F9-CS-CH4-FM - Part 1-3

12/4/2009
EEN 303 Communication Systems

BETM (Fall 2009)
Frequency
Modulation
Engr. Humera Rafique
Assistant Professor (CS & Engineering)

Bahria University, Karachi Campus
humerarafqiue@bimcs.edu.pk
Course web: http://dcs.telecom.googlepages.com/communicatio
http://dcs.telecom.googlepages.com/communicationnsystems
CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication

4-Dec-09
Systems
Text and Reference 2
Text
1. Communication Electronics:
Electronics: (2/e) Louis E. Frenzel
2. Modern Electronic Communication
Communication:: (8/e) Beasley/Miller
Reference
1. Principles of Electronic Communication Systems (3/e) Louis E.
Frenzel
2. Electronic Communication Systems (4/e) Canedy
4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems
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12/4/2009
Chapter Contents 3
• CH4: Fundamentals of Frequency

Modulation
1. Angle Modulation
2. Basic principle of Frequency modulation
3. Principle of Phase modulation
4. Modulation index and sidebands
5. Noise suppression effects of FM
6. FM versus AM
7. Disadvantages of FM
Angle Modulation
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Angle Modulation
Three parameters of a carrier sinusoid can be varied to allow it to carry a low
frequency intelligence signal:
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
1. Amplitude modulation
2.3. Angle modulation
Angle Modulation:
Super imposing the intelligence signal on a
high frequency carrier so that its phase angle
or frequency is altered as a function of
amplitude of intelligence signal
Types of Angle Modulation:

a. Frequency modulation
Fig. 4-1: AM, FM & PM
b. Phase modulation
6
Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation:
‘An angle modulation in which an information signal changes the frequency of a
carrier proportional to its amplitude’
Phase Modulation:
‘An angle modulation where the phase angle of a carrier is caused to depart from its
reference value by an amount proportional to the modulating signal’s amplitude’
• Usually PM is not used as the transmission signal , but

– Helps in generating FM
– Helps to understand noise characteristics of FM as compared to AM
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FM: Basic Principle
8
Basics Principle of FM
Fig. 4-2: AM & FM Techniques
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Time domain AM & FM waveforms
1
0.5
Intelligence
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.5
AM
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
0.5
FM
-0.5
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Fig. 4-3: Modulation Techniques: AM & FM (constant amplitude

intelligence)
10
Fig. 4-4: FM: Variable amplitude intelligence

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11
• In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant & the carrier frequency is
changed by the modulating signal
• As the amplitude of the intelligence signal varies, the carrier frequency shift
proportionally
• if vm(t) ↑ => the fc ↑ & if vm(t) ↓ => the fc ↓ (Note: The reverse
relationship is also allowed)
• When intelligence signal = 0 => fc = fc = centre or resting frequency of carrier

frequency
• As the modulating signal’s amplitude varies between +ve & -ve peaks,
passing via zero values, carrier frequency changes above & below its normal,
‘centre’, or ‘resting’ value
Frequency deviation
• The amount of change in carrier frequency occurs due to modulating signal
(max deviation @ maximum amplitude)
12
Frequency deviation rate:
• How many times per second the carrier frequency deviates above & below the
carrier/centre frequency
Time domain FM signals
• fm determines fd i.e., 1
Information
if modulating signal: fm , then, 0
fc shifts above & below the centre

-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
frequency, fm times per second
1
Carrier
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
1
FM
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Fig. 4-5: FM
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A simple FM generator:
• Simple FM transmitter
• Components:
i. LC tank circuit
Oscillator
ii. Oscillator
iii. FM transmitting antenna
Fig. 4-6: Modulation Techniques
• The capacitance of LC tank circuit is not a standard capacitor, but a capacitor

microphone (or condenser mike i.e., a variable capacitor)
• With no sound waves at mike, its capacitor remains constant while for sound
waves, its plates move in and out alternatively and its capacitance goes up and
down around its centre value
• The rate of capacitance change is equal to frequency of the sound waves

striking the mike and the amount of capacitance change is proportional to the
amplitude of the sound waves
14
FM Generation Mechanism:
Fig. 4-6 (a):

FM Generation mechanism
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Time: 0 – T1:
• Intelligence signal = zero amplitude
• Carrier remains unchanged
Time: T1 – T2:
• Intelligence signal’s amplitude: zero to +ve peak
• Oscillator’s frequency changes from its centre value to highest value
respectively
Time: T2 – T3:
• Intelligence signal’s amplitude gradually decreases from +ve peak to zero
• Oscillator's frequency its highest value to centre value
Time: T3 – T4:
• Intelligence signal’s amplitude goes from zero to –ve peak
• Oscillator's frequency gradually decreases from centre value to a lowest value
16
FM Generation Mechanism (contd..):
Time: T4 – T5:
• Intelligence signal’s amplitude goes zero again
• Oscillator's frequency gradually goes to its central value
• The relationship of FM generation with capacitor microphone is:
intelligence signal
f out = f c + kvm . . . . . (4-1)
instantaneous deviation constant
output frequency
carrier frequency
• k : “how much the carrier frequency will deviate for a given modulating input
voltage level” (kHz/volt)
• k vm = total deviation
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FM Generation Mechanism: Time domain AM & FM waveforms
1
0.5
Intelligence
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Fig. 4-6 (b): FM signal

with square wave as intelligence 1
0.5
FM
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
18
Fig. 4-6 (c): FM signal with variable square wave

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FM Generation Mechanism: Time domain FM waveform
1
0.5
Intelligence
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Fig. 4-6 (d): FM signal

1
with saw tooth wave as intelligence
0.5
FM
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
20
Example (4-1): (Miller)
A 25-mV sinusoid at a frequency of 400 Hz is applied to a capacitor microphone
FM generator. If the deviation constant for the capacitor microphone FM generator
is 750 Hz/10mV, determine:
(a) The frequency deviation generated by an input level of 25 mV

(b) The rate at which the carrier frequency is being deviated
(c) Output frequency, if fc = 50 kHz
Example (4-2): (Frenzel 2/e p.71)

71)
For a carrier of 50 MHz, find the total frequency deviation, if the peak amplitude of
the modulating signal causes a maximum frequency shift of 200 kHz.
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Example (4-3): (Frenzel 3/e) p.153
A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The maximum FM deviation is
+/- 12.5 kHz. What are the maximum and minimum frequencies that occur during
Modulation?
Example (4-4):
An FM signal has a centre frequency of 100 MHz, but is swinging between 100.001
MHz & 99.999 MHz at a rate of 100 times per second. Determine:
(a) fm
(b) Vm
(c) What happens to amplitude of intelligence if the frequency deviation changes
to between 100.002 & 99.998 MHz.
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PM: Basic Principle
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Basics Principle of PM
• A method to produce FM, by varying the amount of phase shift of a constant
frequency carrier in accordance with a modulating signal
• Phase shift: a time separation between two (sine) waves of same frequency
• A Phase modulator is a circuit that causes a phase shift in a sinusoid in

accordance with the amplitude of a modulating signal such that
• The amplitude of the intelligence ↑, the phase shift ↑ and vise versa
• Further, for positive amplitudes of modulating signal: lagging phase shift and,
for negative values, a leading phase shift
• In other words, the output of a phase shifter (PM) is delayed, delay increases
with the amplitude of modulating signal, if the input is a ‘constant-frequency-
constant-amplitude’ sinusoid carrier
24
Fig. 4-7: PM
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Fig. 4-8: Modulations: (a) AM (b) FM (c) PM

26
Fig. 4-9: PM: variable amplitude intelligence

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Modulation Index &

Sidebands
28
Modulation Index & Sidebands
Frequency Spectrum of FM FM::
• All modulation processes produce sidebands
• Like AM, in FM/PM, side bands are ‘sum & difference of the carrier &
modulating frequencies’
• Other (theoretical) infinite pairs of upper & lower side bands
• FM/PM wider than equivalent AM (broadband FM)
• Special signal, whose BW slightly wider than that of AM (Narrowband FM)
Carrier
LSBs USBs
fc
fc-7fm fc-5fm fc-3fm fc - fm fc+2fm fc+4fm fc+6fm
Fig. 4-10 : Frequency spectrum of FM signal (single frequency modulating)

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Frequency Spectrum of FM (Contd..
(Contd..)):
• Frequency will change if the amplitude of modulating signal varies
• Number of side bands produced , their amplitudes & their spacing depend on:
i. Frequency deviation (δ)
ii. Modulating signal’s frequency ( fm )
• Among infinite number of side bands, only larger amplitude side bands carry
useful information
• An insignificant side band’s amplitude < 1% of un-modulated carrier’s amplitude
• The above fact narrows the FM spectrum to a finite extent
30
Modulation Index of FM :
• The ratio of frequency deviation (δ) to the modulating frequency ( fm )
Maximum frequency shift in

δ
mf = carrier caused by intelligence
. . . . . . . . . (4-2)
fm
Modulation Index
Modulating frequency
• ↑ mf, wider the FM band width
• Modulation index is called ‘deviation ration’ if computer using equation (4-2)
• If mf is known, amplitudes and number of significant side bands can be

computed, using ‘Bessel function’
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Bessel function
function::
Table 4-1 : Bessel function based carrier & side band amplitudes for different values of mf
32
Total band width of FM :
• Two methods:
i. Total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by mf & ‘Bessel function
table’
BW = 2 Nf m max
. . . . . . . . . (4-3)
N : number of significant side bands
ii. Carson’s rule:

rule:
An equation to approximate the bandwidth of an FM signal:
(
BW 2 δ max + f mmax ) . . . . . . . . (4-4)
max. frequency shift caused

by the intelligence signal
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33
Measurement of frequency deviation:
deviation:
• Method is called ‘zero
zero carrier amplitude
amplitude’
• Generated FM is observed on spectrum analyzer
• At the point where carrier’s amplitude becomes zero, number of side bands are
noted down
• Number of side bands -> Modulation index (Bessel function table)
Carrier
mf = 0.5
Carrier
mf = 1.0
Carrier
mf = 2.0
Fig. 4-11: FM Spectrum

34
Example (4-5):
Highest modulating frequency = 2 kHz, carrier deviation = 5 kHz. Find the number of
usable side bands.
Example (4-6): Frenzel

Find the modulation Index:
(a) The maximum frequency deviation of a carrier in FM is ± 25 kHz with
modulating frequency is 10 kHz .
(b) The maximum frequency deviation of a carrier in FM is ± 75 kHz with
modulating frequency is 15 kHz .
Example (4-7): Frenzel

Highest modulating frequency = 2.5 kHz, modulation index = 2. Find the total
bandwidth occupied by FM signal.
Example (4-8):
In zero carrier amplitude method, 9 side bands are visible on a spectrum analyzer
showing FM signal. If modulating frequency = 100 kHz, find frequency deviation.
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Example (4-9):
Determine the bandwidth required to transmit an FM signal, if maximum deviation
δ = 20 kHz : (a) fm = 10 kHz (b) fm = 5 kHz
Example (4- 10)

10): For broadcast FM radio, compute DR.
Example (4-11
11)):
(a) Determine the permissible range in maximum modulation index for
commercial FM that has 30 Hz – 15 kHz modulating frequencies
(b) Repeat for a narrow band system that allows a maximum deviation of 1 kHz
and 100 Hz to 2 kHz modulating frequency
(c) Determine the deviation ratio for the system in part (b)
Example (4-12)
12):
Determine the relative and total power of the carrier & side frequency bands when
mf = 0.25 for a 10 kW FM transmitter.
36
FM Classification
Broadband FM (BBFM/WBFM):
(BBFM/WBFM):
• Standard FM broadcast bandwidth: 200 kHz for each station (one FM band may
contain many AM channels)
• Such a large allocation is needed:

– High Fi modulating signal up to 15 kHz
– Having superior noise performance
• Maximum allowed deviation in fc : ± 75 kHz for significant side bands

• Guard bands” to help minimizing inter-channel interference: 25 kHz
200 kHz 200 kHz
-75 kHz Carrier 1 +75 kHz -75 kHz Carrier 2 +75 kHz
Fig. 4-12: Commercial FM bandwidth allocation for two adjacent stations
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FM Classification
Broadband FM (contd..
(contd..)):
• DR: (deviation ratio): maximum possible frequency deviation over the maximum
input frequency:
max. possible freq. deviation δ max . . . . . . . . (4-4)
DR = =
max. input freq. f m(max)
• If DR > 1 => wideband FM system

• If DR < 1 => narrow band FM system
Narrowband FM (NBFM):
(NBFM):
• Band allocation : 10-30 kHz
• Modulation index: 0.5 – 1.0
• Use for voice transmission (intelligence of 3 kHz) in systems such as
Applications:
Police help line, Aircrafts, Taxi cabs, Weather services, Private industrial
networks
38
Analysis of FM & PM
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39
Analysis of FM & PM
Maximum phase shift by
the intelligence signal (radians)
vφ ( t ) = A p sin( ω c t + m p sin ω m ) . . . . . . . (4-5)

Phase modulated
instantaneous voltage Carrier frequency Modulating frequency
(radians) (radians)
Peak value of
un-modulated carrier
Modulating index of FM (measure of maximum

frequency phase shift in carrier’s frequency)
vFM (t ) = Ap sin(ωc t + m f sin ωm ) . . . . . . . (4-6)

Frequency modulated
instantaneous voltage
Carrier frequency Modulating frequency
(radians) (radians)
Peak value of
un-modulated carrier Maximum frequency shift in
δ
mf = carrier caused by intelligence
fi
40
Analysis of FM & PM
• FM is not sensitive to intelligence signal’s frequency but PM
• In FM the amount of frequency deviation produced in carrier, does not

depend on the intelligence’s frequency but in PM
• The amount of deviation is proportional to the intelligence signal’s amplitude

for both PM & FM
f f FM
Deviation (δ)
Deviation (δ)
0 Vm 0 fm
Fig. 4-11: Relationship b/w deviation & modulating
signal amplitude & frequency for FM & PM
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41
Analysis of FM & PM
Example (4-13)
13):
An FM signal, 2000 sin(2π 108 t + 2 sin (π 104 t)), is applied to a 50-Ω antenna.
Determine:
(a) fc
(b) fm
(c) PT
(d) mf
(e) BW
(f) Power in the largest & smallest sidebands predicted by table (4-1)
42
Noise Suppression
Effects of FM
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43
Noise Suppression Effects of FM
• Noise : an interference by:
– Lightning
– Motors
– Automotive ignition systems
– Transient signals by power line switching
• Such noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with very high frequencies
• Add to a signal and interfere with it
• Usually changes its amplitude
• FM has superior noise characteristics than AM

• e.g., static noise is rarely heard on FM (although quite common in AM)
FM limiters:
• A stage in FM receivers that removes any amplitude variations of the received
signal before next stage
• If limiters do not remove all noise completely, the remaining noise spikes
produce a small frequency variations or phase shifts
44
FM
Limiter/
Detector
AM
Detector
Fig. 4-12: FM, AM noise comparison
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• This unwanted noise produces PM, which in terns produce unwanted FM
• The amount of frequency deviation (FM) caused by PM is:
Modulating
Frequency frequency
deviation
δ = φ × fm . . . . . . . (4-7)
Phase shift
in radians
46
FM Noise analysis
S : desired signal
N : noise signal = ½ S => S/N = 2:1
R : resultant signal
• The phase shift b/w noise and signal is given by:
N
φ = sin −1   . . . . . . . (4-8)
S
½S Rotating vector
Φ
Φ
S S
Fig. 4-13: (a) Phase shift as a result of noise (b) Maximum phase shift condition
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FM Noise analysis
General equation for phase shift:
δ ( worst ) = (φrad ) f m . . . . . . . (4-9
The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise & signal phasors are at a right angle
to each other (worst case):
( )
φ = sin −1 1 2 = 30o = 0.5236 rad
Then,
worst case frequency deviation (from eq(4-7)):
δ ( worst ) = 0.5236 f m . . . . . . . (4-9-a)
For improved SNR of an FM system:
N freq. dev. produced by noise . . . . . . . (4-10)

=
S max. allowed dev.
48
FM Noise analysis
Example (4-14)
14):
If modulating frequency = 15 kHz, find worst case deviation in FM system, if input
SNR is 2.
Example (4-15)
15):
Modulating frequency = 800 Hz. The SNR = 3:1. Determine the frequency deviation
produced.
Example (4-16)
16):
Determine the worst case output SNR for a broadcast FM that has a maximum
modulating frequency of 5 kHz. The input SNR is 2.
Example (4-17)
17):
The input SNR of an FM receiver is 2.8. the modulating frequency is 1.5 kHz. The
maximum permitted deviation is 4 kHz. Find:
(a) Frequency deviation caused by the noise
(b) The improved output SNR
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Pre--Emphasis
Pre
• A voice signal is band limited to 3 kHz (low frequency)
• Musical instruments have almost low frequency components but some of them
contain high frequency components as well
• Thus an audio Hi Fi system must have wider band width to represent all
• Noise interfere FM signal, particularly at higher frequencies

• Noise primarily is sharp spikes of energy, it contains a lot of harmonics & other
high frequency components
• These components are larger in magnitude than the high frequency components
of modulating signal
• High frequency components of information signals are usually at low amplitude

levels
• To overcome this problem, most FM systems use a technique ‘Pre-Emphasis’ to

deal with high frequency noise problem
50
Pre--Emphasis
Pre
C
FM Pre-emphasis
R1 Modulator FM output
R2
R1 + R2
fu =
2π R1 R2C
Pre-emphasis
circuit Fig. 4-14: (a) FM with pre-emphasis circuit
A(dB)
dB/octave
≥ 30 kHz
3 dB
0 dB
Fig. 4-14 (b) :
f1 fu f (Hz) Pre-emphasis curve
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51
Pre--Emphasis
Pre
De-emphasis
FM in R circuit
FM Audio out
demodulator
C 1
fL =
2π RC
Fig. 4-15 (a) : FM demodulator with De-emphasis circuit
A(dB)
0 dB
-3 dB
Fig. 4-15 (b) :

De-emphasis curve
fL f (Hz)
52
Pre--Emphasis
Pre
A(dB)
+3 dB
0 dB
-3 dB
fa f (Hz)
Fig. 4-16: Combined frequency response
26

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12/4/2009

EEN 303 Communication Systems

Assistant Professor (CS & Engineering)

CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication

Text and Reference 2

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

• CH4: Fundamentals of Frequency

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Types of Angle Modulation:

• Usually PM is not used as the transmission signal , but

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

FM: Basic Principle

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-2: AM & FM Techniques

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-3: Modulation Techniques: AM & FM (constant amplitude

Fig. 4-4: FM: Variable amplitude intelligence

• When intelligence signal = 0 => fc = fc = centre or resting frequency of carrier

if modulating signal: fm , then, 0

fc shifts above & below the centre

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-6: Modulation Techniques

• The capacitance of LC tank circuit is not a standard capacitor, but a capacitor

• The rate of capacitance change is equal to frequency of the sound waves

Fig. 4-6 (a):

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

• The relationship of FM generation with capacitor microphone is:

Fig. 4-6 (b): FM signal

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-6 (c): FM signal with variable square wave

Fig. 4-6 (d): FM signal

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

(a) The frequency deviation generated by an input level of 25 mV

Example (4-2): (Frenzel 2/e p.71)

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

PM: Basic Principle

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

• A Phase modulator is a circuit that causes a phase shift in a sinusoid in

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-8: Modulations: (a) AM (b) FM (c) PM

Fig. 4-9: PM: variable amplitude intelligence

Modulation Index &

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-10 : Frequency spectrum of FM signal (single frequency modulating)

• An insignificant side band’s amplitude < 1% of un-modulated carrier’s amplitude

• The above fact narrows the FM spectrum to a finite extent

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Maximum frequency shift in

• ↑ mf, wider the FM band width

• Modulation index is called ‘deviation ration’ if computer using equation (4-2)

• If mf is known, amplitudes and number of significant side bands can be

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

N : number of significant side bands

ii. Carson’s rule:

max. frequency shift caused

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Fig. 4-11: FM Spectrum

Example (4-6): Frenzel

Example (4-7): Frenzel

4-Dec-09 CH:4 FM EEN303 Communication Systems

Example (4- 10)