Vocational Education and Training in China

PP716: Introduction to Chinese Policy

Professor Phil Potter
Winter 2011

Run-Zhi Lai
Nina Maturu
Elizabeth Stamberger
Nick Stephens
Pauline Sze

Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Vocational Education Reform in China .......................................................................................... 3
Governments Role in Vocational Education Reform ................................................................ 5
A Case Study: Nantong Vocational College ............................................................................... 6
Central Governments Investment in VET ..................................................................................... 8
Increasing Need for Investment in VET ..................................................................................... 8
Types of Investment .................................................................................................................. 10
Additional Measures to Improve VET ...................................................................................... 11
Rural Migration and VET ............................................................................................................. 12
Rural to Urban Migration.......................................................................................................... 12
Addressing Challenges in Migration ........................................................................................ 13
VET Teacher Shortage .................................................................................................................. 17
Underqualified Teachers ........................................................................................................... 18
Chinas Current Solutions ......................................................................................................... 18
Chinas Five Vocational Education Reform Pilot Areas: Results and Questions ....................... 21
Successes of Chinas Vocational Education Reform Pilot Area Program ................................ 22
Problems with the Pilot Programs: Interpreting and Implementing Successes ....................... 24
Policy Recommendations for Further Reforms ............................................................................ 26

Introduction
Since Chinas reform and opening to the global economy in 1978, its economy has grown
remarkably. As Chinas economy develops and expands, its demand for skilled labor increases.
This policy analysis will explore Chinas vocational education reforms as an attempt to address
shortages of skilled labor. It will further draw comparisons to the United States approach to
vocational education reform over the same period.
The 1996 Vocational Education Law set the standard for vocational education reforms, which
continue today. Reforms to increase and expand the quality of vocational education institutions
have generated some success, yet problems still remain. China faces a shortage of teachers who
are qualified to teach vocational skills to their students. Moreover, vocational education
opportunities for the rural population and ethnic minorities continue to fall short of the 1996
Laws clear intention to address such inequities.
Most recently, Chinas Ministry of Education (MOE) has implemented pilot projects in Tianjin,
Sichuan, Chongqing, Hubei and Henan to evaluate potential policy advancements. These pilot
programs have attempted to address some of the major challenges facing vocational education
institutions. It is unclear how broadly such applications can be applied on a national level
because these provinces represent a vast heterogeneity in terms of social, economic, and ethnic
identities.
China will continue to focus on vocational education reform as it adapts to its status as an
emerging international power. Vocational educations close relationship to the economic
prosperity of the country indicates that China will continue to need to make reforms to address
problems that still remain. The lessons learned from the United States and other countries that
have developed their vocational education systems will be valuable to Chinas further reform
efforts.

Vocational Education Reform in China

Vocational education in China is delivered through vocational higher education institutes,
secondary skill schools, vocational high schools, and adult education. In each category there are
a variety of school types. For vocational higher education institutes, there are Workers
Colleges, Peasants Colleges, Institutes for Administration, Educational Colleges,
Correspondence Colleges, Radio/TV Universities, and other institutions. In 2009, there were
over two million students enrolled in vocational higher education institutes in China (Figure 1).
Initially, graduates from vocational education institutes were not awarded degrees, which was
probably due to the Chinese governments tight control over the scale of higher education.1
After a series of educational system reforms, graduates from vocational education institutes are
now awarded non-degree diplomas. In addition, some vocational education institutes have the
capability to award a degree equivalent to a bachelors degree for four-year program graduates.
Vocational institutes appeared in China around 1980 as a new form of educational institution.
During the transition from an entirely planned economy to a partially market-oriented economy,
new industries and business boomed, which in turn demanded trained personnel to fill job
positions for specialized fields.2 Under the centralized planning system, neither the national nor
the provincial institutional systems could rapidly respond to the needs of new jobs. As a result
the city governments responded to the demand by developing city vocational institutes, which
represented the localization of vocational education.
Vocationalism and localism are two defining characteristics of vocational education
institutes.3 These characteristics are reflected in their program structure and curricular system.
Vocational institutes offer programs specifically designed for professional and occupational
needs at intermediate and lower levels of the local job market. Practical skill training and handson learning are used to familiarize students with specific job requirements. Most vocational
institutes in China are locally administered and financed at the city level. Institutional policies
and development plans are constructed in conjunction with local social and economic needs.
Vocational training schools have dynamic relations with employers, high quality training, and
the flexibility to respond to rapidly changing and competitive environments.
Initially, students in vocational education were recruited locally and worked in the surrounding
geographic areas after graduation. Under the centralized admissions mechanism, vocational
higher education institutes were last in line among all post secondary institutions to enroll new
students. This usually meant that vocational education institutes could only recruit those
students with the lowest grades. Vocational education programs generally led to lower-paying
jobs, such as intermediate level skilled technician and operator positions. Local supply and

Figure 1. Vocational Higher Education Institutes in China, 2009 Statistics

(Unit: in Person)

Graduates 2009

Total
Normal

Short
cycle
1078472
569802

Entrants

Total
Normal

Short
cycle
1198981
622063

Enrolment

Total
Normal

Short
cycle
3156851
1615987

Expected Graduates 2010

Total
Normal Short
cycle
1900885 760090 1140795
956833
392142 564691

Total
1943893 865421
2014776 815795
5413513 2256662
: Of Which:Female
1018152 448350
1072130 450067
2833011 1217024

218398
40266
178132
210784
25412
185372
541949
80224
461725
219687
Adult HEIs

101972
6948
95024
109233
5874
103359
235547
12497
223050
101992
Of Which:Full-time

75769
1767
74002
74628
1821
72807
198427
5038
193389
84976
Workers' Colleges

1134
1134
714
714
1726
1726
976
Peasants' Colleges

26066
5606
20460
29194
5050
24144
65668
11628
54040
22096
Institutes for Admin.

50901
31500
19401
38712
17402
21310
109249
59975
49274
44196
Educational Colleges

Correspondence Colleges

63000
1393
61607
67024
1139
65885
164292
3583
160709
66590
Radio/TV Universities

1528
1528
512
512
2587
2587
853
Other Institutions

1725495 825155 900340

1803992 790383 1013609 4871564 2176438 2695126 1681198
Regular HEIs

945920
512676 433244
1031821 459331 572490
2751859 1280952 1470907 952566
Divisions of Correspondence

505627
211504 294123
771675
330647 441028
1869105 769331
1099774 564607
Sparetime Schools

273948
100975 172973
496
405
91
250600
126155
124445
164025
Shrot-cycle Courses for Adults
Source: Minister of Education of the PRC (http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s4960/201012/113571.html)

33548

186139

5973

96019

2422

82554
976

4068

18028

25019

19177

2039

64551
853

726542

954656

446794

505772

214449

350158

65299

98726

demand were met by vocational institutes highly specialized programs and curricula. Economic
expansion has influenced vocational educations institutional policies and practices.
Since the late 1990s, Chinese higher education has become more widely available to more
people (Figure 1). A total of over two million students were enrolled in vocational education
institutes in China in 2009. An expansion of this magnitude has led to larger institutions and the
emergence of new higher education institutions. Globalization has placed more demands on
vocational education training (VET). Since the late 1970s, higher education in China has
undergone several reforms in order to match the demand for national economic development.
Institutions of higher learning have new vocational and occupational demands and standards of
training advocated by business and industry.4
After 2000, the focus on vocational education development shifted from expansion to quality
improvement. Since 2002, the MOE of the PRC held three national conferences on the
production, learning, research combination and cooperation. Thereafter, higher vocational
education adopted service-aimed, employment-oriented, production-learning-research
combined as its basic principle. In this period, there were two issues in dispute, both
concerning the mechanism and level of education that vocational education should provide. One
issue was whether the current three-year program should be reduced to two-years. The second
issue was whether vocational higher education institutes should offer a four-year program like
other regular higher education institutes offer.
Since 2004, the new focus of higher vocational education has changed to curriculum and
instructional model reform. The goals of vocational education should be realized through its
curriculum. Even higher weight has been placed on practical training, which transcends the
limitations of subject-based curricula.

Governments Role in Vocational Education Reform

Chinese governments and their educational agencies play critical roles in shaping higher
education institutions behavior. The Chinese government is involved in almost every step of
decision-making including funding and developing programs, hiring teachers, and setting student
admissions criteria. The MOE in China has authority to implement national policy for education
to achieve the modernization goal and to improve national competition. The Ministry has
prioritized expansion, quality and efficiency, restructuring, and regulation in its reform
programs. Provincial education administrations receive central government instructions
regarding how to manage the educational institutes in their provinces. Vocational higher
education institutes must request approval from government administration in order to set up
new academic programs. National policy changes and related implemented procedures play a
crucial role in Chinas vocational education development toward modernization and adaptation

to a global economy. The process of management by multiple levels of governments ensures

that these institutes are kept on track.

A Case Study: Nantong Vocational College

A case study demonstrates the standardization of faculty qualifications, management of academic
programs, and admissions standards, which are characteristic of Chinas national system.5
Nantong Vocational College is located in Nantong, Jiangsu province.6 From 1983 to 2003, as the
economy in Nantong grew, Nantong Vocational Colleges enrollment grew twenty times (Figure
2).
Figure 2. Nantong Vocational College Growth from 1983-2003
Year Entrants (Graduates) Departments Programs Double-major programs Faculty
1983 394 (127)
4
6
0
69
1993
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003

1083 (274)
2155 (535)
2223 (722)
2622 (832)
4076 (601)
5650 (720)
6530 (948)

6
8
8
8
8
8
9

11
16
16
30
37
62
67

0
0
0
3
17
27
23

110
156
183
202
236
280
340

Source: Anning Ding and John S. Levin The Interventionary State in China and Programs and
Curricula at a Chinese Vocational University
By 2002, Nantong Vocational College had nine departments: Mechanical Technology;
Electronic Technology; Chemical Technology; Construction Technology; Textile Technology;
Applied Liberal Arts; Foreign Languages; Economic Management; and Applied Arts. The
college contained 62 programs, including 25 four-year double-major programs. Sharp expansion
was observed in the number of students and faculty.
From Nantong Vocational Colleges growth, the institutional movement trend is clear. Before
1999, the management of higher education institutions was manipulated strenuously through
central government planning. Higher education institutions were not very engaged in the market,
and the expansion of higher education was reported as slow and difficult. With further reforms
on the national economic system since 1999, market driven forces have increased and begun to
exert a more powerful influence on both institutional enrollment and local employment. 7
Following institutional enrollment growth, significant restructuring and reform took place in
programs, curricula, and the expressed purposes of training. Reforms were implemented through
course delivery in the classroom and practical work on-site, such as in labs, workshops, or
manufacturing plants.

For Nantong in 2003, the local economy was no longer limited to the local geographic area. 8
There was increasing international investment, international trade and international tourism. The
change in the economic structure also required the expansion of the meaning of vocationalism
and localism. With the participation of external constituents in program and curricular
restructuring, the connection between vocational education and the local economy was
reinforced.

Central Governments Investment in VET

This section seeks to understand why the government is investing in vocational education and
training (VET) in specific ways by analyzing various pressures on the central government to
invest in training and various ways to invest in training (and thus respond to pressures). As
addressed in the previous section attitudes toward vocational training and ways to invest in VET
have varied over the years. In the last few years, the government has focused more attention on
VET and in 2009 chose VET as the next focus of education promotion. The various pressures on
China to support VET begin to explain the reasons why the central government is investing at
this point, such as a high and increasing demand for skilled workers. The central governments
major current investments in VET are in quality assurance and infrastructure.

Increasing Need for Investment in VET

There are many potential reasons that the government is choosing to invest in vocational
education and training at this point in time. One category of reasons has to do with business and
employment pressures. Currently there is high unemployment in many areas of China. This
issue has been exacerbated by the international financial crisis. In addition to the variety of
pressures facing the government, there are also varying pressures of having two different
ministries responsible for VET at a country level: the MOE and the Ministry of Human
Resources and Social Security.

Weakness in the Educational System

China has invested much in its 9-year compulsory and higher education systems, but VET,
especially secondary VET, is a weakness within the education system. As these get better, there
is a greater demand for continuing education, like VET and quality VET that meets the needs
of these workers. In order to have a high-quality, comprehensive education system, VET must
be developed.

Skills Mismatch
Some unemployment is due to a mismatch between available jobs and available workers. A
potential reason is that the skills taught in training and education courses are not what are needed
in the workforce.9 A lack of alignment between these two areas can prevent matches between
employers and potential employees. While this is a current issue, it is only expected to increase
in the future. Many college graduates are having trouble finding jobs; the increase in college
graduates has outpaced the growth in jobs requiring college degrees.10
8

Increased demand for skilled workers

Across China there is predicted to be an increase in manufacturing jobs requiring skilled
workers. Some believe that, while the labor supply still outweighs the demand, 11 the Chinese
workforce is not prepared for the predicted increase, as rural laborers are poorly educated and
have no skills.12 While enterprises expect to find an ample supply of skilled laborers, much of
Chinas labor supply is rural laborers without much training. Even currently, while there is high
unemployment, there is a shortage of qualified workers for technical and skilled job categories.
A recent paper cites the job opening to application ratio as an indicator, with ratios ranging 12.4:1 for technicians and skilled workers.13 In addition, the Chinese government is striving to
transition to a knowledge economy. This transition would require that workers have ongoing
training or lifelong learning14 throughout their careers rather than merely to prepare for a
transition to a new career.

Increased demand for training opportunities

Workers are demanding additional training opportunities. There has recently been an increase in
non-state, non-enterprise companies that offer skills training. Commercial VET institutions
reached 21,811 nationally in 2008.15 Some opportunities are self-sponsored or selected and
paid for by the employee, in order to diversify skills and/or knowledge.16 At the same time, VET
is perceived to be of low quality and is associated with a second-class image.17 As this
perception changes, demand can be expected to increase.

Citizens expectations
In addition to business pressures, there are political pressures for China to provide vocational
education and training. For many years workers were assigned by the state to enterprises that
were obliged to give them jobs.18 Because of this tradition, workers have an expectation of
being provided a job. This expectation of citizens does not go away because the jobs are not
available; there is still pressure on the state to help in these areas. Furthermore, state enterprise
underwent a mass restructure and layoff during the late 1990s; this adds to the sense of
entitlement for workers affected by this change.
In addition, workers lack job search skills because they have not had to look for a job before. (In
many countries, including the United States, developing job search skills training is a key
component of VET.) In addition to adding to political pressures for vocational training, the
tradition of providing jobs affects the vocational skills of the workers. Because most were
provided jobs, they lack job search skills.

Unbalanced education
Chinas general education system and adult education system have greatly improved, but they
have done so in an imbalanced way across geographies and populations. Adult education, which
is a wider classification than just VET, is unbalanced across regions that are economically
developed, sub-developed, and under-developed. In addition, primary education has varied
greatly across the country, which results in workers with varying levels of education. Vocational
training is needed in areas with weaker primary education to build the skills of workers.

Types of Investment
The Chinese government invests heavily in adult education. In 2006, RMB17.431 billion yuan
was invested in adult education.19 National funds for education grew 11.9-20.5% annually
between 1997 and 2006.20 Funds for adult education have also been increasing, at 5/7-18.6%
annually over the same period (with one year of -10.5% growth), but have declined as a
proportion of total funds due to the larger growth rates of the overarching national funds for
education. Investment is needed to reach the goal of training 34 million skilled workers by 2015,
as stated in the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Securitys 2010 blueprint.
Adult education includes VET, and it is important to understand the type of investment being
made specifically in this area. Multiple types of investment strategies are described below. It is
important to understand the relative magnitude of the investment in these programs and the
timing of the programs. While that data is not readily available, in terms of specific numbers,
news articles indicate that current investment is in infrastructure, and it represents a significant
amount of investment. Other strategies seem to have required smaller investments and have been
occurring over the last few years.
Given the administrative structure of the vocational programs, the central government does not
provide much influence over the local implementation of programs. The local educational
authorities develop plans to implement VET in the context of local conditions, in addition to
writing training curricula, hiring teachers, and evaluating programs and students. The
government provides guidance and financial support, as seen in the types of investment
described here. More information about what the central and local governments fund is included
in the discussion of Pilot Areas.

Infrastructure
The government is investing in infrastructure for VET, which includes buildings and teacher
tools for programs. The Chairman of the China Vocational Education Association cites slow

10

infrastructure construction as one of the top reasons VET is the weakest part of the education
system.21

Financial Supports
The government is investing in VET by providing subsidies to groups of workers who have
trouble finding employment to attend training programs.22 Targeted populations include
registered unemployed people, rural migrants, and rural laborers. The government created the
Special Vocational Training Program in 2009 to assist those affected by the financial crisis. It
aimed to affect 15 million people in two years.23 The government is also incentivizing the
development of training bases at a variety of schools, such as senior technical workers schools,
technicians colleges, and vocational colleges and universities.

Ensuring quality
The government can play a centralized role in generally ensuring quality of the VET programs
across the country. As many different agencies are involved in delivering training, the central
government can coordinate across the organizations to make sure the training being delivered is
effective. In addition, the government intends to make sure the training meets the requirements
of positions workers are intended to fill.24

Additional Measures to Improve VET

In 2006 there were 220,000 enterprise-based training centers, which are sponsored by employers
or trade associations.25 In order to improve the skill levels of workers, the Chinese government is
also calling upon enterprises to become more involved in vocational training. 26 It expects
enterprises to provide and encourage VET for their workers. Efforts include simple initiatives
like providing skills training to workers to more complicated, structural initiatives like
establishing an apprentice system for highly skilled technicians to train apprentice workers.27
The government is also working to create new collaborative programs between enterprises and
schools. The School-Enterprise Cooperative Development of Skilled and Talented People brings
together the government, schools, and enterprises to address these issues together. 28 In addition
the government is incorporating trade unions, the Communist Youth League, womens
federation, and social organizations in the delivery of VET.29

11

Rural Migration and VET

Since 1984 the Chinese economy has experienced a shift from agriculture to industries such as
manufacturing. As a result of this shift, China has experienced a resource misallocation, with a
labor surplus of agricultural workers and labor shortages in industrial sectors, where China is
experiencing the most growth. Vocational training has been called upon as a solution of
realigning the labor market and training workers in industries that are experiencing shortages.

Rural to Urban Migration

Multiple factors have led to an increase in rural migration to cities in China. First, as a result of a
changing marketplace and developing technologies, there has been a dramatic decrease in the
number of agricultural jobs available, most of which are located in rural areas. In 1994, the total
labor supply was 619.5 million, of which 441.5 million worked in rural areas, mostly in
agriculture (Figure 3)30. From 1980-1994, state-owned enterprises and collectives in urban areas
provided the majority of jobs and were experiencing high labor shortages. As a result of the
labor imbalance, many rural workers were traveling to urban areas for employment
opportunities.
Jobs in urban areas continue to be appealing because they often provide more benefits than rural
jobs. Urban workers are often provided with more mandatory benefits, and employers have less
latitude in determining wages, which are regulated by the state.31
Figure 3. Labor Supply and Demand, Selected Years, 1980-94

12

Addressing Challenges in Migration

There is a surplus of approximately 18 million rural laborers who move to the cities for
employment.32 The majority of rural migrants find that they do not have the education, training,
or resources to obtain jobs in the cities. Legally, rural residents cannot take a job in an urban
area without a work permit and cannot access state benefits without a residency permit.33 The
government as well as non-government organizations (NGOs) and civilian-run organizations
have created numerous programs to counter this influx and train migrants to be better equipped
for gainful employment.

Training in High-Demand Fields

In an attempt to fill labor shortages in industrial and service sectors, the government shifted
resources from agriculture toward vocational training in high-demand areas, particularly in
finance, administration, and economics (Figure 4). This is one of many attempts by the
government to train agricultural workers in more sought-after industries.
Figure 4. Secondary Vocational Schools: Intake and Enrollment, by Field of Study, 1990
and 1994

13

Strengthening Adult Literacy

The influx of rural migrants into cities has put a severe strain on urban resources. The
government has attempted to address rural absorption by developing township and village
enterprises and restricting rural to urban migration of untrained workers.34 This has taken the
form of adult literacy programs run by county, townships and village schools. In 2006, rural
based schools provided literacy education to over 1,646,100 farmers.35 The figure below (Figure
5) provides a breakdown of the different local entities and the number each has educated through
its farmer literacy programs.
Figure 5. Adult Education in Rural Areas of China in 2006 (Rounded to nearest whole
number)
Full-time
Graduates in Enrollment in
Name
Schools
teachers in
10,000
10,000
10,000
Farmers colleges
3
0.18
0.21
0.02
Total
150,955
4,251
3,842
23
County-run
1,426
132
125
1
Rural adult
schools
cultural and
Township-run
technical
22,064
1,979
1,692
7
schools
schools
Village-run
124,002
2,314
1,929
14
schools
Secondary schools for farmers
1,480
73
44
1
Total
54,417
273
263
11
Primary
Primary
14,020
109
96
2
schools for
classes
teachers
Literacy
40,397
165
167
8
classes
Source: Statistical Yearbook of Educational Cause in China (2006), Peoples Education Press,
p122, p152, p170.

High-tech Agricultural Training

For those rural laborers who choose to stay in agriculture, the government has provided applied
technical training in agriculture to make farmers more competitive in the world market. This
includes green certification training and entrepreneurship training, which combine classroom
instruction with training in the field.36

Small Business Creation

One way of preventing migration is by building local economies in rural areas. The government
has emphasized small business creation among rural inhabitants. Since 2007, the government
14

has provided start-up business training to over two million rural and urban laborers, with
particular attention to the unemployed, youth, and rural immigrant workers.37 Building small
businesses not only improves local economies but also produces entities that have lower market
risks. Training has taken the form of one-stop shops that train students in policies, technology,
and funding for starting up a small business.

Third Sector Contributions

Outside of government, non-government organizations (NGOs) or civilian-run organizations and
enterprise-training centers have arisen to address the labor shortage. NGOs have primarily
focused on providing individuals with the resources to obtain professional qualifications and
professional certificates, and are often funded by overseas organizations. One organization is
highlighted in Figure 6. Enterprise-training centers, on the other hand, are sponsored by trade
associations that primarily train their own workers. Enterprise-training institutions have
experienced the most growth, having established over 220,000 centers across China (

15

Figure 7).
Figure 6. Spotlight on Civil-Run Training Center
Spotlight on Civil-Run Training Center: Practical Skills Training Center for Rural Women 38
Dadongliu Village, Xiaotangshan Township in Changping District

Supervision: Beijing Cultural Development Center for Rural Women

Mission: To provide short-term training that will enable rural women from poor
families to learn practical skills as well as to build their general abilities. This will
ultimately enable them to improve their social and economic development and participate
fully in society.
Courses taught: Short courses in services (1-3 months) such as computer training,
sewing, waitressing, hairdressing or beautician services. There are also courses in
training rural teachers, starting your own business, raising livestock and participating in
village politics.
Funding: Domestic and international charity organizations and donations from foreign
and local individuals.
Reach: The center has trained 4,360 students from 17 ethnic groups from 26 provinces
and regions.

16

Figure 7. Number of Vocational Training Institutions and Trainees in 2006

Type
Training Institutions in
Number of trainees in
1,000s
10,000 person/times
Technical schools
2.86
270
Employment training
3.21
130
centers
Civilian-run training
21
1905
centers/NGOs
Enterprise-based training
220
1095
centers
Total
49.07
3400
Source: Institute for Labor Science Research: National Report on Employment (2006-2007),
China Labor and Social Security Press, 218.

17

VET Teacher Shortage

The emphasis on vocational education and training (VET) to address the rise in economic
activity in China has created a discernable problem. Since the 1980s, there has been a shortage of
teachers in VET institutions, which has resulted in disparities in the quality of education
received. While the 1996 Vocational Education Law requires that 20 percent of the annual
education budget be allocated to VET, this commitment is rarely met. 39 There are estimates that,
as of 2004, roughly seven percent of education funding goes to VET.40 This creates a budgetary
shortfall for VET institutions, thereby directly affecting the amount and quality of teachers
institutions are able to hire.
The ratio of students to teachers in VET was 24.54 to 1 in 2008.41 Figure 8 indicates the trend in
teacher attainment since 1980, with approximately 850,400 teachers hired in 2008. There has
been some progress made in increasing the number of teachers since the early 2000s. However,
the increase has not been able to offset the demand for teachers. The shortage of teachers is a
direct result of a number of forces working together. Specifically, they have resulted from an
increase in student enrollment, teacher attrition, and teacher retirement, as well as persistently
low wages for teachers.
Figure 8. Change in total amount of VET teachers, 1980-2008 (measured in 10,000 persons)

Source: Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China & Xu, Shuo and Wang,
Jianchu, Vocational Teacher Education and Training in China, Institute of Vocational Teacher
Education of Tongji University, November 2009
18

Underqualified Teachers
The shortage has led institutions to hire
teachers who do not have adequate professional
training. The teachers hired are mostly young
recent graduates.42 Lack of experience has
made it difficult for teachers to impart practical
vocational skills to students. It affects the
students are able to obtain and undermines
Chinas goals of VET expansion for national
economic development.

A new type of teaching methodology

should be established in vocational
schools, one that asks skilled technical
workers to conduct the instruction instead
of teachers with little actual experience.
- Cheng Fangping, expert in vocational
education, China National Institute for
Educational Research, December 2006

Chinas Current Solutions

Part-Time Teachers
The Vocational Education Law allows for some temporary relief by permitting institutions to
hire part-time teachers.43 Figure 9, below, shows that 14% of current VET teachers are parttime; these teachers are not accounted for in the general count of vocational teachers. However,
this loophole is not a sustainable solution to the shortage of qualified teachers. While the number
of part-time instructors temporary relieves the teacher shortage it is not a sustainable solution.

Figure 9. Proportion of part-time and full-time VET teachers

Source: Ministry of Education of the

Peoples Republic of China & Xu, Shuo and
Wang, Jianchu, Vocational Teacher
Education and Training in China, Institute of
Vocational Teacher Education of Tongji
University, November 2009

19

Teacher Education Reform

China has developed regulations for teacher education to address the lack of qualifications of
teachers entering the VET system. Teachers are required to receive continuing training
throughout their careers. Specifically, teachers must undergo 240 hours of classroom training
every five years and work in their industry for two months every two years. 44 The goal is to
make certain that teachers have adequate and current practical experience.
To address the continuing education requirements for VET teachers, a large number of training
bases have opened up. The State Ministry of Education has led the creation of these at various
University centers, which have in turn partnered with corporations to meet the demand for
teacher training. For example, Tongji Universitys Institute of Vocational and Technical
Education partners with international businesses and corporations, such as Shanghai
Volkswagen, to educate aspiring VET teachers.45

Lessons Learned From The United States

Similar Shortage Problem
While there have been recent attempts to increase the availability of VET, particularly in light of
the recent economic recession and large increases in unemployment, the United States has faced
a shortage of teachers for similar reasons as China has. Reasons include an increase in student
enrollment, elimination of teacher education programs, teach attrition, and teacher retirement.46
Corporations have donated millions of US dollars to VET nonprofits in order to improve the job
potential of members of various demographics, such as unemployed veterans.47
Alternative Licensing
The National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium
proposed, in November of 2010, alternative licensing requirements to alleviate the shortage of
qualified teachers.48 All 50 states have some type of alternative licensing arrangement as a
pathway for experienced professionals to receive certification in their state.49 For example, in
2009 California passed a law that reduced the number of years of experience needed for a
preliminary credential from five years to three years.50 However, such alternative arrangements
have sparked intense debates as to whether they sacrifice the quality of instruction provided.

20

Chinas Room For Improvement

China has several distinct challenges in meeting its goals of quality vocational education for
students. One major, addressable challenge is the shortage of qualified teachers. While part-time
teacher hires may offset some of the shortage pressures, they will not be sustainable in
addressing the ongoing demand for VET. Therefore, the Ministry of Education should look at
lessons learned from the United States, along with other international collaborations they have
had. Below are suggestions for increasing the number of qualified teachers:

Effective Teacher Retention As rapid economic development continues to increase, so

will the demand for VET. Teachers need to be retained to reduce turnover and maintain a
high level of expertise in VET institutions.
Professional Development Opportunities Opportunities for professional development
would enhance the experience of teachers and increase the quality of teaching in the
classroom.
Fully Funding VET An increase in funding for VET to the levels specified by law
could increase teacher salaries, thereby reducing teacher attrition and attracting more
qualified teachers into VET.
Increase Effective University Partnerships The Ministry of Education has established
a number of degree seeking and continuing education training programs for VET teachers
at various universities. These institutes should be expanded to address the growing need
for continuing education credits for VET teachers.

21

Chinas Five Vocational Education Reform Pilot Areas: Results and

Questions
Following the 1996 Vocational Education Law, Chinas Ministry of Education (MOE), is
pursuing its mandate to vigorously pursue the development of vocational education throughout
the country.51 The MOE decided, in time honored Chinese tradition, to experiment with
vocational education reforms in pilot areas through contracting with provinces and
municipalities. 52 Initially, only Tianjin contracted with the MOE in 2005 to be a vocational
education pilot area. Sichuan, Chongqing, Hubei, and Henan agreed to do the same in 2008.53
National vocational education pilot areas are unique development mechanisms because they have
autonomy in designing programs, while agreeing to achieve a common set of general goals:
1. The development of institutions, policies, and clear lines of institutional authority within
the local government regarding the reform and development of vocational education;
2. Capacity and enrollment expansion of vocational education facilities;
3. Increased and more stable funding arrangements for vocational education facilities;
4. Equalization of educational opportunities across socioeconomic and ethnic lines;
5. Increasing the number and quality of vocational instructors; and
6. Rural vocational education reform.54
The MOEs Supervisor of Education Reform, along with experts from each of the five pilot
areas, collaborate to organize and disseminate information about the pilot projects.55 The
Supervisor collects data about the successes and failures of pilot programs, which are compiled
by offices at the highest levels of provincial or municipal governments.56 The Supervisor then
promulgates opinions about the state of vocational education reform experiments and requests
that certain priorities be emphasized in future reform experiments.57
These pilots are an interesting study in centralization versus localization because general control
over the direction of reforms in each area rests with the local governments. This is both a boon
and a detriment to Chinas national vocational education reform goals. On one hand, allowing
provincial governments to design reform programs to suit local comparative advantages and
priorities produces a variety of innovative approaches to achieving general goals listed above.
Further, the freedom to allocate resources according to specific local needs allows for closer
tailoring of solutions to problems facing vocational education reform, which do not cross
regional lines. On the other hand, decentralization and the use of pilot programs creates a
number of complications for a national education reform initiative. Results of these pilot
programs may in fact be idiosyncratic, and therefore not achievable on a national scale. Further,
the significant expenditures that are being spent on a few pilot projects may not be available for
more comprehensive reforms or wider experimentation with these programs. In China

22

specifically, decentralization of social provisions such as educational reform often means that
responsibility for funding reforms rests with the local government even as the largest share of tax
revenues goes to the central government.58 This can lead to significant budgetary challenges to
reform implementation. This section discusses the remarkable successes of the pilot areas in
achieving their common reform goals, challenges presented by pilot reform programs, and
attempts to generalize them into comprehensive reforms.

Successes of Chinas Vocational Education Reform Pilot Area Program

Institutional and Policy Development
The first task of a designated vocational education reform pilot area is to create, in laws and
regulations, the institutional framework within which the reform will progress. These measures
serve an important signaling function to officials at and below the provincial or municipal levels
regarding the seriousness of the upper levels of government regarding this issue, motivating
officials at all levels of local government to take reforms seriously as well. The measures must
also establish clear goals and lines of institutional authority in order for reform expenditures to
produce results.
Each of the pilot areas has had significant success in establishing clear rules and guidelines to
motivate and guide its vocational education reform and development projects.59 Each pilot area
implemented its own set of regulations (tiaoli), and provisions (guiding).60 Each of the
provincial pilot areas (i.e., Guangxi, Henan, and Sichuan) established coordinating guidelines for
its reforms, which were signed by the heads of city, county, and provincial level top officials. 61

Expanding Capacity and Enrollment

Chinas campaign to encourage greater enrollment in vocational educational institutions has been
immensely successful, with the proportion of students enrolled in secondary vocational schools
going from around one quarter of the number enrolled in high schools in 2000 to an enrollment
roughly equal to that of high schools in 2009.62 Pilot area programs have contributed
significantly to this success in the last several years.63 In Henan, counties that reach a certain
level of enrollment in rural vocational educational institutions receive RMB 1 million from the
provincial government.64

23

Increased Funding and More Stable Fiscal Structures

The significant increases in enrollment and capacity are evidence of increased spending on
construction and training for vocational schools across the pilot areas. Spending in several of the
pilot areas from 2006 through 2009 increased between two and twelve times.
In 2009 Henan province increased funding for vocational education generally by 20 percent and
for secondary vocational schools alone by 10 percent. 65 Since becoming a pilot area in 2008,
Henan has built 50 county level vocational education centers, 40 secondary vocational schools,
and 11 post-secondary vocational schools.66 Sichuan province spends 60 percent of its total
education budget on rural vocational education reform and development projects. Tianjin has set
aside RMB 5.5 billion for the construction of new vocational education centers within existing
schools and new vocational schools as well.67 Guangxi province has built 150 new vocational
education facilities.
These massive expenditures and construction projects have had
demonstrable success in increasing the institutional capacity and enrollment numbers of
vocational schools in their territories.
The pilot areas have allowed vocational schools to partner with state-owned and private
enterprises, to fund themselves independently from the government (e.g., be debt funded), and
even to seek partnerships with foreign enterprises.68 An upside of industry and foreign
partnership funding models is that the partners expertise and institutional capacities can help the
schools develop and improve their programs.

Equal opportunity and Financial Aid

A major goal of the vocational education reform and development initiative in China is to narrow
the significant and growing disparities in standards of living across rural and urban, ethnic, and
geographical lines through equal opportunity vocational education. To that end, pilot areas have
developed financial aid programs to target their poorest and most disadvantaged residents.69
These have included the poorest rural residents, minority groups, military families, and those
displaced by Chinas damming projects. The groups targeted vary somewhat across provinces,
which shows sensitivity to the specific socioeconomic hierarchies present in their territories.70

Increasing the Number and Quality of Vocational Instructors

Each of the pilot areas has taken action to remedy the fundamental problem of a dearth of
qualified vocational instructors.71 This problem is addressed in depth in the Teacher Shortage
section of this report, so only a brief survey of actions in each of the pilot areas will be included
24

here. Guangxi, Henan, and Chongqing have all promulgated new measures and standards for the
training of vocational instructors since 2008.72 Other pilot areas have sought to attract vocational
instructors with technical skills from within industry. Hubei established a position for technical
professionals to teach part-time on two-year contracts for RMB 20 thousand per year.73 Fifty of
these positions are opened every year.74 Guangxi has, since 2008, spent over RMB 30 million to
educate fifteen thousand vocational instructors and to send its best instructors abroad for further
education in their fields of technical expertise.75

Rural Vocational Education Development

Rural vocational education reform has been a high priority in each of the pilot areas. Henan
increased rural vocational school enrollment by offering each of its counties RMB 1 million for
enrolling a specific number of new students each year. The province increased its enrollment by
fifty-five thousand students per year from 2006 through 2009.76 Guangxi has constructed more
county-level vocational schools in an effort to increase rural enrollment, and it has had these
schools focus on skills related to its agricultural economy.77 Hubei and Chonqing have each
implemented special programs to target immigrants from the Three Gorges area. 78 In 2009 these
programs provided 35 thousand immigrants training in technical skills, provided around 110
thousand with practical agricultural skills, and helped eleven thousand rejoin the workforce.79
Tianjins rural vocational education projects have focused on adult education facilities and have
been so successful that the national government has designated them exemplars for national adult
education reform. Sichuan province has spent 60 percent of its funding for vocational education
development on rural areas.80

Problems with the Pilot Programs: Interpreting and Implementing Successes

Problems of interpreting and implementing the successes of Chinas pilot programs in vocational
education reform include general problems associated with pilot programs and specific problems
that arise in China.
General problems of interpreting and implementing pilot programs come from their hypothetical
nature. States are able to spend as much as they like on a very few experimental programs, but
they often find the successes of those programs are conditional on unusually high government
investment.81 Further, and especially with regard to projects to reform types of social provisions
such as education, there can be political pressure to implement obvious successes of these
programs more generally.82
Problems of pilot programs specific to China and its vocational education reform have to do with
its governmental structure and incentives built into that structure.83 Pilot programs are a boon to
25

local governments who can get them, because they represent an opportunity to bring funds from
the central government back to their locality. This is especially important in a fiscal setting in
which 60 percent of tax revenues go to the central government and yet responsibility for social
provision is increasingly placed on local governments.84
Further, China is so diverse in terms of the ethnic, cultural, and regional identities, as well as the
daily needs of its population, that the government must discern between pilots successes that are
idiosyncratic to a specific locality and which might be replicated more broadly in a national
reform campaign.

26

Policy Recommendations for Further Reforms

The decentralization of vocational education reform responsibilities in China has produced a
number of important successes, but it has been plagued at the same time by an inability for local
governments to allocate sufficient resources to the reforms to meet centrally promulgated goals
and guidelines.
The successes of localization are primarily due to the capacity of motivated local actors to push
reforms in ways that are directly responsive to the demands of their economies. China is
socially, culturally, and economically diverse across its national territory to an extent that
localizing reforms has real benefits for making them effective. The successes of the pilot
programs, and the difficulties of generalizing them nationally, suggest that local governments
themselves should take charge of planning and implementing reforms.
Conversely, local governments are not capable, in the absence of central governmental support,
to invest the significant resources required to achieve the successes that China saw in its
vocational education reform pilot programs. Large central government expenditures, particularly
in capital-intensive infrastructure development, must supplement the planning and
implementation of vocational education reforms carried out at the local level.
At present, funding vocational education reform falls primarily to local governments as one-half
of their responsibility to meet central guidelines for VET reform. This is reflective of the
relationship between the center and localities in most forms of social welfare provision in China.
The increasing localization of the burden of social welfare provision has not, however, coincided
with a concomitant increase in the local share of government revenue. In fact tax reforms since
1994 have shifted the official tax revenue sharing relationship between central and local
governments to approximately a 60/40 relationship, respectively. The central government must,
therefore, take on the investment responsibility for funding VET reforms while keeping the
responsibility for implementation within the local government.
A problem with this sort of responsibility sharing is that it risks rent-seeking behaviors by local
governments, which are cash-strapped as they attempt to implement a host of other social
provision obligations. Pilot programs again offer a solution to this problem in their use of
written agreements between local and central governments, which lay out the terms of the
investment and standards local governments must achieve to receive further investment. The
benefits of such agreements are:
1. Acknowledgment and approval by the central government for local government
autonomy in planning and implementing reforms.

27

2. Central government articulation of minimum standards for continued investment, which

accords with central goals.
3. The prestige and signaling value of such an arrangement, which will ensure its
prioritization in the local governments agendas.

28

Cheung, E. (1996). Higher vocational education in China in response to the changing needs of
the labor market beyond 2000. Industry and Higher Education, 10(4): 261-63.
2
Ibid.
3
Dai, S. (1991). The development of higher vocational and technical education in China.
Chinese Education, 24(1): 8-26.
4
Levin, J. (2001). Globalizing the Community College: Strategies for Changes in the Twenty
first Century. New York: Palgrave/St. Martins Press.
5
Minister of Education, Administrative Policies. Accessed at:
http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_280/index.html
6
School Homepage, http://www.ntvc.edu.cn.
7
Story, J. (2003). China: The Race to Market. London: Prentice Hall.
8
Nantong. Accessed at: http://nantong.jiangsu.net.
9
Yang, Xiucheng. (2007). Vocationalizing secondary schooling in an era of globalization: The
Chinese experience. Brigham Young University, 2007.
10
Prepare Skills for the Future. China Daily, March 17, 2011.
http://www.china.org.cn/opinion/2011-03/17/content_22163224.htm
11
China to step up vocational training to boost employment. Xinhua, September 28, 2010.
http://www.china.org.cn/china/2010-09/28/content_21023141.htm
12
Prepare Skills for the Future. China Daily, March 17, 2011.
http://www.china.org.cn/opinion/2011-03/17/content_22163224.htm
13
Hao, Yan. Chinas Vocational Education And Training: The Next Key Target Of Education
Promotion. EAI Background Brief No. 516. East Asian Institute, National University of
Singapore. April 1, 2010.
14
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association. Adult
Education and Learning in China: Development and Present Situation. July 30, 2008. 55.
15
Hao, Yan. (2010).
16
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association.
17
Yang, Xiucheng. (2007). Vocationalizing secondary schooling in an era of globalization: The
Chinese experience. Brigham Young University, 2007.
18
The World Bank. (2000). Vocational Education and Training Reform. Accessed at: http://0elibrary.worldbank.org.lib.bus.umich.edu/content/book/9780195215908
19
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association.
20
Ibid.
21
Yunxing, Zhang. China underscores importance of vocational education. China.org.cn,
April 22, 2009. http://www.china.org.cn/china/news/2009-04/22/content_17648208.htm
22
Yuan, Xie. Vocational Training in China and Relevant Policy Measures Department of
Vocational Capacity Building, Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security.
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2009/ADB-PRC-Education/China-Policy-Measures.pdf.
29

23

Hao, Yan. (2010).

China to step up vocational training to boost employment. Xinhua, September 28, 2010.
http://www.china.org.cn/china/2010-09/28/content_21023141.htm
25
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association.
26
Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China. Vocational Education in China.
October 20, 2006. http://www.china.org.cn/living_in_china/studying/200812/08/content_16916381.htm.
27
Yuan, Xie.
28
Ibid.
29
Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. (September 2010).
China's Human Resources. http://www.bjreview.com.cn/document/txt/201010/13/content_303463_3.htm.
30
Gill, Indermit S., Amit Dar, and Fred Fluitman, eds. Vocational Education and Training
Reform: Matching Skills to Markets and Budgets. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2000. Print.
162.
31
China. Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security. Department of Vocational Capacity
Building. The Role of Providers in Training For Employees in China. By Tian Feng. Print, 5
32
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association, 40
33
Gill, Indermit S., Amit Dar, and Fred Fluitman, 162
34
Gill, Indermit S., Amit Dar, and Fred Fluitman, 165
35
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association, 38
36
Chinese Commission for UNESCO and Chinese Adult Education Association, 39
37
Department of Vocational Capacity Building, 5.
38
2005, August. The Practical Skills Training Center for Rural Women. Rural Women. Web. 25
Apr. 2011. http://www.nongjianv.org/english/aboutus/school.html.
39
Dalby, Chris. "Vocational Education A New Chance for Students?" China.org.cn - China
News, Weather, Business, Travel & Language Courses. 14 Dec. 2006. Web. 20 Apr. 2011.
http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/192407.htm.
40
Dalby, Chris. "Vocational Education A New Chance for Students? "China.org.cn - China
News, Weather, Business, Travel & Language Courses. 14 Dec. 2006. Web. 20 Apr. 2011.
http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/192407.htm.
41
Xu, Shuo and Wang, Jianchu. Vocational Teacher Education and Training in China. Bangkok,
Thailand: RCP Project Comparative Study of Vocational Teacher Education and Training, 19
Nov. 2009. PDF.
42
Zhang, Wei. "Issues of Practical Teaching in Vocational-Technical Schools in China and Their
Countermeasures." International Education Studies. Canadian Center of Science and Education,
Nov. 2009. Web. 20 Apr. 2011.
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/view/4124/3558
24

30

43

"Vocational Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China." Ministry of Education of the
People's Republic of China. Web. 20 Apr. 2011.
http://202.205.177.9/edoas/en/level3.jsp?tablename=1242700726117393&infoid=124831537875
9686&title=Vocational%20Education%20Law%20of%20the%20People%A1%AFs%20Republi
c%20of%20China.
44
Xu, Shuo and Wang, Jianchu. Vocational Teacher Education and Training in China. Bangkok,
Thailand: RCP Project Comparative Study of Vocational Teacher Education and Training, 19
Nov. 2009. PDF.
45
"Institute of Vocational and Technical Education." Schools and Departments. Tongji
University. Web. 20 Apr. 2011.
http://www.tongji.edu.cn/english/academics/Institute%20of%20Vocational%20and%20Technica
l%20Education.asp
46
Conneel, Nancy. Teacher Shortage Undermines CTE. National Association of State Directors
of Career Technical Education Consortium, Aug. 2009. PDF.
47
Olson, Elizabeth. "Veterans Find Jobs With Help From Corporate Gifts - NYTimes.com." The
New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. 10 Nov. 2010. Web. 20 Apr.
2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/11/giving/11VETS.html?_r=1.
48
Conneel, Nancy. (2009).
49
Gray, Kenneth C. Reforming Career and Technical Education Teacher Licensure and
Preparation: A Public Policy Synthesis. Columbus, OH: National Dissemination Center for
Career and Technical Education College of Education, 2001. PDF.
50
Conneel, Nancy. (2009).
51
Chinese Ministry of Education, National Education Report on the Five Vocational Education
Reform Pilot Areas. [In Chinese.] (2011). Available at:
http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_764/201104/xxgk_116426.html
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
56
Ibid.
57
Ibid.
58
Ibid.
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid.
63
Ibid.
64
Ibid.

31

65

Ibid.
Ibid.
67
Ibid.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid.
70
Ibid.
71
Ibid.
72
Ibid.
73
Ibid.
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid.
76
Ibid.
77
Ibid.
78
Ibid.
79
Ibid.
80
Ibid.
81
Rauner, Felix and Rupert MacLean. Handbook of Technical Vocational Education and
Training Research. Germany: Springer Science and Business Media B.V. (2009). pp. 315-17.
82
Ibid.
83
Hu, Tianlong. Reforming Chinas Tax Law System. Dissertation on file with the author
(2011).
84
Ibid.
66

32