1

Running head: SAME-SEX PARENTING

The Effects of Same-Sex Parenting on Children

Cassidy A. Terry
Loras College

SAME-SEX PARENTING

Abstract
Homosexuality is a topic of heavy debate, especially when it comes to marriage and raising
children. Throughout the years, our society has had a hard time accepting homosexuals.
However, recently marriage has been legalized and several studies have shown that homosexual
parenting has not caused any harm to their children. Studies also show that children of married
parents are better off than children of single parents. To expand on the research, a study will be
conducted to see whether children of homosexual married parents are happier than children of
homosexual unmarried parents. The participants will be young adults who were raised by
married homosexuals and young adults raised by unmarried homosexuals. The participants will
complete a Life Satisfaction Survey and the higher their score, the happier the young adults will
be considered. I expect to find that young adults raised by married homosexuals will be
significantly happier than young adults raised by unmarried homosexuals. This study will
hopefully lead to further legalizations of homosexual marriage.

SAME-SEX PARENTING

Introduction
The topic of homosexuality can be considered quite controversial. It especially was seen
as controversial, deviant, and immoral in past decades. Religion has had a lot to contribute to the
idea of homosexuality. Catholicism especially had and still has strong opinions on homosexuality
and stated in Veritatis Splendor that homosexual relations were morally unacceptable (Paul II,
1993). In a letter from the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith it states that homosexual
actions are intrinsically disordered (Paul II, 1992). Even outside of religion homosexuals have
been discriminated against for several years. In an article written by Milt Ford (2013) who is a
Professor of Liberal Studies at Grand Valley State University, he writes a brief history of
homosexuality. A few hundred years ago they were classified as deviants. Moving further
through time homosexuals were dishonorably discharged from the military after WWII, were
brutalized by the public and even police, excluded from their communities and sometimes fired
from their jobs (Ford, 2013). The harassment and discrimination continued throughout the years
and a lot still occurs today but there have been many movements to stop discrimination from
occurring and to provide protection for homosexuals. For example there is the Employment NonDiscrimination Act that provides protection in the workplace for employees based on sexual
orientation or gender identity (Human Resource C). And there are many organizations like
LGBT that fight for the rights of homosexuals. We can see every day that society is becoming
more and more accepting of homosexuality. It used to be illegal for homosexuals to get married
and in some states it still is but recently laws were passed in a number of different states that
legalized same-sex marriage. Legalizing same-sex marriage across the United States is, I think,
leading to much more acceptance for homosexuality. Regardless of how our society has
progressed, many still have negative opinions on same-sex relationships. One of the issues that

SAME-SEX PARENTING

has been argued is if same-sex partners should be allowed to raise children and if they would be
capable of doing so because of their lifestyle. Some people oppose same-sex parenting because
of their religion. Some oppose because they think that the child will end up being homosexual
like the parents. And others just think that it is better to raise a child with both a mother and
father role model (Hansen, 2012). I do not believe that same-sex parenting has harmful effects on
children. I think they have every right to raise a children just like anybody else. Research has
shown that same-sex marriage does not have a negative effect on children and some of that
research will be presented in this paper. In addition, I believe that parents who are married will
have a more positive effect on their children than parents who are not married, regardless of
sexual orientation. Research regarding marital relationships and the effect they have on children
will also be presented.
The main concern of same-sex parenting is how it will affect the development of the
child. Therefore researchers focus on the childs behavior, adjustment, and psychological wellbeing when studying the effects of same-sex parenting. One literature review describes a few
studies that the author herself performed. Charlotte J. Patterson (2006) presents research on the
development of children who have lesbian or gay parents. She studied a group of children ages
4-9 who were born to or adopted by lesbian mothers. During home visit interviews and
questionnaires they found that the children were exposed to both genders throughout their lives.
They also had the same preferences for same-gender playmates and activities like other children
of the same age. The researchers measured the childs social competence and behavior using the
Child Behavior Checklist. The checklist assesses withdrawal, depression, somatization, anxiety,
aggression, and disruptive behaviors (Shechner et al. 2011). They all scored within normal range
that represented that age group of American children.

SAME-SEX PARENTING

Jennifer Wainwright and colleagues (2004) examined much of the existing research on
how same-sex parenting might affect children. Stemming from that information they performed a
study that assessed the aspects of adolescents psychological well-being, school functioning, and
romantic relationships and behaviors. In addition to those topics they also looked into the
adolescents perspectives on parental warmth, care from adults, integration into the
neighborhood, and the parent-child relationship (Wainwright et al. 2004). Around 1200 students
were selected for In-Home interviews, surveys, and questionnaires. Like previous studies, they
assessed the adolescents behaviors, anxiety, and self-esteem for psychosocial adjustment. Then
they assessed school functioning which included GPAs, trouble in school, and how connected the
adolescent was to school. And finally they looked at the romantic relationships of the
adolescents. The last thing they assessed was the family and relationship variables (Wainwright
et al. 2004). For all adolescents, data showed high levels of self-esteem with low levels of
anxiety and depression. For school outcomes, the data showed high GPAs, low levels of trouble
in school, and high levels of school connectedness. There were no differences in psychosocial
adjustment between adolescents of same-sex parents and adolescents of heterosexual parents.
However the adolescents of same-sex parents were seen to be more connected to school. Overall,
no significant difference was seen between any adolescents of homosexual parents and
adolescents of heterosexual parents in each of these categories (Wainwright et al. 2004). The
adolescents raised by same-sex parents reported the same measures of psychosocial and school
adjustment, anxiety, behavior, and self-esteem, romantic interest, and the qualities of family
relationships.
In Israel, heterosexual marriage is the most accepted framework for having and raising
children (Shechner et al. 2011). They believe in a traditional nuclear family structure based on

SAME-SEX PARENTING

religion. However non-traditional relationships are starting to emerge in the country. For
example, single parents and lesbian and gay couples are raising children. Because of a lack of
studies on the topic in Israel, a new study was conducted concerning lesbian mothers both single
and coupled and heterosexual mothers both single and couples. This study looked at a completely
different side of the parenting issue. They hypothesized that children with two-parent families,
regardless of sexual orientation, will have better emotional and social functioning than children
from single-parent families (Shechner et al. 2011). In the study they used the Child Behavior
Checklist described previously to measure the childrens behavior. To measure social behavior
the Childrens Peer Relation Scale was used. And they measured the childrens competency using
the scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance of Young Children. In regards to
mothers sexual orientation, there was no significant difference in childrens adjustment and
behavior. However with single mothers higher levels of externalizing symptoms of aggression
and were seen. There was a significant difference in prosocial-antisocial behaviors in children
with lesbian mothers. They had a lower level of antisocial behaviors than those with heterosexual
mothers. And children with lesbian mothers had lower levels of loneliness than children with
heterosexual families. In addition, children of single-parent families reported higher levels of
loneliness. There was no significant difference in competency with any of the groups. This study
presents evidence that children of lesbian mothers do not lack developmentally and can function
at emotional and behavioral levels and have no negative psychological outcomes. They also
show higher levels of social behavior and less loneliness. However evidence does support that
coupled parenthood is better for children in regards to behavior and psychological well-being.
And single-parenthood has been seen to decrease emotional development in children and this
may be because of lack of support. The conclusion is basically that the quality of the parents

SAME-SEX PARENTING

relationship is going to have the biggest effect on the children and that sexual orientation has
nothing to do with the childs psychological well-being or development (Shechner et al. 2011).
Several studies also have shown that child development is effected by marital quality
(Gable et al. 1992). At each developmental stage a child endures, the quality of the parents
marriage can alter the childs development. Children are very vulnerable and sensitive during
developmental stages because there is crucial brain development occurring (Ryan & Claessens,
2013). The infant/toddler stage is probably the most important. The child must feel secure and
attached to parents during this stage and if the parents lack their own security within their
marriage the child may not feel secure either. In preschool children, higher anxiety and
aggression levels can be seen when they experience power imbalance and limited intimacy
between their parents. Marital discord can also lead to serious behavioral problems in
adolescents because marital distress creates a stressor for adolescents (Gable et al. 1992).
Other evidence suggests that family structural changes has a significant negative effect on
child development because it presents instability (Ryan & Claessens, 2013). One key finding that
this study by Ryan and Claessens (2013) presented was that children born to unwed parents had
significantly higher levels of behavioral problems when compared to their peers who were born
to married parents. Another study presented by Susan Brown (2004) researches the difference
between parental cohabitation and married parents. This study looked at the effects each parental
situation had on the childs performance in school, behavior and psychological distress, not to
mention economic problems the family might endure. It concluded that children and adolescents
showed lower levels of well-being and higher levels of behavioral and emotional problems
coming from a family of cohabitating parents as opposed to married parents (Brown, 2013).

SAME-SEX PARENTING

These studies helps support the idea that married parents can help yield positive development for
children. Therefore supporting the legalization of homosexual marriage.
Based on a lot of the evidence that these articles present, the main conclusion has been
that parental sexual orientation does not have a negative effect on the development of children
and married parents yield the most positive child development. There have even been times
where children with same-sex parents have scored higher on the psychosocial assessments than
the children with heterosexual parents (Crouch et al. 2014). Some studies have produced results
that show that parent-child relationships that were full of love and affection have better child
development outcomes (Patterson, 2006). There is significant data that states the qualities of
adolescent-parent relationships that are associated with adolescent adjustment (Wainwright et al.
2004). It is important that society focuses on the fact that adolescent adjustment has nothing to
do with same-sex parenting and that it does not have a negative effect on children because that is
the opinion of some. There is still a large amount of discrimination towards homosexuals their
parenting styles. Because of the past and current thoughts on homosexuality, a stigma has been
associated with same-sex families (Crouch et al. 2014). They often experience stigma in the
workplace, educational settings, health care settings, and social environments (Crouch et al.
2014). Gay mothers in Australia describe how they feel as though heteronormativity is still
extremely prominent in the early education system (Lee, 2010). This stigmatization they
experience has shown to affect their mental and emotional well-being which can lead to
problems in the future (Crouch et al. 2014). Same-sex parents raise healthy children who are no
different from children raised by heterosexual parents. The most important factor for positive
development of a child is a loving, healthy marital relationship, regardless of sexual orientation.
Unfortunately, because of the past, a stigma has been developed towards same-sex families and

SAME-SEX PARENTING

that has a negative effect on them. Not the fact that they are homosexual, but the fact that society
cannot yet accept that they are no different than everybody else.
Regarding all of the previous research, I wanted to research how marital relationships of
homosexual parents effects their children. I will be proposing a study that measures the
happiness of level of young adults who were raised by married same-sex parents and unmarried
same-sex parents. Young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are married will have
a higher overall happiness level than young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are
not married.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study will be 60 young adults, ages 18-25, raised by homosexual
parents. Specifically, 30 young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are married and
30 young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are not married. Gender of the
participants will not be considered. The participants will be selected using a non-probability
sampling technique. The technique will be purposeful because the participants needed are
specific to the study. It will also be convenient because the participants will be asked to sign up
willingly if they qualify for the study. I will recruit participants by putting an ad in the local
newspaper asking for people ages 18-25 who have been raised by homosexual parents to sign up
for the study.
Materials
The independent variable in this study is parent marital status of the young adults. It is
nominal and has two experimental levels. The levels are same-sex parents who are married and

SAME-SEX PARENTING

10

same-sex parents who are unmarried. The dependent variable in this study is the happiness level
of the young adult and will be measured using the Satisfaction of Life Scale (Diener, et.al, 1985).
The more satisfied the participant is with their life, the happier they are. Scoring ranges from 535. The higher their score, the happier they are considered. The materials needed for this study
include the consent form that the participants will sign before they begin the study (Appendix A).
A short survey completed by the participant (Appendix B). And the Satisfaction of Life Scale
(Appendix C).
Procedure
Participants will first be asked to sign an informed consent when they arrive. They will
then complete a short survey that determines their age and whether or not their same-sex parents
are married/were married when being raised or were not married when being raised. Once they
have completed the survey they will fill out the self-report Satisfaction of Life Scale.
Results
In this quasi-experimental study, all results will be recorded into SPSS for analysis. The
descriptive statistics measured in this study will be mean and standard deviation. Because scores
on the happiness scale range from 5-35 I am expecting the mean happiness score for young
adults with married same-sex parents to be medium to high (25-35) and the mean happiness
score for young adults with unmarried same-sex parents to be low to medium (15-25). An
independent samples t-test will be used to compare the means of the two groups to determine
whether or not they are significantly different from one another. I expect the absolute t-value to
be larger than the critical value of t indicating a significant difference between groups with a pvalue below .05 and therefore rejecting the null hypothesis.

SAME-SEX PARENTING

11

Discussion
Young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are married will have a higher
overall happiness level than young adults who were raised by same-sex parents who are not
married. I expect the results to show that there is a significant difference between the means of
happiness levels between participants who were raised by married same-sex parents and those
raised by unmarried same-sex parents. The results would support the idea that children
development thrives in a family with married parents, same-sex or opposite sex. The importance
of this particular study may show that even same-sex parents can raise happy children but more
importantly, married same-sex parents raise happier children than unmarried same-sex parents.
These results can support the legalization of gay marriage. Previous research suggests that samesex parenting does not produce negative development of children, therefore supporting same-sex
relationships. I expect this study to support the importance of not only married parents and the
impact their relationship has on the happiness level of children, but also the fact that same-sex
parents who are married can yield the same result.

References

SAME-SEX PARENTING

12

Brown, S. (2004). Family structure and child well-being: The significance of parental
cohabitation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(2), 351-367.
Crouch, S., Waters, E., McNair, R., Power, J., & Davis, E. (2014). Parent-reported measures of
child health and wellbeing in same-sex parent families: A cross-sectional survey. Biomed
Central Public Health
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
Ford, M. (2013, May 13). A brief history of homosexuality in America.
Gable, S., Belsky, J., & Crnic, K. (1992). Marriage, Parenting, and Child Development. Journal
of Family Psychology, 5(3 & 4), 276-294.
Hansen, T. (2012). Same-Sex marriage is harmful to children.
Lee, D. (2010). Gay mothers and early childhood education: Standing tall. Australian Journal of
Early Childhood, 35(1).
Paul II, J. (1992, July 24). Some considerations of the response to legislative proposals on the
non-discrimination of homosexual persons. Retrieved from
http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_2
0030731_homosexual-unions_en.html
Paul II, J. (1993). Veritatis Splendor. Retrieved from
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jpii_enc_06081993_veritatis-splendor_en.html

SAME-SEX PARENTING

13

Patterson, C. (2006). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Association for Psychological Science,
15(5).
Ryan, R., & Claessens, A. (2013). Associations between family structure changes and children's
behavior problems: The moderating effects of timing and marital birth. Developmental
Psychology, 49(7), 1219-1231.
Shechner, T., Slone, M., Lobel, T., & Shechter, R. (2011). Children's adjustment in nontraditional families in Israel: The effect of parental sexual orientation and the number of
parents on children's development. Development of Psychology, 39(2), 178-184.
Wainwright, J., Russell, S., & Patterson, C. (2004). Psychosocial adjustment, school outcomes,
and romantic relationships of adolescents with same-sex parents. Society for Research in
Child Development, 75(6), 1886-1898.