Load Flow: A. J. Conejo Univ. Castilla - La Mancha 2011

LOAD FLOW
A. J. Conejo
Univ. Castilla La Mancha
2011
22 July 2011
The load flow problem

0. References
1. Introduction
2. Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Matrix YBUS
General equations
Bus classification
Variable types and
limits
22 July 2011

3. The Gauss-Seidel solution technique
Introduction
Algorithm initialization
PQ Buses
PV Buses
Stopping criterion
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4. The Newton-Raphson solution technique
Introduction
General fomulation
Load flow case
Jacobian matrix
Solution outline
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5.
6.
7.
8.
Fast decoupled AC load flow

Adjustment of bounds
DC load flow
Comparison of load flow solution methods
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References
1. A. Gmez Expsito, A. J. Conejo, C.
Caizares. Electric Energy Systems.
Analysis and Operation. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, 2008.
2. A. R. Bergen, V. Vittal. Power Systems
Analysis. Second Edition. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.
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1. Introduction
22 July 2011
Introduction
A snapshot of the system
Most used tool in steady state power system
analysis
Knowning the demand and/or generation of
power in each bus, find out:
buses voltages
load flow in lines and transformers
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Introduction
The problem is described throught a nonlineal system of equations
Need of iterative solution techniques
Solution technique: accuracy vs. computing
time
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Introduction
Applications:
1. On-line analyses
State estimation
Security
Economic analyses
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10
Introduction
2. Off-line analyses
Operation analyses
Plannig analyses
Network expansion planning
Power exchange planning
Security and adecuacy analyses
- Faults
- Stability
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11
2. Problem formulation
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12
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
We want to find out the relationship between
j
Si Pi jQi and Vi Vie i in all buses of the power
system
I1
V1
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I2
YS
YG
YG
Transmission line model
V2
13
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Using Kirchhoff laws:
I1 V1 YG ( V1 V2 ) Y S
I2 V2 YG ( V2 V1) Y S
Matrix notation:
Y S V1 Y11 Y12 V1
I1 Y G Y S
V
V
I
Y G Y S 2 Y 21 Y 22 2
2 YS
IBUS YBUS VBUS
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14
Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Complex power injected in each bus:
S1 SG1 SD1 P1 jQ1 V1 I1*
S2 SG2 SD2 P2 jQ2 V2 I2*
*
*
S1 V1 I1* V1 ( Y11
V1* Y12
V2* )
*
*
S2 V2 I2* V2 ( Y21
V1* Y22
V2* )
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15
Problem formulation
Two-bus case continuation
Notation:
Yik Yik e j ik
Vi Vi e j i
Replacing:
2
P1 jQ1 V1 Y1k Vk e j( 1 k 1k )
k 1
P2 jQ2 V2 Y2k Vk e j( 2 k 2k )
k 1
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Problem formulation
Two-bus case continuation
Therefore, the no lineal equations for the 2
buses network are:
2
Pi Vi Yik Vk cos (i k ik )
k 1
2
Qi Vi Yik Vk sin (i k ik )
k 1
i 1, 2
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17
Problem formulation
Matrix Ybus
Two bus case
YBUS
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Y11 Y12 YG YS
Y21 Y22 YS
YS
YG YS
18
General building rules

Matrix Ybus
1. Self admittance of node i, Yii ,equals the
algebraic sum of all the admittances
connected to node i
2. Mutual admittance between nodes i and
k, Yik ,equals the negative of the sum of
all admittances connecting nodes i and k
3. Yik Yki
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19
Problem formulation
Matrix Ybus
Caracteristics of YBUS
1. YBUS
is symmetric
is very sparse
(>90% for more than 100 buses)
2. YBUS
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Ybus example
Shunt element YG j 0.01 (two per line)

Series element ZS j 0.1
YBUS
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j10
j10
j19.98
j10
j19.98
j10
j10
j19.98
j10
21
Problem formulation
General equations
2n equations (static load flow equations)
n
Pi PGi PDi Vi Yik Vk cos (i k ik )
k 1
Qi QGi QDi Vi Yik Vk sin (i k ik )
k 1
i 1,..., n
n bus system
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Problem formulation
General equations
Polar representation for voltages and rectangular
for admittances
n
Pi Vi Vk (Gik cos ik Bik senik )
[1]
Qi Vi Vk (Gik senik Bik cos ik )
[2]
k 1
n
k 1
where
Y ik Gik j Bik
ik i k
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Problem formulation
General equations
4n variables
Vi, i,Pi, Qi
i 1,...,n
If 2n variables are specified, the other 2n are

determined by equations [1] and [2]
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Problem formulation
BUS Classification
1. PQ buses
Pi known ( PDi known, PGi zero)
Qi known (QDi known, QGi zero)

Vi unknown
i unknown
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Problem formulation
BUS Classification
2. PV buses
Pi known
Qi unknown
Pi known ( PGi specified, PDi known)
Vi known (specified)
Qi unknown ( QGi unknown, QDi known)

i unknown
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Problem formulation
BUS Classification
3. Slack bus, generator with large capacity.
V1 known (specified)
1 known (specified, typically 1 0
reference)
P1 unknown ( PD1 known, PG1 unknown)
Q1 unknown ( QD1 known, QG1 unknown)
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Problem formulation
Variable types and limits
Power balance
n
i1
i1
PGi PDi PLOSS

n
i1
i1
QGi QDi QLOSS
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Problem formulation
Variable types
Control variables
PGi (excepting slack bus)
QGi or V i
Non-control variables
PDi QDi
State variables
Vi i
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Problem formulation
Variable limits
Voltage magnitude Vi min
Power angle i k
Vi
Vi max
i k max (every existing line)
Power limits
PGi,min PGi PGi,max

QGi,min QGi QGi,max
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3.The Gauss-Seidel solution

technique
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Gauss-Seidel solution technique

No lineal system:
f (x) 0
x F( x )
Iteration
x (r 1) F( x (r ) )
Stoping rule
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x (r 1) x (r )
32

Example
f ( x) x 2 5x 4 0
x 0 . 2 x 2 0 .8
x (r 1) 0.2( x (r ) )2 0.8 ; x ( 0 ) 2
r 0,
x (1) 0.2 22 0.8 1.6
r 1,
x ( 2 ) 0.2 1.6 2 0.8 1.312
r 2,
x ( 3 ) 0.2 1.312 2 0.8 1.1442
...
r 5,
x ( 6 ) 1.0103
r 6,
x ( 7 ) 1.0042
...
r 10,
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x (11) 1.0001
r 11,
r 12,
x (13 ) 1.0000
(12 )
1.0000
Many iterations!
33

Algorithm beginning
1) Known
Pi
i 2,...,n
Qi
i m 1,...,n
Vi
i 2,...,m
V1
slack bus
(PV & PQ Buses)

(PQ Buses)
(PV Buses)
V i min , V i max i m 1,...,n (PQ Buses)

QGi,min , QGi,max
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i 2,...,m (PV Buses)
34

Algorithm beginning
2) Build YBUS
3) Initialize voltages
Vi Vi
i i
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i m 1,...,n
i 2,...,n
35

PQ buses
4)
*
Si
PQ buses
Pi jQi
*
V i Ii
*
Vi
Y ii V i
n
1 Pi jQi
Vi
Y
V
ik
k
Y ii V i*
k 1
k i
P jQi
Ai i
Y ii
Y ik
Bik
Y ii
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* n
V i Y ik
k 1
k i
Vk
i m 1,...,n
i m 1,...,n ; k 1,...,n ; k i
36

PQ buses
At iteration (r+1) and bus i, the available values of
voltages at previous buses are used:
Vi
(r 1)
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Ai
(r ) *
(Vi )
i1
Bik V k
k 1
(r 1)
Bik V k
(r )
k i1
37

PV buses
5) PV buses
*
Si
Pi jQi
*
V i Ii
* n
V i Y ik V k
k 1
* n
Qi V i Y ik V k
k 1
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PV buses
At iteration (r+1):
Q(ir 1)
(r ) * i1
(r 1)
(r ) * n
(r )
( V i ) Y ik V k ( V i ) Y ik V k
k 1
k i
i angleV i
(ir 1)
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(r 1)
Ai
Pi jQ(ir 1)
Y ii
n
A (r 1) i1
(r 1)
(r )
i
angle (r ) Bik V k Bik V k
k i1
( V i )* k 1
39

PV buses
Beware of limits!
Q(ir 1) Qi,min
Q(ir 1) Qi,min
Q(ir 1) Qi,max
Q(ir 1) Qi,max
&
&
i becomes PQ
i becomes PQ
(more on this below)
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40

PV buses
6) Stop criterion
Vi(r 1) Vi(r ) ; i 2,...,n
6.1) Slack bus power (after convergence)

P1 jQ1
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* n
V1 Y1k V k
k 1
41

Algorith final calculations
6.2) Compute line currents (after convergence)
ILik ( V i V k ) YLik ;
Iik 0 V i Y ik 0
ILki ( V k V i ) YLik ;
Iki0 V k Y ki 0
Vi
Vk
ILik
YLik
ILki
Sik Iik 0
Iki0 Sik
Y ik 0
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Y ki0
42

6.2) Compute line complex power (after convergence)
*
Ski V k ( V k V i )YLik V k V k Y ki 0 ;
*
Sik V i ( V i V k )YLik V i V i Y ik 0 ;
Vi
Vk
ILik
YLik
ILki
Sik Iik 0
Iki0 Sik
Y ik 0
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Y ki0
43

6.3) Compute losses (after convergence)
Sloss , ik Sik Ski ; k, i
Sloss
Sloss , ik
k,i
7)
If no convergence, go to step 4.
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44

Algorithm improvement
Acceleration factor (in order to decrease
the number of iterations):
~
(r )
(r 1)
(r )
Vi(r 1) V i V i
Vi
1.6 (generally recommended)
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Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code
function [Vfinal,angfinal,nite,P,Q,errorplot,tiempo]=Gaussgen(m,n,Ybus,Vmodini,Angini,P,Q,tol,Vmax,Vmin,Qmax,Qmin)
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%-function [Vmod,ang,nite,P,Qerrorplot,tiempo]=Gaussgen(m,n,Ybus,Vmodini,Angini,P,Q,tol,Vmax,Vmin,Qmax,Qmin)
%-Resuelve de forma general problema de carga por el metodo de Gauss-Seidel
%-donde:
%-2...m nudos PV; (m=1 cuando no hay nudos PV)
%-n nudos totales
%-Ybus matriz de admitancias
%-Vmodini tensiones iniciales modulo
%-Angini angulos iniciales RADIANES
%-P potencia activa inicial
%-Q potencia reactiva inicial
%-tol tolerancia para error en tension y potencia reactiva
%-Vmax Vmin valores limites aceptables para las tensiones
%-Qmax Qmin valores limites aceptables para las potencias reactivas
%-nite numero de iteraciones
%-Vfinal vector con todas las potencias para cada iteracion
%-angfinal igual pero con los angulos
%-tiempo, tiempo invertido en hacer las operaciones
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%calculo de la matriz B
B=zeros(n,n);
for t=1:n
for k=1:n
B(t,k)=Ybus(t,k)/Ybus(t,t);
end
end
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Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code 2
%calculos los valores en coordenadas cuadrangulares de la tension
V=zeros(n,1);
for a=1:n
V(a)=Vmodini(a)*exp(i*Angini(a));
end
ang=Angini;
%empieza el bucle:
error=1; %valores iniciales para poder entrar en el bucle
errorQ=1;
nite=0;
tic;
while max(abs(error))>tol | max(abs(errorQ))>tol
nite=nite+1;
Vmod=abs(V);
Vini=V;
ang=angle(V);
Qini=Q;
%calculo las reactivas para los nudos PV
if m>1
for l=2:m
AQ=0;
for k=1:n
AQ=AQ+Ybus(l,k)*V(k);
end
Q(l)=-imag((V(l)')*AQ);
end
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%calculo las A para todos los nudos:

for a=1:n
A(a)=(P(a)-i*Q(a))/Ybus(a,a);
end
%calculo los angulos nudos PV:
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for l=2:m
Aang=0;
for k=1:n
Aang=Aang+B(l,k)*V(k);
end
ang(l)=angle(A(l)/((V(2))')-Aang+B(l,l)*V(l));
end
end
for a=1:n
A(a)=(P(a)-i*Q(a))/Ybus(a,a);
end
%ahora actualizo los voltajes otra vez:
for a=1:n
V(a)=Vmod(a)*exp(i*ang(a));
end
%ahora calculo los nudos PQ
AV=zeros(n,1);
for p=m+1:n
for k=1:n
AV(p)=AV(p)+B(p,k)*V(k);
end
V(p)=A(p)/((V(p))')-AV(p)+B(p,p)*V(p);
end
error=Vini-V;
errorQ=Qini-Q;
errorplot(1,nite)=norm(abs(error));
Vfinal(:,nite)=abs(V);
angfinal(:,nite)=ang*180/pi; %paso a grados
end
Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code 3
48
Gauss-Seidel
Matlab code 4
%calculos los valores de potencia para el nudo slack:
S1=0;
for t=1:n
S1=S1+(V(1)')*(Ybus(1,t)*V(t));
end
P(1)=real(S1);
Q(1)=-imag(S1);
tiempo=toc;
%alerta por si se sobrepasan valores aceptables:
if max(Vmod)>Vmax | min(Vmod)<Vmin
disp('SE SOBREPASAN LIMITES TENSIONES!!')
end
if max(Q)>Qmax | min(Q)<Qmin
disp('SE SOBREPASAN LIMITES REACTIVA!!')
end
ang=(180/pi)*angle(V);
Vmo=abs(V);
%represento los errores por iteracion:
plot(1:nite,errorplot,'o');grid on;xlabel('iteracion');ylabel('error por iteracion');title('evolucion error tesion');
%------------------------------------------------------------%
%
%
% Realizado por Carlos Ruiz Mora octubre 2006 %
%
%
%------------------------------------------------------------%
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Gauss-Seidel example
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G-S Example
Solution tolerance is set to 0.1 MVA.
ONE
TWO
THREE
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51
G-S Example
Data below. Base power is SB=100 MVA:
Bus
Voltage (p.u.)
Power
Lin
1.02
(slack)
1-2
0.02+0.04j
1.02
PG=50 MW
1-3
0.02+0.06j
PC=100 MW
QC=60 MVAr
2-3
0.02+0.04j
(each)
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Impedance (p.u.)
52
Solution procedure
1.
Data and unknown:
Bus
Type
Data
Unknown
Slack
V1=1.02 1=0.0
P1 Q1
PV
V2=1.02 P2=0.5
2 Q2
PQ
P3=-1.0 Q2=-0.6
3 V3
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Solution procedure
YBUS
ONE
TWO
YBUS
15 35 j 10 20 j 5 15 j
10 20 j 30 60 j 20 40 j
5 15 j 20 40 j 25 55 j
THREE
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Solution procedure
3. Voltage magnitude initialization (iteration 0):
V3 V30 1
2 02 0
PQ bus
All buses but the reference one
3 03 0
Vector form:
1.02
V 0 1.02
1
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0
0 0

0
55
Solution procedure
Per iteration:
- PV buses
(Q, )
i=2,...,m
(bus 2)
- PQ buses
(V, )
i=m+1,...,n
(bus 3)
- Stopping criterios:
a) convergence Sslack and power flows;
b) no converge new iteration
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Solution procedure
4. PV buses: iteration (r+1) :
bus 2:
Q(2r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y21V1( r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y22 V2( r ) ( V2(r ) )* Y23 V3( r )
2 angle [ V2 ]
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A (2r 1)
P2 jQ(2r 1)
Y22
57
Solution procedure
(2r 1)
A (2r 1)
( r 1)
(r )
angle (r 1) * B21V1 B23 V3
( V2 )
where
Bik
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Yik
is a constant
Yii
58
Solution procedure
5. Buses PQ iteration (r+1):
bus 3:
V3(r 1)
A3
(r ) * B31V1(r 1) B32 V2(r 1)
( V3 )
where
P3 jQ3
A3
Y33
Are constants for PQ buses
Yik
Bik
Yii
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Solution procedure
6.
Stopping criterion:
10 3
| Vi(r 1) Vi(r ) |
&
i 2, 3; j 2
| Q(jr 1) Q(jr ) |
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Solution procedure
If convergence:
6.1) Slack power
*
Sslack
P1 jQ1 V1* ( Y11V1 Y12 V2 Y13 V3 )
S12 , S21, S13 , S23 , S31, S32
6.2) Power flows
*
Sik Vi ( Vi - V *k )YLik
*
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Solution procedure
6.3) Line losses:
Slosss ,ik Sik Ski
k, i 1,2,3
Sloss Sloss ,12 Sloss ,13 Sloss ,23
7.
If no coveergence, the procedure continues in Step 4.
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Implementation
MATLAB:
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63
Solution
11 iterations needed to attain the solution
Iteration (pu)
...
10
11
P1 ,Q1(slack)
...
0.5083
0.0716
P2
0.5
0.5
0.5
...
0.5
0.5
Q2
0.81
0.4084
0.4696
...
0.5493
0.5501
P3
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
...
-1.0
-1.0
Q3
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
...
-0.6
-0.6
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Solution
Iteration
...
10
11
V1
1 ( )
1.02
1.02
1.02
...
1.02
1.02
...
V2
2 ( )
1.02
1.02
1.02
...
1.02
1.02
0.0675
-0.1596
-0.2885
...
-0.4667
-0.4685
V3
1.0041
1.0042
1.0043
...
1.0043
1.0043
3 ( )
-0.5746
-0.7336
-0.8278
...
-0.9580
-0.9593
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Solution
Errors for |V| & |Q|:
Iteration
...
10
11
Max. Error V
0.0041
9.6810-5
5.0510-5
...
1.1510-6
6.7410-7
Max. Error Q
0.8160
0.4076
0.0612
...
0.0014
8.1110-4
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Final Solution
Bus
P (MW)
Q (MVAr )
V (pu)
1.02 0
50.83
7.16
50.00
55.01
-100
-60.00
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1.02
-0.4685
1.0043 -0.9593
67
Checking
Checking using Power-World:
ONE
TWO
THREE
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Checking
Bus 1
Bus 2
Bus 3
Solution
G-S
PW
G-S
PW
G-S
PW
V (pu)
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.0043
1.0043
()
-0.4685
-0.4710
-0.9593
-0.9612
P (MW)
50.83
50.98
50.00
50.00
-100
-100
Q (MVAr)
7.16
7.10
55.01
55.12
-60
-60
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Checking
Variable
Error Max. (%)
0%
0.53 %
0.29%
0.84 %
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4. The Newton-Raphson solution
technique
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The Newton-Raphson solution technique
Introduction
One variable
f ( x ) 0,
f ( x ( 0 ) ) 0,
f ( x (0 ) x ( 0 ) ) 0
(0)
(0)
(0)
( 0 ) df
f ( x x ) 0 f ( x ) x
dx
x ( 0 )
f ( x(0) )
df

dx
x (r 1) x (r )
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(0)
...
x (1) x ( 0 ) x ( 0 )
;
(0)
f ( x (r ) )
df

dx
(r )
72
Introduction
Example
f ( x ) x 2 5 x 4 0;
x
( r 1)
(r )
df ( x )
2x 5
dx
( x ( r ) )2 5 x ( r ) 4 ( 0 )
; x 0 .5
(r )
2x 5
(1)
0 .5 2 5 0 . 5 4
0 .5
0.9375
2 0 .5 5
( 2)
0.9375 2 5 0.9375 4
0.9375
0.9988
2 0.9375 5
(3)
0.9988 2 5 0.9988 4
0.9988
1.0000
2 0.9988 5
Fast!
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General formulation
General case
f ( x ) 0 : Rn Rn
f ( x ( 0 ) ) 0,
f ( x ( 0 ) x ( 0 ) ) 0
f ( x ( 0 ) x ) f ( x ( 0 ) ) J( 0 ) x ( 0 ) 0
x
(0)
( 0 ) 1
f ( x(0) )
x (1) x ( 0 ) x ( 0 )
x
(r 1)
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(r )
(r ) 1
f ( x (r ) )
74
General formulation
x1
x
x 2

x
n
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f1
f
f 2
f
n
f1
x
1
f2
J x1
fn
x1
f1
x 2
f2
x 2
fn
x 2
f1
x n
f2
x n
fn
x n
75
Load flow case
x
(r )
(2r )
( r )
3
n

(r ) fiP () Vi Vk (Gik cos ik Bik sinik )
n
k 1
(r )
n
Vm1
fiQ () Vi Vk (Gik sinik Bik cos ik )

k 1

Vn(r )1
(r )
Vn
Pi () fiP, Pi Pi,sp
Qi () fiQ, Qi Qi,sp
2 ,..., n ; Vm1,..., Vn
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76
Load flow case

Using Taylor:
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
Pi,sp
f
f
f
f
fiP(r ) iP (2r ) ... iP (nr ) iP Vm(r)1 ... iP Vn(r )
2
n
Vm1
Vn
Qi,sp
f
f
f
f
fiQ(r ) iQ (2r ) ... iQ (nr ) iQ Vm(r)1 ... iQ Vn(r )
2
n
Vm1
Vn
The increments below should be 0:

Pi(r ) Pi,sp fiP(r ) ;
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Q(ir ) Qi,sp fiQ(r )

77
Load flow case

Matrix notation:
P2(r ) f (r )
2P
2
P2(r ) ...
(r )
Qm1 ... (r )
fnQ
(r )
Qn 2
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(r )
2
f2P
Vn
(r )
...
n
(r )
... Vm1
(r )
fnQ
(r )
n Vn
(r )
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
78
Jacobian matrix
PQ buses generate 2 Jacobian rows
corresponding to P and Q
PV buses generate 1 Jacobian row
corresponding to P
22 July 2011
79
Jacobian elements
Jacobian dimension
2 NPQ NPV
22 July 2011
NPQ
Number of PQ buses
NPV
Number of PV buses
80
Jacobian elements
Jacobian dimension
P(r ) H(r ) N(r ) (r 1)
V (r 1)
(r ) (r )
(r )
L
Q J
V (r )
V (r 1)
(r 1)
instead
of
V
V (r )
for improving computational efficiency
22 July 2011
81
Jacobian elements
m k
Hkm
Pk
Vk Vm (Gkm sinkm Bkm cos km )

m
Nkm
Pk
Vm
Vk Vm (Gkm cos km Bkm sinkm )
Vm
Jkm
Qk
Vk Vm (Gkm cos km Bkm sinkm )

m
Lkm
Qk
Vm
Vk Vm (Gkm sinkm Bkm cos km )
Vm
22 July 2011
82
Jacobian elements
k m
Hkk
Pk
Qk Bkk Vk2
k
Nkk Vk
Pk
Pk Gkk Vk2
Vk
Jkk
Qk
Pk Gkk Vk2
k
Lkk
Qk
Vk
Qk Bkk Vk2
Vk
22 July 2011
Note :
km k m
Y km Gkm jBkm
83
Solution outline
1. Build YBUS
2. Specify 1 0
Pi
i 2,...,n
Qi
i m 1,...,n
Vi
i 2,...,m
V1
3.
i , i 2,...,n
Initialize
V i , i m 1,...,n
22 July 2011
84
Solution outline
4. Compute Pi(r ) (for PV & PQ Buses), Q(ir ) (for PQ Buses)
5. If Pi(r ) P & Q(ir ) Q
then compute
1) P1 jQ1
2) line flows
3) Stop
else go on
6. Compute submatrices H(r ), N(r ), J(r ), L(r )

22 July 2011
85
Solution outline
7. Solve
(r 1) H(r ) N(r ) 1 P(r )

V (r 1)
(r )
(r )
(r )
L Q
V (r ) J
8. Update
(r 1) (r ) (r 1)
V (r 1) V (r ) V (r 1)
PV & PQ Buses
PV Buses
9. Go to step 4
22 July 2011
86
The Newton-Raphson, Matlab Code

function [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = nraphson(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = nraphson(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% Obtencion de indices de nodos: 1
-> SLACK;
%
2,...,M -> PV;
%
M+1,...,N -> PQ
n = length(V_modulo_ini);
m = npv + 1;
% Parametros del Metodo
Tol = 0.0001;
Error_p = 1;
N_iter = 0;
% Tolerancia del metodo (Perdida de potencia).

% Error inicial (A un valor mayor que Tol).
% Numero de iteraciones.
% Valores iniciales
V_modulo= V_modulo_ini';
V_fase = V_fase_ini';
P = P_ini';
Q = Q_ini';
j=sqrt(-1);
22 July 2011
87

tic;
while (Error_p > Tol)
if (N_iter >50)
error('Demasiadas iteraciones');
break
end
V = V_modulo.*exp(j*V_fase);
S = V.*conj(Y*V);
DP = P(2:n)-real(S(2:n));
DQ = Q(m+1:n)-imag(S(m+1:n));
PQ = [DP ; DQ];
Error_p = norm(PQ,2);
% Bucle principal (Se permiten 50 iteraciones como mucho).
% Expresion compleja de la tension

% Expresion compleja de la potencia
% Incremento de potencia activa (nudos PV y PQ)
% Incremento de potencia reactiva (nudos PQ)
% Error en esa iteracion
DS_DA = diag(V)*conj(Y*j*diag(V)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*j*diag(V);

DS_DV = diag(V)*conj(Y*diag(V./V_modulo)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*diag(V./V_modulo);
% Construccion del Jacobiano
J = [real(DS_DA(2:n , 2:n)) real(DS_DV(2:n , m+1:n))
imag(DS_DA(m+1:n , 2:n)) imag(DS_DV(m+1:n , m+1:n))]
dx=J\PQ;
22 July 2011
% indices: 1...n-1 = fases en PV y PQ; n...final = modulos en PQ
88

V_fase (2:n) = V_fase(2:n) + dx(1:n-1);
% Actualizamos la fase de las tensiones (nudos PV y PQ)
V_modulo (m+1:n)= V_modulo(m+1:n) + dx(n:end); % Actualizamos el modulo de las tensiones (nudos PQ)
N_iter = N_iter + 1;
disp('Pulse una tecla para continuar')
pause
end
P=real(S);
Q=imag(S);
V_fase=V_fase*180/pi;
T_calculo=toc;
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
% Incremento el numero de iteraciones
% Calculo de la potencia activa

% Calculo de la potencia reactiva
% Paso de Radianes a grados
**** ENTRADAS ****
V_modulo_ini = Modulo de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocidos en SLACK y PV).

V_fase_ini = Fase de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocido en SLACK).
P_ini
= Potencia activa en los nodos (conocido en PV y PQ).
Q_ini
= Potencia reactica en los nodos (conocido en PQ).
Y
= Matriz de admitancias nodales.
22 July 2011
89

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
**** SALIDAS ****

V_modulo = Modulo de la tension en todos los nodos.
V_fase
= Fase de la tension en todos los nodos.
P
= Potencia activa en todos los nodos.
Q
= Potencia reactiva en todos los nodos.
N_iter
= Numero de iteraciones.
T_calculo = Tiempo de calculo.
Error_p
= Error.
**** OBSERVACIONES ****

Los nodos deben estar ordenador asi:
*1
: SLACK.
* 2...m : PV.
* m+1...n : PQ.
**** FECHA Y AUTOR ****

Laura Laguna - Octubre de 2005
22 July 2011
90
Ejemplo resuelto por el mtodo

de Newton-Raphson
22 July 2011
91
Newton-Raphson Example
Checking with Matlab and PowerWorld
22 July 2011
92
ONE
Bus
Voltage p.u
Power
1.02
TWO
THREE
1.02
PG=50 MW
PC= 100 MW
QC=60 MVAr
22 July 2011
93
Data:
22 July 2011
Line
Impedance p.u.
1-2
0.02+0.04j
1-3
0.02+0.06j
2-3
0.02+0.04j each
94
3 buses:
Bus1: Slack
Bus 2: PV
Bus 3: PQ
Voltage magnitude at bus 3 initialized at 1.02.
Angles intitialized to zero.
22 July 2011
95
Y bus:
15.0000 - 35.0000j
Y - 10.0000 + 20.0000j
- 5.0000 + 15.0000j
- 10.0000 + 20.0000j
30.0000 - 60.0000j
- 20.0000 + 40.0000j
- 5.0000 + 15.0000j
- 20.0000 + 40.0000j
25.0000 - 55.0000j
Intitialization:
2 3 0
V3 1.02
22 July 2011
96
Residuals:
3
Pi Piesp - Vi Vj (Gij cos ij Bijsen(ij )) i 2,3

j1
Qi Qiesp - Vi Vj (Gijsenij - Bij cos(ij )) i 3

j1
22 July 2011
97
Checking:
cal
P2cal 0.36241014
P2 0.5 P2 0.5
cal
1
cal
P
3
3
cal
15
cal
Q3 7.247510
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.6
No tolerance satisfied: the process continues.
22 July 2011
98
Jacobian:
H22 H23 N23
J H32 H33 N33

M
M
L
33
33
32
22 July 2011
62.4240
J 41.6160
20.8080
41.6160
57.2220
26.0100
20.4000
25.5000
56.1000
99
First iteration:
2 - 0.4557
3 - 0.9406
V

3 - 0.0154
V3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0046
- 0.4557
- 0.9406
100
Ejemplo por Newton-Raphson

Residuals:
P2cal 0.4958
P2 0.5 0.4958 0.0042
cal
P 1 ( 0.9835) 0.0165
P
0
.
9835
3
cal
Q3 0.5874
Q3 0.6 ( 0.5874) 0.0126
No convergence.
22 July 2011
101
Jacobian for iteration 2:
61.8860
J 40.8145
20.8409
22 July 2011
41.1614 20.0540
56.0994
24.1371
26.2162 54.6707
102
State variables at iteration 2
2 - 0.0154
3 - 0.0206
V

-4
3 - 3.002410
V3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0043
- 0.4710
- 0.9612
103
Residuals:
5
P2cal 0.5000
P2 0.5 0.5000 0.066410
cal
5
P3 1.0000 P3 1 ( 1.0000) 0.545410
6
Qcal
0.6000
0
.
6
0
.
6000
)
4
.
9698
10
3
3
Tolerance OK.
22 July 2011
104
Jacobian iteration 3:
61.8860
J 40.8145
20.8409
41.1614 20.0540
56.0994
24.1371
26.2162 54.6707
-5
0.645810
2
3 - 0.753410-5
V

-7
3
1.110610
V
3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0043
- 0.4710
- 0.96810
105
Final power values:
P1 0.5098
P 0.5000
2
P3 1.0000
22 July 2011
Q1 0.0710
Q 0.5513
2
Q3 0.6000
106
convergence
22 July 2011
107
convergence
22 July 2011
108
convergence
22 July 2011
109
convergence
22 July 2011
110
Power World
5 0 ,9 7 7 M W
7 ,0 9 5 M var
5 0 ,0 0 0 M W
5 5 ,1 2 6 M var
UNO
C ERO
1 ,0 2 0 pu
0 ,0 0 0 Deg
1 ,0 2 0 pu
-0 ,4 7 1 Deg
DO S
1 ,0 0 4 3 pu
-0 ,9 6 1 Deg
100 MW
6 0 M var
22 July 2011
111
Bus
V(p.u)
0 (PW)
1.02
50.9763
7.0955
1.02
50.9755
7.0954
1 (PW)
1.02
-0.4710
50
55.1256
1.02
-0.4710
50.0006
55.1228
2 (PW)
1.0043
-0.9612
-100
-60
1.0043
-0.9612
-99.9989
-59.9970
22 July 2011
112
Largest error below 0.1 MVA.
More effective technique than Gauss Seidel.
Convergence is fast (if adequate initialization).
22 July 2011
113
Including tap-changing transformers
22 July 2011
114
Tap-Changing transformer
A tap changing transformer makes the
admitance matrix dependent on the
transformer parameter t.
The Jacobian matrix also depends on t.
22 July 2011
115
Admitance matrix
Equivalent circuit:
t:1
i
Ycc
Ycc
t 1
22 July 2011
1 t
Ycc 2
t
t 1
Ycc
t
116
Admitance matrix
General building rules

1. Self admittance of node i, Yii , equals the
algebraic sum of all the admittances
connected to node i
2. Mutual admittance between nodes i and
k, Yii , equals the negative of the sum of
all admittances connecting nodes i and k
3. Yik Yki
22 July 2011
117
Tap-changing
Example
22 July 2011
118
Tap-changing
Example
1
Yshunt 13
Z13
Z 23
Yshunt 13 Yshunt 23
Yshunt 23
Ycc
The tap-changing
transformer
controls voltage
of bus 4
22 July 2011
1 t
Ycc 2
t
4
t 1
Ycc
t
119
Tap-changing
Example
1
Y11
Yshunt 13 ; Y12 0 ;...
Z13
... Y33
1
1
1 t Ycc
Yshunt 13
Yshunt 23 Ycc 2
t
Z13
Z 23
t
Y34
Y44
Ycc
Ycc
22 July 2011
t 1
Ycc
Ycc
t
t
It does not depend

on t!
120
Tap-changing
Example
Y11 Y12
Y
Y22
21
Y
Y31 Y32
Y
41 Y42
22 July 2011
Y14
Y23
Y24
Y33 ( t ) Y34 ( t )
Y43 ( t ) Y44
Y13
121
Tap-changing transformer
Load flow equations:
n
Pi Vi Vk Gik cos ik Bik sin ik

k 1
Qi Vi Vk Gik sin ik Bik cos ik

k 1
22 July 2011
122
Taylor Expansion:
(r )
Pi
dato
(r )
iP
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
fiP
fiP
fiP
(r )
(r )
(r )
...
V
2
n
m 1 ...
2
n
Vm1
(r )
fiP
fiP
(r )
(r )
...
t
n
n
(r )
(r )
f
f
f
Qidato fiQ(r ) iQ (2r ) ... iQ (nr ) iQ Vm(r)1 ...
2
n
Vm1
(r )
(r )
fiQ
fiQ
(r )
(r )
...
t
n
n
22 July 2011
123
The admitance matrix depend on t.
The Jacobian matrix has a new column.
The new variable (t) replace the voltage value
at the corresponding PQ bus.
22 July 2011
124
Increment t is divided by t to improve
computational efficiency.
The Jacobian matrix maintains its # of column
& rows.
The variable t is considered in the last place.
22 July 2011
125
The Jacobian matrix blocks are:
H(r ) N(r ) C(r )
J (r )
(r )
(r )
L
D
M
H, N, M & L are the standard blocks.

Submatrix C & D have as many columns as
the # of tap-changing transformers.
22 July 2011
126
Derivatives with respect to t:
n
fiP
Bik
Gik
Ci t
t Vi Vk
cos ik
sinik
t
t
t
k 1
n
fiQ
Gik
Di t
t Vi Vk
sinik
t
t
k 1
Bik
cos ik
t
C & D multiplied by t!
22 July 2011
127
Iterative procedure analogous, but:
If t hit any of its limit, it is fixed to the limit &
the corresponding bus becomes PQ.
If the procedure converge, fix t at its closest
integer value & continues the iteration with
that t fixed.
22 July 2011
128
Tap-changing
Example
1.- Slack
2.- PV
3.- PQ
4.- PQ
5.- PQV
22 July 2011
129
Tap-changing
Example
Data:
Line impedances: 0.001+j0.05 p.u.
Shunt admitances: j0.05 p.u. (2 per line).
Transformer: 0.9<t<1.1, steps of 0.005; Zcc=j0.1.
22 July 2011
130
Tap-changing
Example
Bus
Voltage (pu).
Power
1.00
Slack
1.00
Pg=150MW
--
Pc=50MW, Qc=10MVAr
--
Pc=0MW,
1.00
22 July 2011
Qc=0MVAr
Pc=100MW,Qc=50MVAr
131
Tap-changing
Example
1
Ylnea
Yshunt
Yshunt
Ylnea
Yshunt
Ylnea
Yshunt
Yshunt
Yshunt
Ycc
1 t
Ycc 2
t
22 July 2011
t 1
Ycc
t
132
Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
YBUS
Yl Ys
Y
l
22 July 2011
Yl
2Yl 2Ys
Yl
Yl Ys
Yl
Yl
Yl
Ycc
(1 t )
2Yl 2Ys
Ycc 2
t
t
Ycc
t
0
0
0
Ycc
t
Ycc
133
Tap-changing
Example
0
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
Ybus
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992 0
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
.
7997
j
49
.
884
j
10
0
0
0
j10
j10
Variable initial values:

2 3 4 5 0;
V3 V4 1;
t 1;
22 July 2011
134
Tap-changing
Example
Increment calculations:
P2 1.5 P2cal 1.5
P
0 .5
cal
0
.
5
P
3
3
P4 P4cal 0
cal
P
5 1 P5 1
Q3 0.1 Qcal 0.1
3

cal
0
Q 4 Q 4
Q 0.5 Qcal 0.5
5
5
22 July 2011
135
Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian
0
39.984
0
19.992
19.992 19.992
J
0
0
0
0.3998
0.3998
0.3998
0
0
22 July 2011
19.992
0.3998
19.992
0.3998
0.3998
49.984
10 0.3998
0.7997
10
10
0.3998
19.892
19.992
0.7997
19.992
49.754
10
0
0
0
0
0
10
10
136
Tap-changing
Example
First iteration:
2

0
3
1
0
4 0.0993
0
.
0744
0
V3 0.1744 V 0.9623 ; 0.0993 ; t 0.918
V3
0.968
0.0744
0
.
0377
V
1
0.1744
0.032
V4
t 0.082
t
22 July 2011
137
Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
Ybus
0
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.99
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884
0
0.3998 j19.992
0
0
0
0.3998 j19.94 0.3998 j19.992
0
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
.
399
j
19
.
99
0
.
7997
j
51
.
750
j
10
.
8933
0
0
0
j10.893
j10
22 July 2011
138
Tap-changing
Example
Power computation:
0
P1
P 1.4521
2
P3 0.4657
P
0
.
069
4
P5 1.0527
22 July 2011
Q1 0.05
Q 0.5647
2
Q3 0.1407
Q
0
.
1027
4
Q5 0.492
139
Tap-changing
Example
Power increments:
P2 1.5 1.4521 0.0479
P 0.5 0.4657 0.0343
3

P4 0.069
0.069
P
0.0527
1
.
0527
5

Q3 0.1 0.1407 0.0407
Q 4 0.1027 0.1027
Q5 0.5 0.492 0.008
22 July 2011
140
Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian matrix:
39.9193
19.2698
J
0
1.8242
22 July 2011
19.3273
1.0523
18.6075
18.6075
0.0954
0.8359
18.6261
48.3879
10.492
0.0912
0.8183
10.492
10.492
1.0527
0.8359
0.8359
18.3261
18.6075
0.0912
0.6803
1.0527
18.6261
48.5934
1.0527
1.0527
10.492
1.0527
1.0527
11.746
10.492
0
141
Tap-changing
Example
Second iteration
2

0.0002
3
0
4 0.005
1

1
0.0002
0
.
003
V
3 0.0021 V 0.9607 ; 0.1043 ; t 0.9144
V3
0.9644
0.0744
0
.
0016
V
1
0.1723
0.0037
V4
t 0.0039
t
22 July 2011
142
Tap-changing
Example
Admitance matrix:
Ybus
0
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j39.884
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992
0
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
.
3998
j
19
.
992
0
.
7997
j
51
.
8447
j
10
.
9365
0
0
0
j10.9365
j10
22 July 2011
143
Tap-changing
Example
Power calculations:
P1 0.0031
P 1.4998
2
P3 0.4998
P
0
.
000
4
P5 1.0000
22 July 2011
Q1 0.0501
Q 0.6391
2
Q3 0.1000
Q
0
.
0006
4
Q5 0.4999
144
Tap-changing
Example
Power increments:
P2 1.5 1.4998 0.2065
P 0.5 0.4998 0.1969
3

0.000
P4
0.0057
P
0.0258 10 3
1
.
0000
5

Q3 0.1 0.1000 0.0339
0
.
0006
0
.
6375
4

Q5 0.5 0.4999 0.1218

22 July 2011
145
Tap-changing
Example
Tap to the closest feasible value:
t 0.9144 t 0.915
Admitance matrix:
Ybus
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992
0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j 39.884
0
0.3998 j19.992
0
0
0.3998 j19.942 0.3998 j19.992
0
0.3998 j19.992 0.3998 j19.992 0.7997 j51.8282
0
0
0
j10.929
22 July 2011
0
0
j10.929
j10
0
146
Tap-changing
Example
Power calculation:
P1 0.0031
P 1.4998
2
P3 0.4998
P
0
.
0007
4
P5 0.9993
22 July 2011
Q1 0.0501
Q 0.6391
2
Q3 0.1000
Q
0
.
0075
4
Q5 0.4926
147
Tap-changing
Example
Power increment calculations:
2
P2 1.5 1.4998 0.0002 3

P 0.5 0.4998 0.0002
3

4
P4 0.0007 0.0007 5
P
0.0007 ; V3
0
.
9993
5

V
Q3 0.1 0.1000 0.0000 3

V4
0.0075
Q 4
0.0075 V4
Q5 0.5 0.4926 0.0074 V
5
V
5
22 July 2011
148
Tap-changing
Example
Jacobian:
39.2449
19.1935
J
0
1.872
22 July 2011
19.253
1.103
18.5072
18.5072
0.1307
0.8689
18.5271
48.2132
10.4926
0.1282
0.7431
10.4926
10.4926
0.9993
0.8689
0.8689
18.3071
18.5072
0.1282
0.7445
0.9993
18.5271
48.1983
0.9993
0.9993
10.4926
0.9993
0.9993
10.4926
9.5074
0
149
Tap-changing
Example
Final values
2

3 0.0007
4 0.0289
0
1

1
0.0002
0
.
0152
V
3 0.1699 10 V 0.9607 ; 0.1043
V3
0.9644
0.0744
0
.
0552
V
0.9991
0.1725
0.0558
V
4
V5 0.8522
V
5
22 July 2011
150
Tap-changing
Example
Final power values:
P1 0.0031
P 1.5000
2
P3 0.5000
P
0
.
0000
4
P5 1.0000
22 July 2011
Q1 0.0501
Q 0.6402
2
Q3 0.1000
Q
0
.
000
4
Q5 0.5000
151
Power World
22 July 2011
152
5. Fast decoupled AC load flow
22 July 2011
153

Two simplifications:
Do not build Jacobian at each iteration (small error
introduced, then, the procedure needs more
iterations to reach the solution)
Decoupling between P- and Q-V (not
recommended in system highly loaded and/or with
low voltage levels)
22 July 2011
154

( r 1)
P(r ) H(r ) N(r )

(r 1)
(r ) (r )
( r ) V
L
Q J
V (r )
Assume:
i)
V i 1 .0
ii) Gik Bik
i
i, k
iii) cos(i k ) 1.0

sin(i k ) 0.0
iv) Qk Bkk
22 July 2011
155

We have:
H B~1
L B~2 , N 0 , J 0
B
ik Bik
~ ~
B1 , B2 ~
Bii Bii
22 July 2011
Elements of YBUS
156

~
( r 1)
P(r ) B
1
(r )
~ (r 1)
Q 0 B 2 V
~
P(r ) B1 (r 1)
~
Q(r ) B 2 V (r 1)
(1)
( 2)

V
( r 1)
( r 1)
~ 1
B1 P(r )
~ 1
B 2 Q(r )
Use Newton-Raphson Iteration

22 July 2011
157
Fast decoupled load flow. Flow diagram

DATA INPUT
Calculate Delta P
Real
power
coverged
?
YES
NO
Reactive
power
coverged
?
YES
NO
Solve (1) and update angles
Calculate Delta Q
NO
Reactive
power
coverged
?
NO
YES
Real
power
coverged
?
YES
NO
Solve (2) and update V
22 July 2011
OUTPUT RESULTS
158
Fast decoupled load flow. Matlab Code

function [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = desacoplado(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y,
npv)
%
% [V_modulo, V_fase, P, Q, N_iter, T_calculo, Error_p] = desacoplado(V_modulo_ini, V_fase_ini, P_ini, Q_ini, Y, npv)
%
% Obtencion de indices de nodos: 1
-> SLACK;
%
2,...,M -> PV;
%
M+1,...,N -> PQ
n = length(V_modulo_ini);
m = npv + 1;
% Parametros del Metodo
Tol = 0.0001;
Error_p = 1;
N_iter = 0;
% Valores iniciales
V_modulo= V_modulo_ini';
V_fase = V_fase_ini';
V
= V_modulo.*exp(j*V_fase);
P
= P_ini';
Q
= Q_ini';
% Tolerancia del metodo (Perdida de potencia).

% Error inicial (A un valor mayor que Tol).
% Numero de iteraciones.
DS_DA = diag(V)*conj(Y*j*diag(V)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*j*diag(V);

DS_DV = diag(V)*conj(Y*diag(V./V_modulo)) + diag(conj(Y*V))*diag(V./V_modulo);
22 July 2011
159

%J
%
H
L
= [real(DS_DA(2:n , 2:n)) real(DS_DV(2:n , m+1:n))

% Construccion del Jacobiano
imag(DS_DA(m+1:n , 2:n)) imag(DS_DV(m+1:n , m+1:n))];
= imag(-Y(2:end , 2:end))
= imag(-Y(m+1:end,m+1:end))
j=sqrt(-1);
tic;
while (Error_p > Tol)
if (N_iter >50)
error('Demasiadas iteraciones');
break
end
V = V_modulo.*exp(j*V_fase);
S = V.*conj(Y*V);
DP = P(2:n)-real(S(2:n));
DQ = Q(m+1:n)-imag(S(m+1:n));
% Bucle principal (Se permiten 50 iteraciones como mucho).

% Expresion compleja de la potencia
% Incremento de potencia activa (nudos PV y PQ)
% Incremento de potencia reactiva (nudos PQ)
Dfase = H\DP;
Dmodulo = L\DQ;
PQ = [DP ; DQ];
Error_p = norm(PQ,2);
22 July 2011
% Error en esa iteracion
160

V_fase (2:n) = V_fase(2:n) + Dfase;
% Actualizamos la fase de las tensiones (nudos PV y PQ)
V_modulo (m+1:n)= V_modulo(m+1:n) + Dmodulo; % Actualizamos el modulo de las tensiones (nudos PQ)
N_iter = N_iter + 1;
% Incremento el numero de iteraciones
% disp('Pulse una tecla para continuar')

% pause
end
P=real(S);
Q=imag(S);
V_fase=V_fase*180/pi;
T_calculo=toc;
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
% Calculo de la potencia activa

% Calculo de la potencia reactiva
% Paso de Radianes a grados
**** ENTRADAS ****

V_modulo_ini = Modulo de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocidos en SLACK y PV).
V_fase_ini
= Fase de la tension para comenzar a iterar (conocido en SLACK).
P_ini
= Potencia activa en los nodos (conocido en PV y PQ).
Q_ini
= Potencia reactica en los nodos (conocido en PQ).
Y
= Matriz de admitancias nodales.
22 July 2011
161

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
**** SALIDAS ****

V_modulo
V_fase
P
Q
N_iter
T_calculo
Error_p
= Modulo de la tension en todos los nodos.

= Fase de la tension en todos los nodos.
= Potencia activa en todos los nodos.
= Potencia reactiva en todos los nodos.
= Numero de iteraciones.
= Tiempo de calculo.
= Error.
**** OBSERVACIONES ****

Los nodos deben estar ordenador asi:
*1
: SLACK.
* 2...m : PV.
* m+1...n : PQ.
**** FECHA Y AUTOR ****

Laura Laguna - Nobiembre de 2005
22 July 2011
162
Fast decoupled load flow: Exaple

Tolerance 0.1 MVA.
ONE
TWO
THREE
22 July 2011
163

Power base SB = 100MVA
22 July 2011
Bus
Voltage p.u.
Power
1.02
1.02
PG=50 MW
PC=100 MW
QC=60 MVAr
Line
Impedance p.u.
1-2
0.02+0.04j
1-3
0.02+0.06j
2-3
0.02+0.04j
(cada una)
164
Admitance matrix
15 35 j 10 20 j 5 15 j
Ybus 10 20 j 30 60 j 20 40 j
5 15 j 20 40 j 25 55 j
22 July 2011
165

Data and unknown:
Bus
Type
Data
Unknown
Slack and
reference
V1 = 1.02
1=0.0
P1, Q1
PV
P2 =0.5
V2 = 1.02
2, Q2
PQ
P3 = -1.0
Q3 = -0.6
3, V3
Inicialization:
2 = 3 = 0.0 ;
22 July 2011
V3 = 1.02 p.u.
166

Flow diagram
Vi(0) , i(0), Piesp, Qiesp
Compute: Delta P
Compute: Pical, Qical

Convergence P?
Yes
Convergence Q?
Yes
NO
Solve subproblem 1 and update angles
NO
Compute: Delta Q
Convergence Q?
Yes
Convergence P?
Yes
NO
Solve subproblem 2 and update voltages
NO
Final results
22 July 2011
167

Compute
60 40
H
; L 55
40 55
Calculate P and Q:
cal
P2cal 0.36241014
P2 0.5 P2 0.5
cal
1
cal
P
3
3
cal
15
cal
Q3 7.247510
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.6
No convergence
22 July 2011
168

First iteration:
2 - 0.4213
3 - 1.3481
V

3 - 0.0109
V3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0091
- 0.4213
- 1.3481
169

Residuals:
cal
P2cal 0.7385
P2 0.5 P2 0.2385
cal
P 1 Pcal 0.3003
P
1
.
3003
3
3

cal
Qcal
0.4583
0
.
1417
0
.
6
Q
3
3
3
Error = 0.5976 no convergence
22 July 2011
170
System state (second iteration)
2 - 0.0372
3 0.2857
V

3 - 0.0083
V3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0008
- 0.4585
- 1.0264
171

Residuals:
cal
P2cal 0.6578
P2 0.5 P2 0.1578
cal
P 1 Pcal 0.1936
P
1
.
1936
3
3

cal
cal
Q3 0.7444
Q3 0.6 Q3 0.1444
Error = 0.2885 no convergence
22 July 2011
172

System state (third iteration):
2 - 0.0315
3 0.1788
V

3 0.0026
V3
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0034
- 0.4900
- 0.8836
The process continues.
22 July 2011
173

After 9 iterations:
cal
3
P2cal 0.5006
P2 0.5 P2 0.595410
cal
P 1 Pcal 0.7006103
P
1
.
0007
3
3

3
cal
3
Qcal
0
.
5992
0
.
6
8
.
3346
10
3
3
3
Error = 0.0012 convergence attained
22 July 2011
174

System state at iteration 10:
-3
0.159210
2
3 0.614110-3
V

-5
3
1.515410
V
3
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0043
- 0.4710
- 0.9614
175

Residuals:
cal
3
P2cal 0.5003
P2 0.5 P2 0.286310
cal
cal
3
P3 1.0004 P3 1 P3 0.351610
cal
4
Qcal
0
.
6003
0
.
6
Q
3
.
3349
10
3
3
3
Error = 5.628510-4 convergence attained

22 July 2011
176

State at iteration 11:
-3
0.056710
2
3 0.325110-3
V

-6
3
6.063410
V
3
0.5098
P 0.5003
1.0004
22 July 2011
1.0200
V 1.0200 ;
1.0043
- 0.4711
- 0.9611
0.0711
Q 0.5515
0.6003
177

convergence
22 July 2011
178

convergence
22 July 2011
179

convergence
22 July 2011
180

convergence
22 July 2011
181
6. Variable limits
22 July 2011
182
Variable limits
Physical considerations
1.
Voltage magnitudes out of limits

a PQ BUS does not meet
max
v min
v
i
i
i
Action: Warning!
2.
voltage problem
Flow magnitudes out of limits

A line does not meet
- S max S S max
ij
ij
ij
Action: Warning!
22 July 2011
overloading of lines problem

183
Variable limits
Physical Considerations
3.
Reactive Power out of limits

A PV BUS does not meet
Qi
min
Qi
Qi
max
Action: Wrong Formulation!

Specified voltage cannot be attained
Formulate the problem properly
22 July 2011
184
Variable limits
Computational Considerations
Changing PV to PQ
no
no
Q hits
limit?
QG>Qmax?
Q=Qmax ?
Yes
>Vdato?
No
<Vdato?
No
22 July 2011
Change to P-V
V=Vdato
Change to
P-Q
Q=Qmax
Yes
Change to
P-Q
Q=Qmin
QG<Qmin?
No
Stay as
P-Q
Yes
Yes
No
yes
yes
Stay as
P-V
Change to P-V
V=Vdato
Stay as
P-Q
185
7. DC load flow
22 July 2011
186
DC load flow
Approximate solution.
Two simplifications:
In network model: do not consider series
resistences and shunt admittances
Assume Vi=1 at all buses
22 July 2011
187
DC load flow
Approximate analytical solution
V V
i j
P
sin
ij
ij
X
ij
2
V V
V
i j
i
Q
cos
ij
ij
X
X
ij
ij
Assume
i)
Vi 1.0 i
ii) sinij ij
iii) cos ij 1.0
22 July 2011
188
DC load flow
Approximate analytical solution
Pij
ij
Xij
Bijij Biji Bij j
n
n
Pi Pij Bij i Bij j

j1
j1
j1
j i
j i
ji
P B
n
where
22 July 2011
Bii'
Bij
j1
ji
Bij' Bij
189
DC load flow
Continuation
Qij
Vi V j
Xij
Bij ( V i V j ) Bij V i Bij V j
Qi Qij Bij V i Bij V j

j1
j1
j1
ji
ji
ji
n
Q B' V
22 July 2011
190
DC load flow
Continuation
Solution
P B'
Q B' V
1
;
n
PQ & PV
PQ
Buses
Buses
V1

V ;
Vn

P2
P ;
Pn
Qm1
Q
Qn
n
'
B
ii ij
1
'
j1
B
;
B
ij
ji
Xij
'
Bij Bij

22 July 2011
191
DC Power flow: example
22 July 2011
192
ONE
TWO
THREE
22 July 2011
193

Data
Bus
Voltage p.u.
Power
1.02
1.02
PG=50MW
PC=100MW, QC=60MVAr
22 July 2011
Line
Impedance p.u.
0-1
0.02+0.04j
0-2
0.02+0.06j
1-2
0.02+0.04j (both)
194

41.67
B 25
16.67
P0 41.67
0.5 25

1.0 16.67
Q0 41.67
Q 25
1
0.6 16.67
22 July 2011
25 16.67
75
50
50 66.67
25 16.67 0
75
50 1

50 66.67 2
25 16.67 1.02
75
50 1.02
50 66.67 V2
195
P0 41.67 25 16.67
75
50
0.5 25
1.0 16.67 50 66.67
22 July 2011
0

1

2
196
Po= -251 - 16.672

0.5= +751 - 502
-1.0= -501 + 66.672
Q0= 41.67*1.02 - 25*1.02 - 16.67V2
Q1= -25*1.02 + 75*1.02 - 50V2
-0.6= -16.67*1.02 - 50*1.02 + 66.67V2
22 July 2011
197

Solution:
22 July 2011
P0
0.5p.u.=50MW
Q0
0.15p.u.=15MVAr
Q1
0.45p.u.=45MVAr
-1.1459
-0.3819
V2
1.011p.u.
198

PowerWorld comparison:
Var
DC
PowerWorld DC
PowerWorld G-S
P0
0.50p.u.
0.50p.u.
0.509p.u.
Q0
0.15p.u.
0.00p.u.
0.07p.u.
Q1
0.45p.u.
0.00p.u.
0.55p.u.
-0.3819
-0.3820
-0.47
-1.1459
-1.1459
-0.96
V2
1.0056p.u.
1.0000p.u.
1.0043p.u.
22 July 2011
199

0,00 MW
0,00 Mvar
50,00 MW
0,00 Mvar
CERO
UNO
DOS
TRES
22 July 2011
100,00 MW
60,00 Mvar
200

Data.
Bus
Voltage p.u.
Power
1.02
1.02
PG=50MW
PC=0MW, QC=0MVAr
PC=100MW, QC=60MVAr
22 July 2011
Line
Impedance p.u.
0-1
0.02+0.04j
0-2
0.02+0.06j
1-2
0.02+0.04 (both)
2-3
0.1j
201

0
41.67 25 16.67
25
75
50
0
B
16.67 50 76.67 10
0
10
10
P0 41.67
0.5 25
0.0 16.67
1 .0 0

Q0 41.67
Q 25
1
0.0 16.67
0 .6 0

22 July 2011
25 16.67
0 0
75
50
0 1

50 76.67 10 2

0
10
10 3
25 16.67
0 1.02
75
50
0 1.02
50 76.67 10 V2
0
10
10 V3
202
P0 = -251 -16.672-0*3
0.5 = 751 - 502-0*3
0.0 = -501 + 76.672-103
-1.0 = -0*1 - 102+103
Q0 = 41.67*1.02 - 25*1.02 - 16.67V2 + 0*V3
Q1 = -25*1.02 + 75*1.02 - 50V2 + 0*V3
0.0 = -16.67*1.02 - 50*1.02 + 76.67V2-10*V3
-0.6 = 0*1.02-0*1.02 - 10*V2 + 10*V3
22 July 2011
203

PowerWorld comparison:
Var
DC
PowerWorld G-S
PowerWorld DC
P0
0.50p.u.
0.51p.u.
0.50p.u.
Q0
0.00p.u.
0.11p.u.
0.00p.u.
Q1
0.00p.u.
0.67p.u.
0.00p.u.
-0.3819
-0.48
-0.382
-1.1459
-0.91
-1.1459
-6.8755
-7.05
-6.8755
V2
1.011p.u.
1.002p.u.
1.000p.u.
V3
0.951p.u.
0.932p.u.
1.000p.u.
22 July 2011
204
8. Comparison of load flow

solution methods
22 July 2011
205
Comparison of load flow methods

1. Gauss-Seidel (G-S)
Simple technique
Iteration time increases linearly with the
number of buses. Lower iteration time than NR. Seven times faster in large systems
Linear rate of convergence. Many iterations
required for getting close to the solution
Number of iteration increases with the
number of buses
22 July 2011
206

(Continuation)
2. Newton-Raphson (N-R)
22 July 2011
Widely used
Iteration-time increases linearly with the number of
buses
Quadratic rate of convergency. A few iterations for
getting close to the solution
Number of iterations independent of the number of
buses of the system
The Jacobian is a very sparse matrix
Method non-sensitive to slack bus choice and the
presence of series capacitors
Sensitive to initial solution
207

(Continuation)
3. AC decoupled
B has to be computed and factorized only once
It requires more iterations than NewtonRaphson method
Iteration time is 5 times lower than NewtonRaphsons iteration time
~
Useful for analyzing topology changes because B
can be easily modified
Used in planning and contigency analyses
~
22 July 2011
208

(Continuation)
4. DC Decoupled
Analytical, approximate and non-iterative method
Good approximation for , not that good
approximation for V
Used in reliability analyses
Used in optimal pricing calculations
Good for getting an initial point
22 July 2011
209

Load Flow: A. J. Conejo Univ. Castilla - La Mancha 2011

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LOAD FLOW

The load flow problem

The load flow problem

The load flow problem

The load flow problem

Fast decoupled AC load flow

The load flow problem

Transmission line model

Two bus case

General building rules

Shunt element YG j 0.01 (two per line)

Pi PGi PDi Vi Yik Vk cos (i k ik )

Qi QGi QDi Vi Yik Vk sin (i k ik )

Pi Vi Vk (Gik cos ik Bik senik )

Qi Vi Vk (Gik senik Bik cos ik )

If 2n variables are specified, the other 2n are

Qi known (QDi known, QGi zero)

Qi unknown ( QGi unknown, QDi known)

PGi PDi PLOSS

QGi QDi QLOSS

i k max (every existing line)

PGi,min PGi PGi,max

3.The Gauss-Seidel solution

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

x (1) 0.2 22 0.8 1.6

x ( 2 ) 0.2 1.6 2 0.8 1.312

x ( 3 ) 0.2 1.312 2 0.8 1.1442

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

(PV & PQ Buses)

V i min , V i max i m 1,...,n (PQ Buses)

i 2,...,m (PV Buses)

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

(more on this below)

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

6.1) Slack bus power (after convergence)

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Gauss-Seidel solution technique

1.6 (generally recommended)

%calculo las A para todos los nudos:

Data and unknown:

All buses but the reference one

Q(2r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y21V1( r 1) ( V2(r ) )* Y22 V2( r ) ( V2(r ) )* Y23 V3( r )

Are constants for PQ buses

S12 , S21, S13 , S23 , S31, S32

6.2) Power flows

Slosss ,ik Sik Ski

Sloss Sloss ,12 Sloss ,13 Sloss ,23

If no coveergence, the procedure continues in Step 4.

Error Max. (%)

4. The Newton-Raphson solution

The Newton-Raphson solution technique

The Newton-Raphson solution technique

The Newton-Raphson solution technique

The Newton-Raphson solution technique

The Newton-Raphson solution technique

DS_DA = diag(V)conj(Yjdiag(V)) + diag(conj(YV))jdiag(V);

ENTRADAS

SALIDAS

OBSERVACIONES

FECHA Y AUTOR