IntrotoLiteraryCriticism

(adaptedfromAppleman,
CriticalEncountersinHighSchoolEnglish
)

Literarytheories/perspectiveshelpusexplainwhydifferentpeoplemightinterpretthesametextina
varietyofways.Perspectiveshelpusunderstandwhatisimportanttoindividualreaders,andtheyshow
uswhythosereadersendupseeingwhattheysee.Onewaytoimaginealiteraryperspectiveistothink
ofitasalensthroughwhichwecanexamineatext.Nosinglelensgivesustheclearestview,butitis
sometimesfuntoreadatextwithaparticularperspectiveinmindyouoftenendupseeingsomething
intriguingandunexpected.Whilereaderstypicallyapplymorethanoneperspectiveatatime,thebest
waytoexaminetheseperspectivesistousethemoneatatime.Wewillbelearningaboutseveral
differentliterarytheoriesthisquarter.ThedescriptionsthatIwillprovideareextremelybrief,anddo
notfullyexplaineverythingthereistoknowaboutagivenperspective,butyouwillbegintodevelop
anideaofhowreadersmightusetheselenses.Note:Iwillusethetermstheory,schoolof
criticism,lens,andperspectiveinterchangeably.

Gender/FeministTheory
:Gender/feministtheoryappliesthephilosophiesandperspectivesof
feminismtotheliteratureweread.Somefeministcriticsexaminehowmenandwomenwrite
differentlyfromeachother,andanalyzehowthegenderoftheauthoraffectstheirwriting.Most
feministcriticslookathowthecharacters,especiallythefemalecharacters,areportrayedinapieceof
literature.Feministtheoryalsosuggeststhatthegenderofthereaderoftenaffectsourresponsetothe
text.Forinstance,afemalestudentreadingJoyceCarolOatesWhereAreYouGoing,WhereHave
YouBeen?likelyhasdifferentpersonalexperiencetodrawoninordertounderstandtheeventsofthe
storythanamalestudentmight.(Ofcourse,thisisnotalwaysthecase,butwhilewearelearningabout
somethingsobroadasanentireschoolofcriticalthoughtspanningfourdecades,wewillneedtomake
somegeneralizations.)

Thereareseveralassumptionsandconceptsheldbymostfeministcritics:
Ourcivilization(the20th/21stcenturyUnitedStates)ishighlypatriarchal(menareincharge)
Theconceptofgenderislargely,ifnotentirely,aculturalconstruct(stereotypicalmaleand
femaleattributesaredependentontimeperiod,culture,class,etc.).
Mensvoices,thoughts,values,andexperiencestendtooutweighwomensinwhatis
consideredgreatliterature.Theseworksarealsoimplicitlyaddressedtomalereaders.

Questionstoconsiderwhenreadingthroughagender/feministlens:
Istheauthormaleorfemale?Howmightthisaffectourunderstandingofthetext?Whydid
theywritethetext?
Howarefemalecharactersportrayed?Aretheyonedimensional(dotheyhavethoughtsand
feelings?Dotheysimplyrepresentanideaoracharacteristic?)Aretheyimportant?
Howdomaleandfemalecharactersinteractwitheachother?Whohasthepowerinagiven
situationinthetext?
Doesthetextreinforceordefygenderstereotypes?
Imagineyourselfassomeoneoftheoppositegenderreadingthiswork.Howmightyou
interpretitdifferently?

MarxistTheory:SocialClass/PowerPerspective:
AccordingtoMarxistscritics,twoprimaryfactors
shapehowweseeourselvesandhowwefunctioninsociety:economicpowerandsocialclass
membership.First,theclasstowhichwebelongdeterminesourdegreeofeconomic,political,and
socialadvantage,andthussocialclassesinvariablyfindthemselvesinconflictwitheachother.

Second,ourmembershipinasocialclasshasaprofoundimpactonourbeliefs,values,perceptions,and
ourwaysofthinkingandfeeling.Forthesereasons,thesocialpowerperspectivehelpsusunderstand
howpeoplefromdifferentsocialclassesunderstandthesamecircumstancesinverydifferentways.

Thisschoolofcriticaltheoryfocusesonhowpower,money,andsocialorganizationoperatein
literature.AMarxistcriticisconcernedwiththeeconomicandculturaltheoryofGermanphilosopher
KarlMarx(18181883),whichwewillnotdelveintoverydeeply,excepttonotethathebelievedthe
literatureofanyeraisproduced,inpart,bytheeconomic,class,andideological(political,cultural,or
religiousbeliefs)feelingsoftheauthorandthetimeperiodinwhichtheylived.

Marxistcriticsarealsointerestedintheroleoftheworkingclass,particularlyhowthisclassis
oppressedincapitalistsocieties(i.e.,asocietybasedontheneedsanddesiresofindividuals,with
privatelyheldcorporations,andfreemarketeconomicpractices,liketheUnitedStates),offering
socialismorcommunismasdesirablealternatives.(Note:wearenotgoingtofocustooheavilyon
economicsystemsorthesubsequentculturestheycreatethisissimplyacursoryintroductiontoavery
complexfield.)

Herearesomebasicexplanationsofsocialismandcapitalism.Likeanything,theseeconomicsystems
areoftenapplieddifferentlyinpractice,andonacontinuum/spectrum.

Socialism:Inasocialistsociety,workerscooperativelyownthemeansofproduction(industries,farms,
etc.)withtheintentofsharingorexchanginggoodswiththecommunity,ratherthanforthepurposeof
generatingcapital.Insomecontemporaryversionsofsocialism,socialownershipisregulatedbythe
governmentitisresponsibleforsubsidizing(inpartorinwhole)thingslikepublictransit,public
education(andpublichighereducation),publichealthcare,butpeoplearestillallowedtoowntheir
ownbusinessesandprivateproperty.Marxconsideredsocialismtobeastagethatsocietiescould
movetobeforeadoptingtruecommunism.

Communism:Inacommunistsociety,everythingiscooperativelyproducedandowned.Thereisno
currencyormoney,socialclasses,privateproperty,orevenasystemofgovernment.

QuestionstoconsiderwhenreadingthroughaMarxistlens:
Whohasthepower/moneyinthetext?Whodoesnot?Whathappensasaresult?
Howdoesacharacterssocialclassaffecttheirthoughtsandactions?
Howdoentitieslikethegovernmentandsocietyatlargeregardindividuals?Whathappensas
aresult?

Doestheworkappeartocriticizecapitalism,socialism,orcommunism?Doesitpresentone
kindofsocialtheoryasmoredesirablethantheothers?

PsychoanalyticLens

Overview:Psychoanalyticcriticismconsidersaworkofliteraturetobeanexpression(infictional
form)ofthepersonality,stateofmind,feelingsanddesiresofitsauthor.Theseelementscanbeseen
throughhowtheauthortreatscharactersinagivenpieceofliterature,andhowthecharactersthink,
feel,andactthroughoutthepiece.

Psychoanalyticcriticsbelievethataworkofliteraturecontainsevidenceofitsauthorsmentaltraits:
Referencetotheauthorspersonalityisusedtoexplainandinterpretaliterarywork.
Referencetoliteraryworksismadeinordertoestablish,biographically,thepersonalityofthe
author.
Readingaliteraryworkitselfisawayofexperiencingtheconsciousnessofitsauthor.

Readingthroughthislenserequiresustoinvestigatethepsychologyofacharacteroranauthorto
figureoutthemeaningofatext.(Applyinganauthorspsychologytoatextcanalsobeconsidered
biographicalcriticism,dependingonyourpointofview.)

ThisschoolofliterarycriticismdrawsheavilyontheworkofAustrianneurologistSigmundFreud
(18561939),thefatherofpsychoanalysis.AbriefsummaryofFreudsworkfollows:

TheUnconscious,theDesires,andtheDefenses
Freudbeganhispsychoanalyticworkinthe1880swhileattemptingtotreatbehavioraldisordersinhis
Viennesepatients.Hedubbedthedisorders'hysteria'andbegantreatingthembylisteningtohis
patientstalkthroughtheirproblems.Basedonthiswork,Freudassertedthatpeople'sbehavioris
affectedbytheirunconscious:"...thenotionthathumanbeingsaremotivated,evendriven,bydesires,
fears,needs,andconflictsofwhichtheyareunaware...".
Freudbelievedthatourunconsciouswasinfluencedbychildhoodevents.Freudorganizedtheseevents
intodevelopmentalstagesinvolvingrelationshipswithparentsanddrivesofdesireandpleasure,
beginninginchildhood.Thesestagesreflectbaselevelsofdesire,buttheyalsoinvolvefearofloss
(lossofaffectionfromparents,lossoflife)andrepressionpushingdownunpleasantthoughts,
feelings,andmemories.
However,"...repressiondoesn'teliminateourpainfulexperiencesandemotions...weunconsciously
behaveinwaysthatwillallowusto'playout'...ourconflictedfeelingsaboutthepainfulexperiences
andemotionswerepress".Tokeepallofthisconflictburiedinourunconscious,Freudarguedthatwe
developdefenses:selectiveperception,selectivememory,denial,displacement,projection,regression,
fearofintimacy,andfearofdeath,amongothers.Theseareusedascopingmechanisms.

SomeFreudiantermsyoumaynothaveencountered:

selectiveperception:
tendencytonotnoticethingsthatmakeusupset,orcontradictbeliefs
selectivememory:
theabilitytoretainonlyfactsthatreinforceourbeliefs,whileapparentlyforgetting
others,especiallywhentheyareinconvenientorproblematic

repression
:holdingbackorpushingdowndesire,impulses,memories,etc.becauseitistoodifficultto
facethem
displacement:
satisfyinganimpulse(likeaggressionorfrustration)withasubstitute(likebeingangry
atsomeoneandtakingitoutonsomeoneorsomethingelse)
projection:
attributingourownthoughts,feelings,fears,desiresontootherpeopletodeflectattention
awayfromourtruefeelings
regression:
returningtoaprior,lessdevelopedmentalstateforcomfortortocope(suchasactinglike
achildwhenasituationisstressful)
sublimation:
satisfyinganimpulse(likeaggression)inasociallyacceptableway,bydirectingthe
energytosomethingelse(likeplayingsports)

Id,Ego,andSuperego
Freudmaintainedthatourdesiresandourunconsciousconflictsgiverisetothreeareasofthemindthat
wrestlefordominanceaswegrowfrominfancy,tochildhood,toadulthood:
idunconscious,instinctivedrive:concernedonlywithwantsanddesires.Thinkofanewborn
baby.
egoresponsiblefororganized,rational,longtermthought.Keepstheidincheck.
superegotheareaoftheunconsciousthathousesjudgment(ofselfandothers),morals,and
ethics

OedipusComplex
ThenameofthisparticularphenomenoncomesfromSophoclesfamousplay,
OedipusRex
,inwhich
thetitlecharacterisfatedtokillhisfatherandmarryhismother.FreudbelievedthattheOedipus
complexwas"oneofthemostpowerfullydeterminativeelementsinthegrowthof[a]child.
Essentially,theOedipuscomplexinvolveschildren'sneedfortheirparentsandtheconflictthatarises
aschildrenmatureandrealizetheyarenottheabsolutefocusoftheirmother'sattention.
Freudarguedthatbothboysandgirlswishtopossesstheirmothers,butastheygrowolder,"theybegin
tosensethattheirclaimtoexclusiveattentionisthwartedbythemother'sattentiontothefather.
Children,Freudmaintained,connectthisconflictofattentiontotheintimaterelationsbetweenmother
andfather,relationsfromwhichthechildrenareexcluded.Freudbelievedthat"theresultisa
murderousrageagainstthefather...andadesiretopossessthemother.
Whenboyseffectivelyworkthroughthisanxiety,Freudargued,"theboylearnstoidentifywiththe
fatherinthehopeofsomedaypossessingawomanlikehismother,andgirlsseekourmenwhoare
liketheirfathers.
Freudbelievedthattheimpactoftheunconscious,id,ego,superego,thedefenses,andtheOedipus
complexwasinescapableandthattheseelementsofthemindinfluenceallourbehavior(andevenour
dreams)asadultsofcourse,thisbehavioralsoinvolveswhatwewrite.
(AdaptedfromPurdueOWL.)

Questionstoconsiderwhenreadingthroughapsychoanalyticlens:
Lookforunderlyingpsychologicalissues/concernsinthetextthatmayreflecttheauthor,the
characters,theaudience,orallthree.
Trytoexplainthebehaviorofthecharactersinpsychologicalterms,suchasprojection,repression,
fear,selectiveperceptionetc.
ArethereanyOedipaldynamicsoranyotherfamilydynamicsatworkinthetext?
Howcancharactersbehaviorsand/ortheeventsinthenarrativebeexplainedwithpsychoanalytic
concepts(forexample:fearorfascinationwithdeath,sexualitywhichincludesloveandromanceas

wellassexualbehavior,grapplingwiththeidegosuperego,psychologicaldistress,difficultycoping
withreality,possiblementaldisorders,etc.)?
Whatdoestheworksuggestaboutthepsychologicalstateofitsauthor?
Whatmightagiven
interpretation
ofaliteraryworksuggestaboutthepsychologyofthereader?

ReaderResponseCriticism:
Thistypeofcriticismfocusesonthe
activity
ofreadingaworkof
literature.Readerresponsecriticsturnfromthetraditionalideaofliteratureassomethingtobe
examinedandfiguredouttheyaremoreinterestedinhowareaderspersonalexperienceinforms
theirunderstandingofawrittentext.Asaresult,thereadersinterpretationofthetextisas,ormore,
importantthattheauthorsintendedmeaning.Insteadofusingbiographicalinformationaboutthe
authorandhistoricalinformationaboutthetimeperiodinwhichthetextwaswritteninordertofigure
outtheauthorsintendedmeaning,RRcriticismisconcernedonlywithhowthereadermakes
meaning.Bythisshiftofperspective,aliteraryworkbecomesanactivitythatgoesoninthereaders
mind,andallofthefeaturesoftheworkitselfincludingthenarrator,plot,characters,style,and
structurearelessimportantthantheconnectionbetweenareadersexperienceandthetext.Itis
throughthisinteractionthatmeaningismade.
Proponentsbelievethatliteraturehasnoobjectivemeaning,onlysubjectivemeaning.
Wheneversomeonereadsaworkofliterature,theybringwiththemtheirownthoughts,moods,and
experiences.Extremeendpointsofthisschoolare:
atextdoesnotexistwithoutareader
thenotionofthedeathoftheauthor:discountingauthorialintent(whattheauthorintends
thetexttomean)completely,becauseitlimitspossibleunderstandingsofthetext

Questionstoconsiderwhenreadingthroughareaderresponselens:
Movethroughthetextcarefullyandslowly,describingyourresponseatvariouspoints.Annotate
sectionsofthetextandwriteafewwordsabouthowyouareinterpretingit.Whendoyouexperience
changesinyourpersonalresponse?
Wherearetheregapsinthestorythattheauthorrequiresyoutofillin(i.e.,thingstheauthordoes
notsayexplicitly).Howareyoufillinginthesegaps?
Howdoesthistextreflecttheexperience,beliefs,andunderstandingsofitsreader(you)?
Howmightyouinterpretthistextdifferentlyassomeonewhoisolderthanyou,oradifferentgender,
orfromadifferentculture?Howmightyourlifeexperiencesbedifferent,andhowmightthisaffect
yourreadingofthetext?