copartly coherent

precipitations,
warm aged
condition
coherent and partly coherent

precipitations, transition conditions
cold ageing -- warm ageing
temperature
rise
temperature
rise
herent particles (i.e. particles
longer warm
ageing
partly coherent
and incoherent
precipitations,
softening
from
the
matrix in their chemical

composition but having the
longer warm
ageing
stable incoherent
equilibrium phase
stable condition
ISF 2002
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deviating
Ageing Mechanism
same
lattice
structure),
partly
coherent
particles
(i.e. the lattice structure of

the matrix is partly re-
Figure 7.7
tained),
and
incoherent
particles (lattice structure completely different from the matrix), Figure 7.7. Coherent particles
formed at room temperature can be transformed into incoherent particles by increase of temperature (i.e. enabling diffusion).
The precipitations cause a restriction to the
700
liquid
dislocation movement in the matrix lattice, thus
liquid and solid

Q
600
leading to an increase in strength. The finer the
copper containing
aluminium solid solution
500
At an increased temperature (heat ageing, Fig-
Temperature
precipitations, the stronger the effect.
400
300
ure 7.7) a maximum of second phase has precipitated after elapse of a certain time.
Consequently a prolonged stop at this tem-
aluminium solid solution

and copper aluminide
(Al2Cu)
200
100
copper content of
AlCuMg
perature does not lead to an increased

strength, but to coarsening of particles due to
mass-%
Copper
diffusion processes and to a decrease in

strength (less bigger particles in an extended
br-er08-08.cdr
space).
ISF 2002
Phase Diagram Al-Cu
Figure 7.8
88
After a very long heat ageing a stable condition is reached again with relatively large precipitations of the second phase in the matrix.
In Figure 7.7 is this stable final condition iden-
tical with the starting condition. A deteriorati-
solution heat treatment
500
P
on of mechanical properties only happens
quenching
Temperature
400
during hot ageing, if the ageing time is excessively long.
300
200
heat ageing
The complete process of hardening at room
100
temperature is metallographic also called age

age hardening
hardening, at elevated temperature heat age0
10
12
Time
14
ing. A decrease in strength at too long ageing

time is called over-ageing.
ISF 2002
br-er08-09.cdr
Temperature - Time Distribution

During Ageing
Figure 7.9 shows a schematic representation

of time-temperature curves during hardening
Figure 7.9
Figure
with age hardening and heat ageing.
7.10
shows
the
380
strength increase of AlZnMg

The difference between age
hardening and heat ageing
is here very clear. Due to
improved
diffusion
condi-
tions is the strength increase
320
0.2% yield stress s0.2 in N/mm
1 in dependence of time.
water quenching (~900C/min)

air cooling (~30C/min)
260
120C
200
RT
140
80
10-1
in the case of heat ageing

much faster than in the case
of
age
hardening.
quenched
100
101
10
10
Ageing time in h
ISF 2002
br-er-08-10.cdr
Increase of Yield Stress During

Ageing of AlZnMg1
The
strength maximum is also

reached considerably ear-
Figure 7.10
lier. The curve of hot ageing shows clearly the begin of strength loss when held at a too long
stoppage time. This figure shows another specialty of the process of ageing. During ageing, a
89
second phase is precipitated from a single-phase structure. To initiate this process, the structure must contain nuclei of the second phase. However, a certain time is required to develop
such nuclei. Only after formation of nuclei can the increase in strength start. The period up to
this point is called incubation time.
500
110
N/mm
Tensile strength sB
Figure 7.11 shows the effect of the height of

ageing temperature level on both, mechanical
properties of a hardenable Al-alloy and on in-
135
400
150
180
300
190
205
230
260C
cubation time. The lower the ageing tempera-
200
110
N/mm
400
0.2% yield stress s0.2
ture, the higher the resulting values of yield

stress and tensile strength. If a low ageing temperature is selected, the ageing time as well as
135
300
150
180
190
205C
200
the incubation time become extremely long.
230
260
Fracture elongation d2
Figure 7.11 shows that a the maximum yield

stress is reached after a period of about one
year under a temperature of 110C. An in-
190
180
205
150
135
20
10
crease of the ageing temperature shortens the

duration of the complete precipitation process
30
110C
260
230
30
min
10
-2
10
-1
1
day
0
10
10
Ageing time
1
week
10
1
1
month year
103 h 104
br-er08-11.cdr
ISF 2002
Influence of Ageing Temperature

and -Time on Ageing
by a certain value raised by 1 to a power. On

the other hand, such an acceleration of ageing
leads to a lowering of the maximum strength.
Figure 7.11
As the lower part of the

400
figure shows, the fracture
N/mm
elongation
Tensile strength Rm
300
is
counter-
AlMg5
proportional to the strength
AlMg3
values, i.e. the strength
200
increase caused by ageing

is accompanied by an em-
100
brittlement of the material.
Al99,5
0
0
30
70
Age Hardening of Al Alloys
Figure 7.12
Strain
ISF 2002
br-er-08-12.cdr
90
Figure 7.12 shows a method of how to increase the strength of non-hardenable alloys. As no
precipitations are present to reduce the movement of dislocations, such alloys can only be
strengthened by cold working.
Figure 7.12 illustrates two essential mechanisms of strength increase of such alloys. On
300
one hand, tensile strength increases with in-
N/mm
creasing content of alloy elements (solid solu-
250
tion strengthening), on the other hand, this

increase is caused by a stronger deformation
Rm or Rp0,2
200
of the lattice.
150
Figure 7.13 shows the effect of the welding

process on mechanical properties of a cold-
0,7
100
worked alloy. Due to the heat input during
0,5
50
HV30
0,4
Rp0,2/Rm
0,6
(recovery), in addition, a grain coarsening will
0,3
0,2
0
80
60 40 20 0 20 40
Distance from Seam Centre
welding, the blocked dislocations are released

start in the HAZ. This is followed by a strong
60 mm 100
drop in yield point and tensile strength. This
br-er08-13.cdr
strength loss cannot be overcome in the case
ISF 2002
Non-Hardenable Al Alloy
of a welding process.
Figure 7.13
400
Figure
7.14
illustrates
the
90 days RT
N/mm
Rm
350
mechanisms in the case of a
21 days RT
hardenable aluminium alloy.

welding heat, the precipitations are solution heat treated
Rp0,2
250
90 days RT
Stress
As a consequence of the
1 day RT
300
21 days RT
200
4 mm plates of: AlZnMg1F32
start values:
Rp0,2=263N/mm
Rm=363 N/mm
welding method: WIG, both sides,
simultaneously
welding consumable:
S-AlMg5
specimens with machined
weld bead
1 day RT
150
and the strength values de100
crease in the weld area. Due

to the age hardening, a re-
50
80
br-er-08-14.cdr
strengthening of the alloys
40
20
20
60
0
40
Distance from seam centre
Hardenable Al Alloy
takes place with increasing

time.
60
Figure 7.14
80
100
mm
140
ISF 2002
91
Figure 7.15 shows another
problematic nature of Alwelding. Due to the high
thermal expansion of aluminium, high tensions develop during solidification
of the weld pool in the
course of the welding cycle. If the welded alloy indicates a high melting inter ISF 2002
br-er-08-15.cdr
val,
Hot Cracks in a Al Weld
cracks
may
easily
develop in the weld.
Figure 7.15
A relief can be afforded by

preheating of the material, Figure 7.16. With an increasing preheat temperature, the amount
of fractured welds decreases. The different behaviour of the three displayed alloys can be explained using the right part
of the figure. One can see
100
%
that the manganese content
maximum of this hot crack
2
60
1
40
X
X
20
susceptibility is likely with
Mg
Cracking susceptibility
hot crack susceptibility. The
Weld cracking tendency
influences significantly the
80
Si
X
X
about 1% Mg content (corresponds with alloy 1). With

increasing MG content, hot
crack
susceptibility
100
300
Preheat temperature
400
500
0
Alloy content
1: AlMgMn 2: AlMg 2,5 3: AlMg 3,5
ISF 2002
br-er-08-16.cdr
de-
Influence of Preheat Temperature

and Magnesium Content
creases strongly (see also

alloy 2 and 3, left part).
200
Figure 7.16
To avoid hot cracking, partly very different preheat temperatures are recommended for the
alloys. Zschtge proposed a calculation method which compares the heat conductivity conditions of the Al alloy with those of a carbon steel with 0.2% C. The formula is shown in Figure
melting point pure aluminium
Recommended preheat temperature
600
C
500
400
300
200
Welding possible without preheating:

AlMg5, AlMg7, AlMg4.5Mn,
AlZnMg3, AlZnMg1
100
mild steel (0.2%C) without preheating
660
lated
temperature of melt start (solidus temperature)

preheat temperature
heat conductivity
Al Zn Mg Cu 0,5 Al Zn Mg Cu 1,5
in C
in C
in J/cm*s*K
Al Si 5
Al Cu Mg 1
Al R Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 0,5
Al Mn Al Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 2
Al Mg 3
Al Mg 3 Si Al Mg Mn
TS
Tvorw.
lAl-Leg.
7.17, together with the re-
745
l Al-Leg.;
Al 99,98R Al99,9
Al99,8
Al 99,7 Al 99,5
Al 99
Al R Mg0,5
Al Mg Si 0,5 Al Mg Si 0,8 Al Mg Si 1
E Al Mg Si 1
Al Mg 1
TVorw. = TS -
92
calculation
result.
These results are only to

be regarded as approximate, the individual application is subject to the
information of the manufacturer.
Increasing better weldability

ISF 2002
br-er-08-17.cdr
Figure 7.17
Recommendations for Preheating
Another major problem during Al welding is the strong

porosity of the welded joint.
It is based on the interplay
of several characteristics
and hard to suppress.
Pores in Al are mostly
formed by hydrogen, which
is driven out of the weld
ISF 2002
br-er-08-18.cdr
Figure 7.18
Excessive Porosity in a Al Weld
pool during solidification.

irregular
wire
electrode
feed
too thick and water containing oxyde layer

by too long or open storage
in non air-conditioned rooms
Solubility of hydrogen in
humid air
(nitrogen, oxygen, water)
aluminium changes abrupt-
nozzle deposits and too steep inclination

of the torch cause turbulences
poor
current transition
VS
humid air
too thick oxyde layer

(condensed water)
dirt film
(oil, grease)
dissolves many times more

just forming crystal at the
H2
H2
festes
Schweigut
base material
melt-crystal, i.e. the melt

of the hydrogen than the
feuchte Luftpores
Poren
solid weld metal
ly on the phase transition
same temperature.
Grundwerkstoff
ISF 2002
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Ingress of Hydrogen Into the Weld
Figure 7.19
93
This leads to a surplus of hydrogen in the melt due to the crystallisation during solidification.
This surplus precipitates in form of a gas bubble at the solidifying front. As the melting point
of Al is very low and Al has
a very high heat conductivity, the solidification speed
of Al is relatively high. As a
result, in the melt ousted
gas bubbles have often no
chance to rise all the way
to the surface. Instead,
they are passed by the solidifying front and remain in
the weld metal as pores,
Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.20
To suppress such pore formation it is therefore necessary to minimise the hydrogen content in the melt. Figure 7.19 shows possible
sources of hydrogen during MIG welding of
Al.
Figure 7.20 and 7.21 show the effect of pure
thermal expansion during Al welding. The
wedge
flame
large thermal expansion of the aluminium

along with the relatively large heat affected
zones cause in combination with a parallel
gap adjustment a strong distortion of the
welded parts. To minimise this distortion, the
workpieces must be set at a suitable angle
before welding, Figure 7.21.
br-er08-21.cdr
ISF 2002
Examples to Minimise Distortion
Figure 7.21
8.
Technical Heat Treatment
8. Technical Heat Treatment
95
When welding a workpiece, not only the weld
6
cm
4
300C
400C
6
cm
4
600C 700C
800C
900C
500C
-2
-2
-4
-4
itself, but also the surrounding base material
600C
700C
(HAZ) is influenced by the supplied heat

quantity. The temperature-field, which appears around the weld when different welding
-6
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
temperature
-6
-14
500C
400C
300C
cm
-8
-6
-4
-2
0 cm 2
procedures are used, is shown in Figure 8.1.
C
1750
Figure 8.2 shows the influence of the material
1250
1000
723C
properties on the welding process. The de-
oxy-acethylene welding
750
manual metal
arc welding
500
termining factors on the process presented in

this Figure, like melting temperature and -
250
-60 mm
-40
-20
20
40
mm
interval, heat capacity, heat extension etc,
60
distance from weld central line
depend greatly on the chemical composition

heat affected zone during
oxy-acethylene welding
of the material. Metallurgical properties are
heat affected zone during

manual metal arc welding
br-er04-01.cdr
here characterized by e.g. homogeneity,
ISF 2002
Temperature Distribution of
Various Welding Methods
structure and texture, physical properties like

heat extension, shear strength, ductility.
Figure 8.1
Structural changes, caused by the heat input
(process 1, 2, 7, and 8), influence directly the mechanical properties of the weld. In addition,
the chemical composition of the weld metal and adjacent base material are also influenced
by the processes 3 to 6.
Heating and melting the welding

consumable
Specific heat, melting temperature and interval, melt

heat, boiling temperature (metal, coating)
Melting parts of base material
Specific heat, melt temperature and interval, heat

conductivity, heat expansion coefficient, homogeneity, time
Reaction of passing welding

consumable with arc atmosphere
Compositionof atmosphere, affinity, pressure,

temperature, dissotiation, ionisation, reaction speed
Reaction of passed welding consumable

with molten base material
Solubility relations, temperature and pressure under

influence of heat source, specific weight,
weld pool flux
Interaction between weld pool and solid

base material (possibly weld passes)
Diffusion and position change processes, time,

boundary formation, ordered - unordered structure
Reaction of metal and flux

with atmosphere
Affinity, temperature, pressure, time
Solidification of weld pool and slag
Melt heat, cooling conditions, density and

porosity of slag, solidification interval
Cooling of welded joint in

solid condition
Phase diagrams (time dependent), heat conductivity,

heat coefficient, shear strength, ductility
10
Post-weld heat treatment

if necessary
Phase diagrams (time dependent), texture by warm

deformation, ductility, module of elasticity
10
Sustainable alteration of
material properties
Phase diagrams, operating temperature, mechanical

and chemical strain, time
Based on the binary system,

the formation of the different
structure zones is shown in
Figure 8.3. So the coarse
grain zone occurs in areas
1
of
intensely
elevated
austenitising temperature for
7
8
example. At the same time,

hardness peaks appear in
5
9
ISF 2002
br-eI-04-02.cdr
these
greatly
areas
because
reduced
of
Classification of Welding Process Into

Individual Mechanisms
critical
cooling rate and the coarse
Figure 8.2
96
austenite grains. This zone of the weld is the area, where the worst toughness values are
found.
In Figure 8.4 you can see how much the forma-
hardness peak
hardness sink
weld bead
can be influenced.
1500
incomplete melt
C
1300
width is achieved. Using a three pass tech-
standard
transformation
ences in the formation of heat affected zones
800
recrystallisation
With the use of different procedures, the differ-
1147
1000
G
incomplete
crystallisation
nique, the HAZ is reduced to only 8 mm.
1200
ageing
blue brittleness
mm thick plate, a HAZ of approximately 30 mm
Temperature
coarse grain
723
P
600
400
300
100
0,2
2,06
Applying an electroslag one pass weld of a 200
0,8
zones of unfavourable mechanical properties
Hardness
tion of the individual structure zones and the
1
2 % 3
carbon content
heat affected zone

(visible in macro section)
become even clearer as shown in Figure 8.5.

These effects can actively be used to the ad-
br-er04-03.cdr
ISF 2002
Microstructure Zones of a Weld Relation to Binary System
vantage of the material, for example to adjust

calculated mechanical properties to one's
choice or to remove negative effects of a weld-
Figure 8.3
ing. Particularly with high-strength fine grained steels and high-alloyed materials, which are
specifically optimised to achieve special quality, e.g. corrosion resistance against a certain
attacking
medium,
this
post-weld heat treatment is

of great importance.
Figure 8.6 shows areas in
the Fe-C diagram of different heat treatment methods. It is clearly visible that
the carbon content (and
also the content of other
alloying elements) has a
distinct influence on the
Figure 8.4
level of annealing tempera-
97
tures like e.g. coarse-grain heat treatment or normalising.

It can also be seen that the start of martensite formation (MS-line) is shifted to continuously
decreasing temperatures with increasing C-content. This is important e.g. for hardening
processes (to be explained later).
metastable system iron-carbon (partially)

1600
100
1536
C
d - solid solution
electron beam welding
A4 1392
cbc
atomic lattice
1600
melt +
d - solid solution
1493C
H
B
d - solid
solution + austenite
N
melt
1400 heat colors

melt + austenite
1300 yellow white
1300
1200
diffusion heat treatment
2,06
1100
coarse grain
heat treatment
1000
40
submerged arc welding

pass / capped pass
stress relieving
600
cbc
500
atomic lattice
dark red
brown red
300
0,5
5
eutektoidic
steel
0
Fe
0
200
hypereutectoidic steel
hypoeutectoidic steel
ISF 2002
cherry-red
700
dark brown
MS
100
br-er04-05.cdr
light red
800
500
tempering
hardening
200
20
yellow red
900
400
300
gas metal
arc welding
yellow
1000
600
recrystallisation heat treatment

Q
400
12
light yellow
cm
cfc
no
atomic lattice
rm
A3 911 G ha alis
rde ing
austenite
nin +
austenite
austenite + secondary
g
(g - Mischkristalle)
+ ferrite
cementite (Fe3C)
A2 800M 769C
O
S
K
A1
P 723C
soft annealing
ferrite700
(a-solid solution) recrystallisation heat treatment
1200
1147
1100
100
0,8
1,5
1
Carbon content in weight %
10
15
20
25
Cementite content in weight %
20
30
br-er04-06.cdr
ISF 2002
Metallurgical Survey of
Heat Treatment Methods
Development of Heat Affected Zone of

EB, Sub-Arc, and MIG-MAG Welding
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
As this diagram does not

cover the time influence,
only constant stop-temperaC
tures can be read, predic-
intense
heating
austenite
long time
several hours
900
possible. Thus the individual
Temperature
cooling-down rates are not
austenite
+ ferrite
A3
A1
Temperature
tions about heating-up and

700
ferrite +
perlite
500
heat treatment methods will

be explained by their temperature-time-behaviour
in
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
ISF 2002
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the following.
Coarse Grain Heat Treatment
Figure 8.7
98
Figure 8.7 shows in the detail to the right a T-t course of coarse grain heat treatment of an
alloy containing 0,4 % C. A coarse grain heat treatment is applied to create a grain size as
large as possible to improve machining properties. In the case of welding, a coarse grain is
unwelcome, although unavoidable as a consequence of the welding cycle. You can learn
from Figure 8.7 that there are two methods of coarse grain heat treatment. The first way is to
austenite at a temperature close above A3 for a couple of hours followed by a slow cooling
process. The second method is very important to the welding process. Here a coarse grain is
formed at a temperature far above A3 with relatively short periods.
Figure 8.8 shows schemati-
900
mecha-
nisms, they must not be
500
400
300
used as reading off examples.
To
determine
t8/5,
distribution,
MS
200
100
2
hardness values, or microstructure
bainite
structure
martensite
running
A1
perlite
600
ferrite
(Note: the curves explain
700
A3
e lin
haviour in a TTT-diagram.
austenite
ferrit
Temperature
cally time-temperature be-
0
0,1
are
3
1
10
br-eI-04-08.cdr
Time
4
10
6
s
1: Normalizing
2: Simple hardening
3: Broken hardening
4: Hot dip hardening
5: Bainitic annealing
6: Patenting (isothermal
annealing)
10
ISF 2002
TTT-Diagram With Heat Treatment Processes
TTT-diagrams always read

continuously or isothermally.
Mixed types like curves 3 to
Figure 8.8
6 are not allowed for this purpose!).

The most important heat treatment methods can be divided into sections of annealing, hardening and tempering, and these single processes can be used individually or combined. The
normalising process is shown in Figure 8.9. It is used to achieve a homogeneous ferriteperlite structure. For this purpose, the steel is heat treated approximately 30C above Ac3
until homogeneous austenite evolves. This condition is the starting point for the following
hardening and/or quenching and tempering treatment. In the case of hypereutectoid steels,
austenisation takes place above the A1 temperature. Heating-up should be fast to keep the
austenite grain as fine as possible (see TTA-diagram, chapter 2). Then air cooling follows,
leading normally to a transformation in the ferrite condition (see Figure 8.8, line 1; formation
of ferrite and perlite, normalised micro-structure).
99
To harden a material, austenisation and homogenisation is carried out also at
austenite
transformation and homogenizing

of g-solid solution (30-60 min)
at 30C above A3
900
this case one must watch
A3
A1
Temperature
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
30C above AC3. Also in
700
ferrite +
perlite
that the austenite grains
quick heating
remain as small as possi-
500
air cooling
ble. To ensure a complete

300
transformation to marten0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
site, a subsequent quench-
ISF 2002
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ing
Normalizing
follows
until
the
temperature is far below

Figure 8.9
the Ms-temperature, Figure

8.10. The cooling rate dur-
ing quenching must be high enough to cool down from the austenite zone directly into the
martensite zone without any further phase transitions (curve 2 in Figure 8.8). Such quenching
processes build-up very high thermal stresses which may destroy the workpiece during hardening. Thus there are variations of this process, where perlite formation is suppressed, but
due to a smaller temperature gradient thermal stresses remain on an uncritical level (curves
3 and 4 in Figure 8.8). This
can be achieved in practice
for example- through stopa
water
quenching
process at a certain temcooling with a milder cooling

medium (oil). With longer
holding on at elevated tem-
about 30C above A3
900
austenite
+ ferrite
Temperature
perature and continuing the
austenite
ferrite +
perlite
quenching
in water
500
start of martensite
formation
start of martensite
formation
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
ISF 2002
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Hardening
through in the bainite area

(curves 5 and 6).
A1
700
perature level, transformations can also be carried
A3
Temperature
ping
Figure 8.10
100
Figure 8.11 shows the quenching and tempering procedure. A hardening is followed by another heat treatment below Ac1. During this tempering process, a break down of martensite
takes place. Ferrite and cementite are formed. As this change causes a very fine microstructure, this heat treatment leads to very good
mechanical properties like
austenite
hardening and tempering
ness.
A3
A1
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
Temperature
e.g. strength and tough-
about 30C above A3
900
700
ferrite +
perlite
quenching
slow
cooling
500
Figure 8.12 shows the procedure of soft-annealing.
300
0,4
Time
0,8
C-Content
Here we aim to adjust a

ISF 2002
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soft and suitable micro-
Hardening and Tempering
structure
Figure 8.11
for
machining.
Such a structure is characterised by mostly globular
formed cementite particles, while the lamellar structure of the perlite is resolved (in Figure
8.12 marked by the circles, to the left: before, to the right: after soft-annealing). For hypoeutectic steels, this spheroidizing of cementite is achieved by a heat treatment close below A1.
With these steels, a part of the cementite bonded carbon dissolves during heat treating close
below A1, the remaining cementite lamellas transform with time into balls, and the bigger
ones grow at the expense of
the smaller ones (a transfor-
time dependent on workpiece
mation is carried out because
thermodynami-
cally more favourable condition).
Hypereutectic
austenite
+ ferrite
oscillation annealing
+ / - 20 degrees around A1
10 to 20C
below A1
A3
A1
Temperature
reduced
900
Temperature
the surface area is strongly
austenite
700
ferrite +
perlite
or
500
steels
300
have in addition to the lamel-
0,4
lar structure of the perlite a

cementite
network
on
0,8
C-Content
Time
cementite
the
ISF 2002
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grain boundaries.
Soft Annealing
Figure 8.12
101
Spheroidizing of cementite is achieved by making use of the transformation processes during

oscillating around A1. When exceeding A1 a transformation of ferrite to austenite takes place
with a simultaneous solution of a certain amount of carbon according to the binary system Fe
C. When the temperature drops below A1 again and is kept about 20C below until the transformation is completed, a
re-precipitation of cementite on existing nuclei takes
C
place. The repetition of this
austenite
900
process leads to a step-
A3
A1
Temperature
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
700
ferrite +
perlite
wise spheroidizing of ce-
time dependent on workpiece
between
450 and
650 C
500
mentite and the frequent

transformation
avoids
grain coarsening. A soft-
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
annealed
Time
ISF 2002
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Stress Relieving
microstructure
represents frequently the

delivery condition of a material.
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.13 shows the principle of a stress-relieve heat treatment. This heat treatment is
used to eliminate dislocations which were caused by welding, deforming, transformation etc.
to improve the toughness of a workpiece. Stress-relieving works only if present dislocations
are able to move, i.e. plastic structure deformations must be executable in the micro-range. A
temperature increase is the
commonly used method to
Stress releaving
Heat treatment at a temperature below the lower transition point A1 , mostly

between 600 and 650C, with subsequent slow cooling for relief of internal
stresses; there is no substantial change of present properties.
Normalising
Heating to a temperature slightly above the upper transition point A3

(hypereutectoidic steels above the lower transition point A1 ), followed by
cooling in tranquil atmosphere.
Hardening (quench
hardening)
Acooling from a temperature above the transition point A3 or A1 with such a

speed that an clear increase of hardness occurs at the surface or across
the complete cross-section, normally due to martensite development.
Quenching and
tempering
Heat treatment to achieve a high ductility with defined tensile stress by

hardening and subsequent tempering (mostly at a higher temperature.
should not cause any other
Solution or
quenching heat
treatment
Fast cooling of a workpiece. Also fast cooling of austenitic steels from high
temperature (mostly above 1000C) to develop an almost homogenuous
micro-structure with high ductility is called 'quenching heat treatment'.
change to properties, so that
Tempering
Heating after previous hardening, cold working or welding to a temperature

between room temperature and the lower transformation point A1; stopping
at this temperature and subsequent purposeful cooling.
make
such
deformations
possible because the yield

strength limit decreases with
increasing temperature. A
stress-relieve heat treatment
tempering steels are heat

ISF 2002
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treated
below
tempering
Type and Purpose of Heat Treatment
temperature.
Figure 8.14
102
Figure 8.14 shows a survey of heat treatments which are important to welding as well as their
purposes.
Figure 8.15 shows princi-
Types of heat treatments

related to welding
heat
treatment
before
welding
combination
accompanying
heat treatment
pally the heat treatments in

heat treatment
after welding
(post-weld heat
treatment)
combination
connection with welding.

Heat treatment processes
simple
step-hardening
welding
annealing
stress
releaving
stress
releaving
combination
preheating
simple
preheating
local
preheating
increase of
working
temperature
preheating of the
complete workpiece
pure
step hardening
welding
constant
working
temperature
isothermal
welding
modified
step hardening
welding
are divided into: before,
annealing hardening quenching

and
tempering
solution tempering
heat
treatment
Normally a stress-relieving
postheating
(post weld heat
treatment)
heat treatment
of the complete
workpiece
during, and after welding.

or normalizing heat treat-
local heat
treatment
ment
is
applied
before
welding to adjust a proper

ISF 2002
br-eI-04-15.cdr
material condition which for

Heat Treatment in Connection With Welding
welding. After welding, almost any possible heat
Figure 8.15
treatment can be carried

out. This is only limited by workpiece dimensions/shapes or arising costs. The most important section of the diagram is the kind of heat
800
treatment which accom-panies the welding.
C
700
The most important processes are explained in

600
Figure 8.16 represents the influence of differ-
Temperature T
the following.
500
400
ent accompanying heat treatments during
300
welding, given within a TTT-diagram. The fast-
200
est cooling is achieved with welding without
TA
MS
(1)
(2)
(3)
100
preheating, with addition of a small share of

0
0
bainite, mainly martensite is formed (curve 1,
10
102
Time t
103
104
105
tH
analogous to Figure 8.8, hardening). A simple

heating before welding without additional stopping time lowers the cooling rate according to
(1): Welding without preheating,

(2): Welding with preheating up to 380C, without stoppage time
(3): Welding with preheating up to 380C and about 10 min. stoppage time
TA: Stoppage temperature, tH: Dwell time
br-er04-16.cdr
ISF 2002
TTT-Diagram for
Different Welding Conditions
curve 2. The proportion of martensite is reduced in the forming structure, as well as the
Figure 8.16
103
level of hardening. If the material is hold at a temperature above MS during welding (curve 3),
then the martensite formation will be completely suppressed (see Figure 8.8, curve 4 and 5).
To explain the temperature-time-behaviours
seam
start
used in the following, Figure 8.17 shows a su-
end
TS
perposition of all individual influences on the

A3
the HAZ. As an example, welding with simple

preheating is selected.
The plate is preheated in a period tV. After re-
Temperature T
materials as well as the resulting T-T-course in
transformation
range
A1
TV
moval of the heat source, the cooling of the

workpiece starts. When tS is reached, welding
Time t
starts, and its temperature peak overlays the

cooling curve of the base material. When the
welding is completed, cooling period tA starts.
The full line represents the resulting tempera-
tV
tS
TV: Preheat temperature,

TS: Melting temperature of material,
tV: Preheat time,
tS: Welding time,
tA: Cooling time (room temperature),
MS: Martensite start temperature
A3: Upper transformation temperature,
A1: Lower transformation temperature
tA
Course of resulting
temperature in the
area of the heat
affected zone of
the base material.
Temperature
distribution by
preheating,
Course of
temperature
during welding.
ture-time-behaviour of the HAZ.

br-er04-17.cdr
Temperature-Time-Distribution
During Welding With Preheating
The temperature time course during welding

with simple preheating is shown in Figure 8.18.
ISF 2002
Figure 8.17
During a welding time tS a

drop of the working temTemperature T
A3
perature TA occurs. A further air cooling is usually
A1
carried out, however, the

TV
cooling rate can also be
TA
reduced by covering with
Time t
tV
tS

TA: Working temperature,
tV: Preheat time,
tS: Welding time,
tA: Cooling time (room temperature)
heat insulating materials.
tA
Temperature of workpiece,
Temperature of weld point
Another variant of welding

ISF 2002
br-eI-04-18.cdr
Welding With Simple Preheating
with preheating is welding

at
Figure 8.18
constant
temperature.
working
This
is
104
achieved through further
warming during welding to
A3
Temperature T
avoid a drop of the working

A1
temperature. In Figure 8.19

is this case (dashed line,
TV
TA
MS
TA needs not to be above

MS) as well as the special
Time t
tS
tV
tH = 0

tV: Preheat time,
case of isothermal welding
tA
tH
illustrated. During isother-
tS: Welding time,

tH: Dwell time
mal welding, the workpiece

ISF 2002
br-eI-04-19.cdr
is heated up to a working
Welding With Preheating and

Stoppage at Working Temperature
temperature
Figure 8.19
above
MS
(start of martensite formation) and is also held there
after welding until a transformation of the austenitised areas has been completed. The aim of
isothermal welding is to cool down in accordance with curve 3 in Figure 8.16 and in this way,
to suppress martensite formation.
1. Post-heating
Figure 8.20 shows the T-T course during

treatment, see Figure 8.15). Such a treatment
can be carried out very easy, a gas welding
A3
Temperature T
welding with post-warming (subsequent heat
A1
TN
torch is normally used for a local preheating.

Time t
In this way, the toughness properties of some
tS
tN
steels can be greatly improved. The lower
tA
2. Pre- and post-heating
sketch shows a combination of pre- and poststeels which have such a strong tendency to
Temperature T
heat treatment. Such a treatment is applied to
A3
A1
TN
TV
TA
hardening that a cracking in spite of a simple

Time t
preheating before welding cannot be avoided,

if they cool down directly from working temperature. Such materials are heat treated
tV
tS

TN: Postheat temperature,
tV: Preheating time,
tN
tR
tS:
tA:
tN:
tR:
tA
Welding time,
Cooling time (room temperature),
Postheat time
Stoppage time
br-er04-20.cdr
ISF 2002
Welding With
Pre- and Post-Heating
immediately after welding at a temperature

between 600 and 700C, so that a formation
Figure 8.20
105
of martensite is avoided and welding residual stresses are eliminated simultaneously.

Aims of the modified stephardening
Temperature T
THa
not be discussed here, Fig-
A1
ure 8.21. Such treatments

are used for transformation-
TAnl
inert materials. The aim of
MS
TAnl
the figure is to show how
Time t
complicated a heat treatment
tS
tH
tA
tH
tHa
tAnl
tA
can become for a material in
tAb
TAnl: Tempering temperature,
TH: Hardening temperature,
should
A3
TA
TSt
welding
TSt: Step temperature,

tA: Cooling time,
tAb: Quenching time,
tAnl: Tempering time,

tH: Dwell time,
tS: Welding time
Temperature of workpiece,
Temperature of weld point
combination with welding.
ISF 2002
br-eI-04-21.cdr
Modified Step Weld Hardening
Figure 8.22 shows temperature distribution during multi-
Figure 8.21
pass welding. The solid line

represents the T-T course of a point in the HAZ
in the first pass. The root pass was welded
without preheating. Subsequent passes were
weld pass
heat affected zone
welded without cooling down to a certain temperature. As a result, working temperature in-
4
3
weld pass
2
1
observed point
TS
second pass is welded under a preheat temperature which is already above martensite
start temperature. The heat which remains in
Temperature T
creases with the number of passes. The

A3
TV
MS
the workpiece preheats the upper layers of the

Time t
weld, the root pass is post-heat treated through
tS
tV
tA
the same effect. During welding of the last

pass, the preheat temperature has reached
such a high level that the critical cooling rate
will not be surpassed. A favourable effect of

TS: Melting temperature of material,
tV: Preheat time,
tS: Welding time
A3: Upper transformation temperature,
MS: Martensite start temperature
br-er04-22.cdr
multi-pass welding is the warming of the HAZ
Temperature-Time Distribution
During Multi-Pass Welding
of each previous pass above recrystallisation

temperature with the corresponding crystallisa-
ISF 2004
Figure 8.22
106
tion effects in the HAZ. The coarse grain zone with its unfavourable mechanical properties is
only present in the HAZ of the last layer. To achieve optimum mechanical values, welding is
not carried out to Figure 8.22. As a rule, the same welding conditions should be applied for all
passes and prescribed t8/5 times must be kept, welding of the next pass will not be carried
out before the previous pass has cooled down to a certain temperature (keeping the interpass temperature). In addition, the workpiece will not heat up to excessively high temperatures.
Figure 8.23 shows a nomogram where working temperature and minimum and maximum
heat input for some steels can be interpreted, depending on carbon equivalent and wall thickness.
If e.g. the water quenched and tempered fine grain structural steel S690QL of 40 mm wall
thickness is welded, the following data can be found:
- minimum heat input between 5.5 and 6 kJ/cm
- maximum heat input about 22 kJ/cm
- preheating to about 160C
- after welding, residual stress relieving between 530 and 600C.
Steels which are placed in
the hatched area called
soaking
area,
must
be
treated with a hydrogen

relieve annealing. Above
this area, a stress relieve
annealing must be carried
out. Below this area, a
post-weld heat treatment is
not required.
Figure 8.23
9.
Welding Defects
9. Welding Defects
108
Figures 9.1 to 9.4 give a rough survey about the classification of welding defects to DIN
8524. This standard does not classify existing welding defects according to their origin but
only to their appearance.
undercut,
continuous
in the unaffected
base metal
unfused longitudinal
seam edge
in weld metal
longitudinal crack
in fusion zone
in the HAZ
undercut
in the unaffected
base metal
in weld metal
transverse crack
end crater with reduction

of weld cross section
open
end crater
in the HAZ
star shaped
crack
nominal
in the unaffected
base metal
in weld metal
in the HAZ
weld reinforcement
pore
too small throat
thickness
globular
gas inclusion
nominal
porosity
surface defects at a start point
many, mainly
evenly distributed
pores
start defects
nest of pores
locally repeated pores
weld is too wide
excessive
seam width
line of pores
pores arranged in a line
burn through
through-going hole
in or at the edge
of the seam
worm hole
elongated gas inclusion
in weld direction
br-er09-01.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er09-02.cdr
Defect Class:
Cracks and Cavities
Defect Class: Shape Defects
Figure 9.1
lack of fusion
between passes
Figure 9.2
lack of fusion between weld passes or weld beads
root lack of fusion

lack of fusion in the area of weld root
flank lack of fusion

lack of fusion between weld and base metal
insufficient
through weld
insufficiently welded cross section
insufficiently
welded root
one or two longitudinal edges of the groove are unfused
ISF 2002
br-er-09-03.cdr
Defect Class: Lack of Fusion,

Insufficient Through-Weld
Figure 9.3
ISF 2002
9. Welding Defects
109
A distinction of arising defects by their origin is shown in Figure 9.5. The development of the
most important welding defects is explained in the following paragraphs.
Lack of fusion is defined
stringer type inclusions
as unfused area between
slag line
weld metal and base mate-
different shapes and directions
rial or previously welded

layer. This happens when
single
slag inclusions
irregular slag inclusions
the base metal or the previous layer are not completely
pore nest
or
insufficiently
molten. Figure 9.6 explains
locally enriched
ISF 2002
br-er-09-04.cdr
the influence of welding

parameters on the devel-
Defect Class: Solid Inclusions
opment of lack of fusion. In
Figure 9.4
the upper part, arc characteristic lines of MAG welding are shown using CO2
welding joint defects
welding defects due to manufacture
and mixed gas. The weld-
welding defects due to material
ing voltage depends on

external weld defects
internal weld defects
hot cracks
cold cracks
cavities with weld metal
welding current and is se-
metallurgical
pore formation
lected according to the
spatters and
start points
lacks of fusion
solidification
cracks
hydrogen
cracks
undercuts
slag inclusions
remelt cracks
hardening
cracks
seam shape
defects
mechanical
pore formation
crater formation
lamellar
cracks
tension, the welding cur-
precipitation
cracks
Welding Defects
Figure 9.5
rent is fixed by the wire

ISF 2002
br-er-09-05.cdr
joint type. With present
feed
speed
(thus
also
melting rate) as shown in

the middle part of the figure.
Melting rate (resulting from selected welding parameters) and welding speed define the heat
input. As it can be changed within certain limits, melting rate and welding speed do not limit
each other, but a working range is created (lower part of the figure). If the heat input is too
low, i.e. too high welding speed, a definite melting of flanks cannot be ensured. Due to the
9. Welding Defects
110
poor power, lack of fusion is the result. With too high heat input, i.e. too low welding speed,
the weld pool gets too large and starts to flow away in the area in front of the arc. This effect
prevents a melting of the base metal. The arc is not directed into the base metal, but onto the
weld pool, and flanks are not entirely molten. Thus lack of fusion may occur in such areas.
Welding voltage
welding direction
CO2
mixed gas
positive torch angle
neutral
negative torch angle
torch axes
torch axes
correct
false
Welding current
Welding current
correct
false
Wire feed
Melting rate
Welding speed
lack of fusion
due to too
low performance
br-er09-06.cdr
approx. 45
1...2
wo
ing
ra
ng
false
rk
lacks of fusion
due to preflow
Melting rate
90
ISF 2002
br-er09-07.cdr
Influence of Welding Parameters

on Formation of Lack of Fusion
Figure 9.6
correct
ISF 2002
Influence of Torch Position

on Formation of Lack of Fusion
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.7 shows the influence of torch position on the development of weak fusion. The upper part of the figure explains the terms neutral, positive and negative torch angle. Compared
with a neutral position, the seam gets wider with a positive inclination together with a slight
reduction of penetration depth. A negative inclination leads to narrower beads. The second
part of the figure shows the torch orientation transverse to welding direction with multi-pass
welding. To avoid weak fusion between layers, the torch orientation is of great importance, as
it provides a reliable melting and a proper fusion of the layers. The third figure illustrates the
influence of torch orientation during welding of a fillet weld.
With a false torch orientation, the perpendicular flank is insufficiently molten, a lack of fusion
occurs. When welding an I-groove in two layers, it must be ensured that the plate is com-
9. Welding Defects
111
pletely fused. A false torch orientation may lead to lack of fusion between the layers, as
shown in the lower figure.
Figure 9.8 shows the influence of the torch orientation during MSG welding of
a rotating workpiece. As
12
12
1
2
9 Uhr
an example, the upper fi1

2
9 Uhr
12
9 Uhr
gure shows the desired
torch orientation for usual

6
welding speeds. This orientation depends on pa-
br-er09-08.cdr
rameters
like
workpiece
diameter
and
thickness,
ISF 2002
Influence of Torch Position

on Formation of Lacks of Fusion
groove
shape,
melting
rate, and welding speed.
Figure 9.8
The lower figure illustrates

variations of torch orientation on seam formation. A torch orientation should be chosen in
such a way that a solidification of the melt pool takes place in 12 o'clock position, i.e. the weld
pool does not flow in front or behind of the arc. Both may cause lack of fusion.
In contrast to faulty fusion, pores in the weld metal due to their globular shape are less critical, provided that their size does not exceed a certain value. Secondly, they must occur isolated and keep a minimum
distance from each other.
There are two possible
mechanisms
to
develop
cavities in the weld metal:

the mechanical and the
metallurgical pore formation.
Figure
9.9
lists
causes of a mechanical
pore formation as well as
possibilities to avoid them.
To over-weld a cavity (lack
Figure 9.9
9. Welding Defects
112
gas/gas
developing
material
causes
air
-nitrogen
-hydrogen
too low shielding gas flow through:
avoidance
too low setting

leaking lines
too small capillary bore hole
too low supply pressure for pressure
regulator
correct settings
search and eliminate leaks
correct combination capillary - pressure
regulator
Pressure of bottles or lines must meet
the required supply pressure of the
pressure regulator
insufficient gas shield through:

open windows, doors, fans etc.
insufficient gas flow at start and at
completion of welding
too large gas nozzle distance
excentric wire stick-out
false gas nozzle shape
false gas nozzle position (with
decentralised gas supply)
protect welding point from draught

suitable gas pre- and post-flow time
reduce distance
straighten wire electrode, center contact
tube
select proper gas nozzle shape for joint
type
position gas nozzel behind torch - if
possible
turbulences through:
to high shielding gas flow
spatters on gas nozzle or contact tube
irregular arc
thermal current - possibly increased by

chimmney effects with one-sided welding
too high weld pool temperature
too high work piece temperature
injection effects
water
leaking torch (with water-cooled types)
carbonmonoxide
remelting of seggregation zones

remelting of rust or scale
reduce gas flow

clean gas nozzle and contact tube
eliminate wire feed disturbances,
increase voltage, if wire electrode
splutters, ensure good current transition
in contact tube, correct earth
connection, remove slag of previously
welded layers
weld on backing or with root forming gas
reduce weld pool size
reduce preheat or interpass temperature
reduce torch inclination, tighten leaks in
gas line, avoid visible gas nozzle slots
search and eliminate leaks, dry wire feed
hose after ingress of water
reduce penetration by decreasing arc
power or increasing welding speed
clean welding area before welding
br-er09-11.cdr
ISF 2002
Metallurgical Pore Formation
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.11
of fusion, gaps, overlaps etc.) of a previous layer can be regarded as a typical case of a mechanical pore formation.
The welding heat during
welding causes a strong
expansion of the gasses
contained in the cavity and
consequently a develop-
a) low crystallisation speed
ment of a gas bubble in

the liquid weld metal. If the
solidification is carried out
so fast that this gas bubble
b) high crystallisation speed
cannot raise to the surface

ISF 2002
br-er-09-12.cdr
of the weld pool, the pore
Growth and Brake Away of Gas Cavities

at the Phase Border
will be caught in the weld

metal.
Figure 9.12
Figure 9.10 shows a X-ray

photograph of a pore which developed in this way, as well as a surface and a transverse sec-
9. Welding Defects
113
tion. This pore formation shows its typical pore position at the edge of the joint and at the fusion line of the top layer.
Figure 9.11 summarises causes of and measures to avoid a metallurgical pore formation.
Reason of this pore formation is the considerably increased solubility of the molten metal
compared with the solid state.
During solidification, the transition of liquid to
solid condition causes a leapwise reduction of
gas solubility of the steel. As a result, solved
gasses are driven out of the crystal and are
enriched as a gas bubble ahead of the solidification front. With a slow growth of the crystallisation front, the bubbles have enough time to
raise to the surface of the weld pool, Figure
9.12 upper part. Pores will not be developed.
However, a higher solidification speed may
lead to a case where gas bubbles are passed
by the crystallisation front and are trapped as
Figure 9.13
pores in the weld metal, lower part of the figure.

Figure 9.13 shows a X-ray photograph, a surface and a transverse section of a seam with
metallurgical pores. The evenly distributed pores across the seam and the accumulation of
pores in the upper part of
the seam (transverse section) are typical.
Figure
9.14
shows
the
ways of ingress of gasses

into the weld pool as an
example during MAG welding. A pore formation is
mainly caused by hydrogen
and nitrogen. Oxygen is
Figure 9.14
9. Welding Defects
114
bonded in a harmless way when using universal electrodes which are alloyed with Si and Mn.
Figure 9.15 classifies cracks to DIN 8524, part 3. In contrast to part 1 and 2 of this standard,
are cracks not only classified by their appearance, but also by their development.
Figure 9.15
9. Welding Defects
115
Figure
1600
C
TS
allocates
cracks according to their
0011
1200
Temperature
9.16
0010
0012
appearance
0021
0027
800
0020
400
MS
0
1
10
0022
0023
0024
0025
102
103
the
welding heat cycle. Principally there is a distinction

0026 0028
104
105
between the group 0010

106
107
(hot
Time
0010 area of hot crack formation

0011 area of solidification crack formation
0012 area of remelting crack formation
0020 area of cold crack formation
0021 area of brittle crack formation
0022 area of shrinking crack formation
during
0023 area of hydrogen crack formation

0024 area of hardening crack formation
0025 area of tearing crack formation
0026 area of ageing crack formation
0027 area of precipitation crack formation
0028 area of lamella crack formation
cracks)
and
0020
(cold cracks).
ISF 2002
br-er-09-16.cdr
Crack Formation During Steel Welding
Figure 9.16
A model of remelting development and solidification cracks is shown in Figure 9.17. The upT
per part illustrates solidification conditions in a
TmA
simple case of a binary system, under the proC5
vision that a complete concentration balance
TmB
A
takes place in the melt ahead of the solidifica-
C0
C5 B
CB
tension
tion front, but no diffusion takes place in the

crystalline solid. When a melt of a composition
tension
C0 cools down, a crystalline solid is formed
a
tension
when the liquidus line is reached. Its concen-
tension
tration can be taken from the solidus line. In

the course of the ongoing solidification, the rest
tension
of molten metal is enriched with alloy elements

b
in accordance with the liquidus line. As defined
tension
segregation in base metal
in the beginning, no diffusion of alloy elements
aaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaa
melt
br-er09-17.cdr
ISF 2002
Development of Remelting
and Solidification Cracks
in the already solidified crystal takes place,

thus the crystals are enriched with alloy elements much slower than in a case of the binary
Figure 9.17
system (lower line).

As a result, the concentration of the melt exceeds the maximum equilibrium concentration
(C5), forming at the end of solidification a very much enriched crystalline solid, whose melting
9. Welding Defects
116
point is considerably lower when compared with the firstly developed crystalline solid. Such
concentration differences between first and last solidified crystals are called segregations.
This model of segregation development is very much simplified, but it is sufficient to understand the mechanism of hot crack formation. The middle part of the figure shows the
formation of solidification
cracks. Due to the segregation
effects
described
above, the melt between

t
the crystalline solids at the

t
end of solidification has a

considerably
solidus
a: non-preferred
bead shape
b <1
t
b: preferred
bead shape
b >1
t
c: non-preferred
bead shape
Crystallisation of
Various Bead Geometries
temperature.
As
indicated by the black areas, rests of liquid may be
ISF 2002
br-er-09-18.cdr
decreased
trapped by dendrites. If
tensile
stresses
exist
(shrinking stress of the

Figure 9.18
welded joint), the liquid areas are not yet able to transfer forces and open up.
The lower part of the figure
shows the development of
remelting cracks. If the base
material to be welded contains already some segregations whose melting point is
lower than that of the rest of
the base metal, then these
zones will melt during weld-
Figure 9.19
ing, and the rest of the material remains solid (black areas). If the joint is exposed to tensile stress during solidification,
then these areas open up (see above) and cracks occur. A hot cracking tendency of a steel is
above all promoted by sulphur and phosphorus, because these elements form with iron very
9. Welding Defects
117
low melting phases (eutectic point Fe-S at 988C) and these elements segregate intensely. In
addition, hot crack tendency increases with increasing melt interval.
As shown in Figure 9.18,
also the geometry of the
groove is important for hot
crack tendency. With narrow,
deep
grooves
crystallisation takes place

of all sides of the bead,
entrapping the remaining
melt in the bead centre.
With
the
shrinking
occurrence
stresses,
of
hot
cracks may develop. In the

case
Figure 9.20
of
flat
beads
as
shown in the middle part of
br-er09-21.cdr
ISF 2002
Macrosection of a SA-Weld
Figure 9.21
Figure 9.22
9. Welding Defects
118
the figure, the remaining melt solidifies at the surface of the bead. The melt cannot be trapped, hot cracking is not possible. The case in figure c shows no advantage, because a remelting crack may occur in the centre (segregation zone) of the first layer during welding the
second layer.
The example of a hot crack in the middle of a SA weld is shown in Figure 9.19. This crack
developed due to the unsuitable groove geometry.
Figure 9.20 shows an example of a remelting
crack which started to develop in a segregation zone of the base metal and spread up to
the bead centre.
structure
(hardness)
hydrogen
stresses
The section shown in Figure 9.21 is similar to

case c in Figure 9.18. One can clearly see
chemical
composition
(C-equivalent)
welding
consumables
humidity on welding
edges
residual stresses
(yield stress of
steels and joints)
that an existing crack develops through the

following layers during over-welding.
Figure 9.22 classifies cold cracks depending
cooling rate
(t8/5)
cooling rate
(t8/1)
additional stresses
(production
conditions)
on their position in the weld metal area. Such

a classification does not provide an explanation for the origin of the cracks.
5 mm
section plane
br-er09-23.cdr
ISF 2002
Causes of Cold Crack Formation
Figure 9.23
5 mm
0,2 mm
Figure 9.23 shows a summary of the three

main causes of cold crack formation and their
main influences. As explained in previous
etching: HNO3
5 mm
chapters, the resulting welding microstructure

depends on both, the composition of base
crack in heat affected zone
and filler materials and of the cooling speed

of the joint. An unsatisfactory structure composition promotes very much the formation of
transverse cracks in weld metal

br-er09-24.cdr
ISF 2002
Cold Cracks in the Heat

Affected Zone and Weld Metal
cold cracks (hardening by martensite).

Figure 9.24
9. Welding Defects
119
Another cause for increased cold crack sus-
1,2
18 C
%
1,0
Water content of coating
90 % RH
1,12
1,0
0,8
1,17
ceptibility is a higher hydrogen content. The
basic stick electrode

Mn - Ni - Mo - Typ
hydrogen content is very much influenced by
0,83
the condition of the welding filler material
0,6
0,4
0,46
0,2
0,35
0,27
0,17
0,1
70 % 0,43
(humidity of electrodes or flux, lubricating
50 % 0,22
35 % 0,18
grease on welding wire etc.) and by humidity
0,4
0,21
0,16
on the groove edges.
0
0
4
5
Storage time
days
The cooling speed is also important because
4,0
it determines the remaining time for hydrogen
20 C / 70 % RH
effusion out of the bead, respectively how
3,0
much hydrogen remains in the weld. A meas-
2,0
ure is t8/1 because only below 100C a hydro1,0
gen effusion stops.
10
Tage
Storage time
br-er09-25.cdr
100
ISF 2002
A crack initiation is effected by stresses. De-
Water Pick-up of
Electrode Coatings
pending on material condition and the two

already mentioned influencing factors, even
Figure 9.25
residual stresses in the workpiece may actu-
ate a crack. Or a crack occurs only when superimpose of residual stresses on outer stress.
Figure 9.24 shows typical cold cracks in a workpiece. An increased hydrogen content in the
weld metal leads to an increased cold crack tendency. Mechanisms of hydrogen cracking
were not completely understood until today. However, a spontaneous occurrence is typical of
hydrogen
cracking.
Such
1.0
%
0.9
cracks do not appear diafter
welding
but
0.8
hours or even days after
0.7
cooling. The weld metal hydrogen content depends on

humidity of the electrode
rectly
basic electrode
1 year storage time
at 18 - 20 C
0.74
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.39
0.3
0.28
0.2
coating (manual metal arc
0.1
welding) and of flux (submerged arc welding).
AWS A5.5
stored and rebaked
0
30
40
50
60
Relative humidity
70
Water Content of Coating After

Storage and Rebaking
Figure 9.26
80
ISF 2002
br-er-09-26.cdr
9. Welding Defects
120
Figure 9.25 shows that the moisture pick-up of an electrode coating greatly depends on ambient conditions and on the type of electrode. The upper picture shows that during storage of
an electrode type the water content of the coating depends on air humidity. The water content of the coating of this electrode type advances to a maximum value with time. The lower
picture shows that this behaviour does not apply to all electrode types. The characteristics of
25 welding electrodes stored under identical conditions are plotted here. It can clearly be
seen that a behaviour as shown in the upper picture applies only to some electrode types,
but basically a very different behaviour in connection with storage can be noticed.
60
ml
100g
In practice, such constant
preheat temperature in C
80
20
100
Diffusible hydrogen content in weld metal
50
storage conditions are not

to be found, this is the rea-
40
cellulose coated
stick electrode
son why electrodes are
30
backed before welding to

20
limit the water content of

basic coated stick electrode
the coating. Figure 9.26
10
shows the effects of this

0
100
200
300
Cooling time between 800 and 1000C
400
500
measure. The upper curve

ISF 2002
br-er-09-27.cdr
Influence of Preheat Temperature on

Cooling Speed and Hydrogen Content
Figure 9.27
shows the water content of

the coating of electrodes
which were stored at constant air humidity before
rebaking. Humidity values after rebaking are plotted in the lower curve. It can be seen that
even electrodes stored under very damp conditions can be rebaked to reach acceptable values of water content in the coating.
Figure 9.27 shows the influence of cooling speed and also the preheat temperature on
hydrogen content of the weld metal. The values of a high hygroscopic cellulose-coated electrode are considerably worse than of a basic-coated one, however both show the same
tendency:
increased cooling speed leads to a raise of diffusible hydrogen content in weld metal. Reason
is that hydrogen can still effuse all the way down to room temperature, but diffusion speed
increases sharply with temperature. The longer the steel takes to cool, the more time is
available for hydrogen to effuse out of the weld metal even in higher quantities.
9. Welding Defects
121
The table in Figure 9.28
shows an assessment of
the quantity of diffusible
Designation
Hydrogen content
ml/100 g deposited weld metal
hydrogen in weld metal
high
>15
according to DIN 8529.
medium
15 and > 10
low
10 and > 5
very low
in ISO 2560
classified as Hcontrolled electrodes
Based on this assessment,

a classification of weld
metal to DIN 32522 into
groups depending on hy-
ISF 2002
br-er-09-28.cdr
drogen is carried out, Fig-
Assessment of Diffusible Hydrogen

During Manual Metal Arc Welding
ure 9.29.
Figure 9.28
A cold crack development

can
be
followed-up
by
means of sound emission
Abbreviation
measurement. Figure 9.30

represents the result of such
a measurement of a welded
component. A solid-borne
Hydrogen content
ml/100 g deposited weld metal (max.)
HP 5
HP 7
HP 10
HP 15
5
7
10
15
sound microphone is fixed

to
component
which
measures the sound pulses
ISF 2002
br-er-09-29.cdr
H2-Bestimmung nach DIN 8572,2
Diffusible Hydrogen of
Weld Metal to DIN 32522
generated by crack development. The intensity of the

pulses provides a qualitative
Figure 9.29
assessment of the crack size. The observation is carried out without applying an external
tension, i.e. cracks develop only caused by the internal residual stress condition. Figure 9.32
shows that most cracks occur relatively short after welding. At first this is due to the cooling
process. However, after completed cooling a multitude of developing sounds can be registered. It is remarkable that the intensity of late occurring pulses is especially high. This behaviour is typical for hydrogen induced crack formation.
Figure 9.31 shows a characteristic occurrence of lamellar cracks (also called lamellar tearing). This crack type occurs typically during stressing a plate across its thickness (perpen-
9. Welding Defects
122
dicular to rolling direction).
The upper picture shows
joint types which are very
much at risk to formation of
such cracks. The two lower
pictures show the cause of
that crack formation. During steel production, a formation
of
segregation
cannot be avoided due to

the casting process. With
following production steps,
such
Figure 9.30
segregations
are
stretched in the rolling direction. Zones enriched and depleted of alloy

elements are now close together.
These concentration differences influence the
transformation behaviour of the individual
zones. During cooling, zones with enriched
alloy elements develop a different microstructure than depleted zones. This effect which can
be well recognised in Figure 9.31, is called
structure banding. In practice, this formation
can be hardly avoided. Banding in plates is the
reason for worst mechanical properties perpendicular to rolling direction. This is caused
by a different mechanical behaviour of different
microstructures.
When stressing lengthwise and transverse to
rolling direction, the individual structure bands
may support each other and a mean strength is
provided.
Figure 9.31
Such support cannot be obtained perpendicular to rolling direction, thus the strength of the workpiece is that of the weaker microstructure
9. Welding Defects
123
areas. Consequently, a lamellar crack propagates through weaker microstructure areas, and
partly a jump into the next band takes place.
100
vulnerable. Depending on
joint shape, these welds
12
show to some extent a conA
welded construction which
shrinking.
12
siderable
shrinkage value 1,7 mm
such t-joints are particularly
Figure 9.32 illustrates why
6r
100
50
greatly impedes shrinking of

joint,
may
this
50
generate
ISF 2002
br-er-09-32.cdr
stresses
the
perpendicular
plane
of
to
Shrinkage Values of T-Joints

With Various Joint Shapes
magnitude
above the tensile strength.
Figure 9.32
This can cause lamellar tearing.

Precipitation
cracks
occur mainly during
stress relief heat treatment of welded components. They occur in the coarse grain zone
close to fusion line. As this type of cracks occurs often during post weld heat treatment of
cladded materials, is it also called undercladding crack, Figure 9.33.
Especially susceptible are steels which concrack formation in these areas of
the coarse grain zone
tain alloy elements with a precipitation hardweld bead
coarse grain zone

1
ening effect (carbide developer like Ti, Nb, V).
During welding such steels, carbides are dissolved in an area close to the fusion line. Durbase metal: ASTM 508 Cl (22NiMoCr3-7)
ing
br-er09-33.cdr
ISF 2002
Undercladding Cracks
Figure 9.33
the
following
cooling,
the
carbide
developers are not completely re-precipitated.
9. Welding Defects
124
If a component in such a condition is stress relief heat treated, a re-precipitation of carbides

takes place (see hot ageing, chapter 8). With this re-precipitation, precipitation-free zones
may develop along grain boundaries, which have a considerably lower deformation stress
limit compared with strengthened areas. Plastic deformations during stress relieving are carried out almost only in these areas, causing the cracks shown in Figure 9.33.

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1.

Classification of Production Techniques

Weldability of a component is determined

given joining job can be done by welding,

Material influence on weldability, i.e. welding suitability, can be detailed for a

three subdefinitions, Figure

mainly set during its production, Figure 1.4. They have a

Top-blow (BOF)-, bottom

cal properties (e.g. type of teeming) of the

semi-finished goods, e.g. like strips, plates,

hardening and precipitation processes are

Important Process Steps

teristics (see chapter 2).

Influence of Alloy Elements

S185 (St 33) [EN 10 025]

Not guaranteed, however mostly no

S250GT (St 34), S235JR (St 37),

up to 0,22% C: good weldable (exception:

S355J0 (St 52)

up to 0,22 and higher

E295 (St 50) Steel for mechanical engineering

Restricted weldability with electric arc

E355 (St 60), C35 (C 35)

Weldable with special electrodes and

E360 (St 70), C45 (C 45)

Very restricted weldability in spite

higher C contents, there is a

sible by observing special

precautions (e.g. pre- and

(Welding safety due to design)

e.g. Power flow in workpiece

e.g. Type and Level of strain in workpiece

The influence of the manufac(welding possibility due to manufacture)

turing process to weldability is

treatment is not always possible, or grinding the weld surface

carried out (narrow gap welding).

e.g. Post-weld heat treatment

subsequent pass cannot be

10. Testing of Welded Joints

Generally, it is carried out using a round

behaviour is the tensile test.

width of parallel length

depends on test unit

) for pressure welding and beam welding, L S = 0.

is typical for this test, Figure 10.2.

specimen is measured. With these measure-

Normally, if a steel with a bcc lattice structure

Flat and Round Tensile Test Specimen

is tested, a curve with a clear yield point is

which are determined by this test are: yield

bending test to DIN EN 910 is used, Figure

10.3. In this test, the specimen is put onto two

supporting rollers and a former is pressed

through between the rollers. The distance of

is observed. If a surface crack develops, the

Stress-Strain Diagram With

The backside of the specimen (tension side)

10. Testing of Welded Joints

transverse and longitudinal

specimens are normally only

welded joint is carried out

represents sample shape,