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Ajisa Akada
Chapter 7 Outline
English 102
30 January 2015
Chapter 7: Structuring Arguments
Written college arguments can include inductive reasoning and/or deductive reasoning. They also
define claims, explain contexts, defend assumptions, offer convincing evidence, and deal with
opposite points of view.
I. Intro, Classical Oration, and Argument Structure
A. Definitions of inductive and deductive reasoning
1. Inductive reasoning: reasons conclusion
2. Deductive reasoning: general hypothesis + one factor (reason) conclusion
B.

Six parts of Classical Oration (Latin names) within five part argument structure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Exordium: introduce and grab audiences attention

Narratio: state information relating to the argument, let them familiar to the audience
Partitio: separate the argument into small segments
Confirmatio: reasons or support for the argument
Refutatio: present opposing argument and offer better, alternative persuasive views
Peroratio: conclude and suggest actions

II. Rogerian and Invitational Arguments

A. Premise
1. People should not argue until parties can honestly, accurately, and fully state opposing
views.
B. Four parts of Rogerian argument structure according to rhetoric scholars
1. Introduction
2. Contexts
3. Writers position
4. Benefits to opponent of adopting writers point of view
C. Invitational Argument according to feminist scholars
1. Listening: careful attention to and respect for the person or the audience to fully
understand another partys point of view, work together, and agreeing on a solution
that satisfies all parties
2. Similar to Rhetorical listening (according to rhetorician): helps to establish productive
connections between people, aids cross cultural communications
D. Two Examples
1. Frederick Douglass Fourth of July oration in 1852

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His argument: African Americans cannot share in the delight of Fourth of July
Independence Day.
2. Martin Luther King Jr. I Have a Dream on August 28, 1963
His argument: Even after the Emancipation Proclamation, Negro slaves did not live in
true freedom; African Americans still live under various forms of discrimination.
III. Toulmin ArgumentThe Uses of Argument (1958) British philosopher Stephen Toulmin
A. Five parts of a Toulmin Argument
1. Claim: debatable topics, identifying claims is not always simple or straightforward
2. Qualifier: limits on the claim, i.e. often, rarely, some, perhaps
3. Reasons(s)/Evidence: personal experiences, anecdotes, facts, and authorities
4. Warrants: assumption that supports the claim and makes it reliable
5. Backing: evidence to back up the warrant with fact, emotional and logical appeal, and
appeal to values
B. Summary statement: My Claim is true, to a qualified degree, because of the following
reasons, which make sense if you consider the warrant, backed by these additional
reasons.
IV. Understanding Conditions of Rebuttal
A. Definition of Conditions of Rebuttal: potential objections to argument: Anticipating
objections broadens your horizons, makes you more open to alternative viewpoints, and
helps you understand what you need to do to support your claim.
B. Necessary to evaluate potential objections to your argument, know its weak points in
order to add support, and consider/understand reasonable opposing points of view