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Abstract
This paper seeks to discuss and critically analyse the debate regarding the cause of
crime through sociological, psychological and biological theories. The paper explores
the conflict between genetic and environmental explanations of crime from a
theoretical perspective while considering how the conclusions drawn from the
research might be used practically to prevent crime. The hypothesis of this paper is
that genetics play a significant internal role in the final manifestation of criminal
behaviour. However, building on the raw genetic materials, the environment can
determine, the extent and type to which the manifestation takes shape. The
conclusion of this paper is that genetics play a powerful role in determining whether
an individual will be a criminal but also as demonstrated with the Orbital Frontal
Cortex behind the eyes can act as a preventative mechanism and an inhibiter to
such behaviour. The paper considers the extent to which the environment can
create a criminal through economic need or social necessity but equally, explores
how, in the right context it can act as a preventative mechanism.
I felt that my research should, if at all possible, be put to some practical use in
order to make time spent on it worthwhile. I considered that this could be achieved
if I linked the work to developing tools to aid crime prevention, for example, by
establishing a means for profiling individuals exhibiting psychopathic tendencies.
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Contents
Introduction
Pages
4-7
Chapter 1
Hereditary genetics
Pages
8 - 14
Chapter 2
Environmental Factors
Pages
16 - 19
Chapter 3
Pages
19 - 20
Chapter 4
Conclusion
Pages
21- 23
Bibliography
Pages
24-26
Introduction
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is
that
through
influencing
each
other
internally,
Jonathan Herring, 'Criminal Law Text, Cases and Materials, Chapter 5' [238]
http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Serial_killer.html
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11. The second factor to consider would be biological how the person is
mentally wired and what they are predisposed to do. This can consist of
inherited mental disorders or illnesses such as schizophrenia to
personality
disorders
such
as
psychopathy,
or
this
can
be
12. These are aspects of a persons personality that they may not control
entirely and may not even be aware of that can increase the chances of
them killing. These disorders or illnesses can make a person view the
world in a distorted way or can falsify the way events are analysed. One
potential
consequence
is
that
an
individual
may express
this
13. Although these mental issues cannot always be cured, they may be
partially treated if diagnosed early. If left undiagnosed, and therefore
untreated, the problem is more likely to spiral out control. Because these
problems cannot be helped, when tried in court some criminals, such as
serial killers, are able to plead an insanity case.
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14. This paper is divided into five chapters and those following this one will
cover:
Chapter 3 considers how understanding the root causes of extreme disfunctional behaviour can help society to manage those pre-disposed to
murder and other extreme crimes, and ultimately protect its citizens
through effective crime prevention.
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Chapter 1
Hereditary genetics
15. This is a biological phenomenon that describes the coding inherent in the
DNA structures that we all inherit from our parents3. This sets out how the
person is mentally wired and what they are predisposed to do. This can
consist of inherited mental disorders or illnesses such as schizophrenia
to personality disorders such as psychopathy, or this can be
viruses/hormones that effect the brain such as manic depression or
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). These are aspects of a persons
personality that they will find difficult to control entirely and possibly
increasing the chances of dysfunctional behaviour, including killing.
16. These disorders or illnesses can make a person view the world in a
distorted way or can falsify the way events are analysed.
A possible
http://penniepackard.hubpages.com/hub/Brain-Injury-in-Serial-Killers
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Figure 1: Cerebral Cortex: Orbital Frontal Cortex behind the eyes (located
behind the forehead)
Figure 2: Prefrontal Cortex: Orbital Frontal Cortex behind the eyes (located
behind the forehead) highlighted against a drawing of a mans head
18. She found that human beings have the largest Orbital Frontal Cortex
behind the eyes of all social primates. Packard concluded that it is
responsible for much of the behaviour that allows humans to live together
in stable social relationships. It is what stops most human beings from
acting on their inherent violent tendencies. It is responsible for selfcontrol, judgment, planning, and the balancing act that humans must
learn to do which determines the importance of an individual's needs
over the needs of society as a whole. 5
5
http://penniepackard.hubpages.com/hub/Brain-Injury-in-Serial-Killers
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21. Following the argument to one conclusion, this may lead a person to kill,
because serial killers do not have the brain structure that allows them to
rationalise their emotions in a productive way. Instead they may use
killing as an outlet for the urges and emotions.
22. Reptiles are not equipped with the part of the brain that is responsible for
memories, socializing, emotions and even parental instinct. Therefore,
saying a serial killer is "cold-blooded" is a reference to the fact that the
part of their brain regulating emotion and socialization is not working
properly. Rather, it is performing in a way similar to a real reptilian brain
which allows its owner to kill without remorse.
23. Reptiles are not social animals however there are social creatures within
the animal kingdom that kill with remorse. An example of this is a recent
situation where a lioness is seen to show remorse after realising it had
killed a pregnant antelope. The lioness removes the unborn calf, tries to
revive the dead animal and even protects and hides it as if it is her own
cub.
6
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1698
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24. Photographed by reserve ranger Gerry Van Der Walt who described the
scene:
'Her body language was strange for a lioness in her situation and it
seemed that she was clearly perturbed by what had just happened and
kept on looking around as if to look for help. She stopped again and very
gently put the foetus on the floor, all the time looking around and looking
quite tense and nervous. 'She proceeded to nudge the foetus with her
nose, gently rolling it over, before she picked it up on the back of the
neck as if it was one of her own cubs. 7
25. This is evidence against the biological theory that suggests that killing is
an innate survival response. Because here we see an example of a
social animal much like humans that kills for survival. However, her
behaviour shows us that she is clearly uncomfortable with the killing of
the calf. Although she does it for survival, her behaviour suggests a
certain moral dilemma, which is similar to that experienced by humans.
26. Another example within the animal kingdom, and possibly more closely
related to humans, is of the news item in The Independent newspaper
(on the 18th of September 2014) that stated that chimpanzees have a
psychopathic violent tendency and are natural born killers The
article, written by John von Radowitz, reports that scientists are
researching the causes of these violent characteristics as they believe
this will aid the understanding of human violence. The research
conducted by the University of Minnesota found that as the population
density and number of Chimpanzee males increased, so did the amount
of killings. From this study it was concluded that killing is a means to
eliminate rivals when the costs of killing are low.
27. This is useful when explaining why a person may kill because in some,
their primal instincts tell them to kill at certain intervals, such as when
they feel they have been wronged, and they commit the act when there is
little importance or threat of consequence. This research linked with that
of the Orbital Frontal Cortex behind the eyes/ orbital cortex and how a
7
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1165832/The-lioness-showed-remorse-realising-killed-pregnant-antelope.html
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that serial killers, like other addicts have a compulsive need to act to
address their urges.
30. In his research of genetics, the brain and criminals, Dr Fallon turned
inwards and used himself, his family and his ancestors as test subjects.
The results were remarkable.
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-neuroscientist-who-discovered-he-was-apsychopath-180947814/
9
Natalie Wolchover, 'Math Formula May Explain Why Serial Killers Kill', http://www.livescience.com/17983math-formula-explain-serial-killers-kill.html?
utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+
%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29
10
Natalie Wolchover, 'Math Formula May Explain Why Serial Killers Kill',
http://www.livescience.com/17983-math-formula-explain-serial-killers-kill.html?
utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+
%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29
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Lizzy Borden, who was accused (and acquitted) of killing her father and
stepmother with an axe in Fall River, Mass., in 1882. 11 [add diagram of
scan and genetics tests here]
31. After learning his violent family history, he examined the images of his
brain and compared them with the brains of psychopaths. Dr Fallon
focussed particularly on the orbital cortex, which he argues puts a brake
on another part of the brain called the amygdala, which is involved with
aggression and appetites, ethical behaviour, moral decision-making and
11
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-neuroscientist-who-discovered-he-was-apsychopath-180947814/
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impulse control. Dr Fallons theory was that "People with low activity [in
the orbital cortex] are either free-wheeling types or sociopaths."
32. Along with brain scans, Fallon also tested each family member's DNA for
genes that are associated with violence. He looked at 12 genes related
to
aggression
and
violence
and
particularly the
MAO-A gene
13
creates a serial killer because this is evidence for the most recent theory
that the two factors must work as one.
34. There is significant evidence from the examples above to support the
view that a pre-disposition to kill is hard-wired into the brain through
genetic coding, or a breakdown in the behavioural inhibitors or regulators
that limit the more extreme moods, and inclinations in the majority of the
population. However the extent to which the behavioural predeterminants are channelled or enabled by contextual factors is
discussed in the next chapter.
12
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-neuroscientist-who-discovered-he-was-apsychopath-180947814/
13
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2512640/Meet-neuroscientist-married-father-discoveredPSYCHOPATH-accidentally-studying-brain-scans.html
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37. Many who have grown up to be serial killers were abused, either
physically, mentally, or both, by their parents, especially their own
mothers. For example, Ed Geins mother caught him wearing her shoes
and she burned them, making him watch. This may not be typically, very
traumatising, however, Gein was very young at the time, so very
vulnerable to these experiences. This could be considered as a form of
emotional abuse.
individuals into murderers, it can also be the cause of the Orbital Frontal
Cortex behind the eyes injuries sustained by many of these killers.
40. Freuds theory argued that our Personality is made up of three parts (i.e.
tripartite): the id, ego and super-ego.15 The id governed our primitive
desires and need for gratification, superego determined our moral and
social constraints and the ego governed our reality and ability to delay
gratification.
14
Charles A. Ellwod, 'Lombroso's Theory of Crime', 1912, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology,
Volume 2, Issue 5, http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1128&context=jclc
15
http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html
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42. According to the MacDonald triad there are three specific behavioural
traits that can be directly correlated to a serial killer. They are as follows.
Animal Cruelty the torturing of animals
43. This is seen as practice to perfect the techniques to be used on humans.
For example, Jeffrey Dahmer was known to cut off dogs heads and
keeping them placed in sticks behind his house. Serial killer Dennis
Neilson couldnt bear to face his dog after being arrested as he believed
it would be traumatised.
Pyromania the obsession with fire.
44. This is linked to the need to destroy another Joseph Kallinger once said:
"Oh, what ecstasy, setting fires brings to my body! What power I feel at
the thought of fire! ... Oh, what pleasure, what heavenly pleasure!" as
expressed in this example, pyromania is seen as a sexually stimulating
activity.
Bed Wetting past adolescence
45. Because this is such an intimate subject serial killers are less likely to
wilfully divulge this symptom. Although it has been estimated that 60% of
multiple murderers wet their beds post adolescence for example,
Kenneth Bianchi was subject to this particular symptom.
16
17
http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/criminological/A2_AQB_crim_psychodynamicTheories.pdf
http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html
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46. Formative years may play a role in the moulding of a serial killer, but they
cannot be the sole reason in every case. Many killers blame their families
for their behaviour, seeking sympathy. In true psychopathic fashion,
serial killers are blaming someone else for their actions. If their bad
childhood is the primary reason for their homicidal tendencies, then why
don't their siblings also become serial killers? And if these conditions
truly created them, serial killers would probably be unionized by now,
there would be so many of them (a sad commentary on our continuing
neglect of children.) We must look at other components to see what
pushes a serial killer over the edge.
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Craufurd Tait Ramage, 'Beautiful thoughts from Latin Authors', [1864] Circero Pg. 19
19
William Bernet, Cindy L. Vnencak-Jones, Nita Farahany, J.D, Stephen A. Montegomary, 'Bad Nature,
Bad Nurture, and Testimony regarding MAOA and SLC6A4 Genotyping at Murder Trials', Pg.
1http://thesciencenetwork.org/docs/BB3/Farahany_BadNatureBadNurture.pdf
22
http://thesciencenetwork.org/docs/BB3/Farahany_BadNatureBadNurture.pdf
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23
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-neuroscientist-who-discovered-he-was-apsychopath-180947814/?no-ist
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Chapter 4: Conclusion
54. The purpose of this paper was to consider whether creation and cause
of serial killers can be linked, through supporting evidence, to a particular
theoretical model. The areas covered were: a) the view that a predisposition to kill is hard-wired into the brain through genetic coding, or a
breakdown in the behavioural inhibitors or regulators that limit the more
extreme moods, and inclinations in the majority of the population; b) We
are products of our environment, and killers are created through their
interaction with their environment; c) A complex interaction between
genetic pre-disposition and environmental impact create the killer.
55. The research of Packard (page 8) and Rutilgliano (page 9), focused on
the role of the cerebral cortex in moderating behaviour. In particular, the
impact of a dysfunctional cerebral cortex in creating the killer. In effect,
overriding our natural tendency to manage our impulses. Dr Fallon (page
11) undertook specific research to link genetics and brain patterns to a
serial killer type. His evidence supported the existence of a discernible
pattern which, through supporting data, enabled researchers to map the
brain of a serial killer.
56. There is clear evidence that a pattern exists and genetics plays a clear
role in the creation of a serial killer. Wider research into the animal
kingdom also supports the theory that there is an innate ability to kill built
into some of the population. However, even advocates, such as Doctor
James Fallon, concede that genetics alone are not the answer, and an
element of interaction with the environment is crucial.
57. Another school of thought suggests that the unique set of experiences
and interactions with the environment creates the serial killer. Examples
cited included Ed Gein and Ted Bundy, who both experienced significant
trauma at a young age, particularly in relation to their parents. A number
of killers blame their families for their behaviour, seeking sympathy. In
true psychopathic fashion, serial killers refuse to take full responsibility
for their actions. MacDonalds Triad (page 15) argued that three
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58. While the evidence suggests the causal effect of early childhood on the
development of adult personality traits including propensity to extreme
violence, a raft of evidence also suggests that cannot be the only cause.
Two factors seem to support this; first the inconsistency of outcome
between siblings who have experienced the same things, and second,
the relative rarity of serial killers. This being despite the continued
reporting of child neglect cases. Overall, it seems that an additional
factor is required, one that when mixed with experience, combines in
extreme cases to create a serial killer.
59. The Formative years may play a role in the moulding of a serial killer, but
they cannot be the sole reason in every case. Genes are necessary but
environment is the key that unlocks the killer. Sigmund Freud (page 14)
argued that profound childhood experiences shaped our personalities as
adults. Citing a theory that interaction between internal elements of our
personality clashed, interacted and created friction that creates a
behaviour abnormality in our psyche. However, Freud clearly argued the
case for the cause of deviant or abnormal behaviour being created
through the interaction between individual and the environment. But
Freud (page 15) saw that at the heart of things, lay an inherent predisposition in ones psyche to act in a certain way, including murder.
60. In conclusion, there are strong arguments posited for both arguments.
The evidence and the views expressed by key experts and practitioners
(e.g. Dr Fallon) suggest that the real cause of serial killers is unknown.
However, the truth seems to lie somewhere in the mix of genetic predisposition and traumatic experience, particularly when experienced at a
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conditions are and why the fuse to create an abnormal disposition and
range of behaviours is unclear. However the research in both behavioural
and biological sciences inches ever closer to an answer.
61. This was a very interesting and informative piece of research and
analysis. It has stimulated my interest even further in the field of
psychology, biology and sociology. I plan to take this knowledge with me
to my degree course in psychology and a future career in this field.
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