Theory

Traits

Constructivist/
Individual

Constructivist/Social Situated

Theoretical
Basis

Psychological Individual
constructivism is a theory
describing how learning
happens, regardless of
whether learners are using
their experiences to
understand a lecture or
following the instructions
for building a model
airplane. In both cases, the
theory of constructivism
suggests that learners
construct knowledge out of
their experiences.
Cognitive/Psychological
Constructivist
Knowledge is gained
through experiences. We are
active creators of our own
knowledge through learning.

Social Situated

(Concerned with Individual

Cognitive Development)
a theory of knowledge that
argues that humans generate
knowledge and meaning
from an interaction between
their experiences and their
ideas.
When individuals
assimilate, they incorporate
the new experience into an
already existing framework
without changing that
framework. This may occur
when individuals'

Social/Constructivist
(Includes: Beliefs, Self
Perceptions,Expectations of Society)
Knowledge is actively constructed and
learning is presented as a process
Learning takes place the day we are
born.

Personal Evaluation
Provide your personal evaluation and experience for
each category. Pros/Cons Explain what works and what
does not. Include how this theory looks in school
setting.

Theorists

experiences are aligned with

their internal representations
of the world, but may also
occur as a failure to change
a faulty understanding; for
example, they may not
notice events, may
misunderstand input from
others, or may decide that an
event is a fluke and is
therefore unimportant as
information about the world.
In contrast, when
individuals' experiences
contradict their internal
representations, they may
change their perceptions of
the experiences to fit their
internal representations.
According to the theory,
accommodation is the
process of reframing one's
mental representation of the
external world to fit new
experiences.
Accommodation can be
understood as the
mechanism by which failure
leads to learning: when we
act on the expectation that
the world operates in one
way and it violates our
expectations, we often fail,
but by accommodating this
new experience and
reframing our model of the
way the world works, we
learn from the experience of
failure, or others' failure.

Piaget
articulated mechanisms by
which knowledge is

Vygotsky, Dewey
Suchman, Bruner, Sternberg, Slavin
Johnson Cooperative Lerning

internalized by learners. He
suggested that through
processes of accommodation
and assimilation, individuals
construct new knowledge
from their experiences.
Developmental theory,
through a process of
accommodation assimilation
students learns by doing.

Dewey
Education an life are
interrelated, not separate.
Children learn best by
doing, by acting on the
world
Continuity of experience is
essential to growth.
Suchman, Bruner, Sternberg,
Slavin
Johnson Cooperative Lerning

Other constructivist scholars

agree with this and
emphasize that individuals
make meanings through the
interactions with each other
and with the environment
they live in. Knowledge is
thus a product of humans
and is socially and culturally
constructed (Ernest 1991;
Prawat and Floden 1994).
McMahon (1997) agrees
that learning is a social
process. He further states
that learning is not a process
that only takes place inside
our minds, nor is it a passive
development of our
behaviors that is shaped by

Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the

convergence of the social and practical
elements in learning by saying that the
most significant moment in the course
of intellectual development occurs
when speech and practical activity, two
previously completely independent
lines of development, converge.
Through practical activity a child
constructs meaning on an intrapersonal level, while speech connects
this meaning with the interpersonal
world shared by the child and her/his
culture.

external forces and that

meaningful learning occurs
when individuals are
engaged in social activities.
Knowledge

Changing body of
knowledge,
Individually
constructed in
social world,

Socially constructed knowledge

Built on what participants contribute,
construct together

Built on what learner

Brings

Learning

Knowledge should not be

divided into different
subjects or compartments,
but should be discovered as
an integrated whole.
This also again underlines
the importance of the
context in which learning is
presented. The world, in
which the learner needs to
operate, does not approach
one in the form of different
subjects, but as a complex
myriad of facts, problems,
dimensions, and
perceptions.
Active construction, Restructuring
prior knowledge
Occurs through multiple
opportunities and diverse
processes to connect to what is
already known
Learning is an active, social process.
Social constructivism,
strongly influenced by

Collaborative construction of socially

defined knowledge and values
Occurs through socially constructed
opportunities

Social constructivist scholars view

learning as an active process where
learners should learn to discover
principles, concepts and facts for
themselves, hence the importance of

Vygotsky's (1978) work,

suggests that knowledge is
first constructed in a social
context and is then
appropriated by individuals.
According to social
constructivists, the process
of sharing individual
perspectives-called
collaborative elaboration
results in learners
constructing understanding
together that wouldn't be
possible alone.
Teaching

Role of Teacher

encouraging guesswork and intuitive

thinking in learners In fact, for the
social constructivist, reality is not
something that we can discover
because it does not pre-exist prior to
our social invention of it. Kukla (2000)
argues that reality is constructed by
our own activities and that people,
together as members of a society,
invent the properties of the world.

Challenge,

Participant

Guide thinking toward more

complete understanding
Some learning approaches
that could harbour this
interactive learning include
reciprocal teaching, peer
collaboration, cognitive
apprenticeship, problembased instruction, web
quests, anchored instruction
and other approaches that
involve learning with others
Teaching should be guided.
The students construct their
own knowledge. This can be
done by them reflecting on
their own experiences.
Not a ton of direct
instruction
Facilitator, guide
Listen for students current
conceptions, ideas, thinking
According to the social
constructivist approach,

Co-construct knowledge with students

Facilitator, Guide, Co-participant

Co-construct different interpretation of
knowledge;
Listen to socially constructed conceptions

instructors have to adapt to the

role of facilitators and not
teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995).
Whereas a teacher gives a
didactic lecture that covers the
subject matter, a facilitator helps
the learner to get to his or her
own understanding of the
content. In the former scenario
the learner plays a passive role
and in the latter scenario the
learner plays an active role in
the learning process. The
emphasis thus turns away from
the instructor and the content,
and towards the learner
(Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett,
1998). This dramatic change of
role implies that a facilitator
needs to display a totally
different set of skills than that of
a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A
teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a
teacher lectures from the front, a
facilitator supports from the
back; a teacher gives answers
according to a set curriculum, a
facilitator provides guidelines
and creates the environment for
the learner to arrive at his or her
own conclusions; a teacher
mostly gives a monologue, a
facilitator is in continuous
dialogue with the learners
(Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A
facilitator should also be able to
adapt the learning experience in
mid-air by taking the initiative
to steer the learning experience
to where the learners want to
create value.
Help students develop their own

The learning environment should also be

designed to support and challenge the
learner's thinking (Di Vesta, 1987). While
it is advocated to give the learner
ownership of the problem and solution
process, it is not the case that any activity
or any solution is adequate. The critical
goal is to support the learner in becoming
an effective thinker. This can be achieved
by assuming multiple roles, such as
consultant and coach.
A few strategies for cooperative
learning include
Reciprocal Questioning: students work
together to ask and answer questions
Jigsaw Classroom: students become
"experts" on one part of a group
project and teach it to the others in
their group
Structured Controversies: Students work
together to research a particular controversy
(Woolfolk 2010)

thought process.
Instead of giving information,
they let the students come to
their own conclusions and
understandings.

Role of Peers

Not necessary but can stimulate

thinking, raise questions
Learners should constantly be
challenged with tasks that refer
to skills and knowledge just
beyond their current level of
mastery. This captures their
motivation and builds on
previous successes to enhance
learner confidence. This is in
line with Vygotskys zone of
proximal development, which
can be described as the distance
between the actual
developmental level (as
determined by independent
problem-solving) and the level
of potential development (as
determined through problemsolving under adult guidance or
in collaboration with more
capable peers).
Tutors and peers pay a vital
role in learning
Stimulate thinking
Raise questions

Ordinary part of process of knowledge

construction

Role of student

Active construction (within mind)

Active co-construction with others and self,

Active thinker, explainer,

interpreter, questioner
One social constructivist notion
is that of authentic or situated
learning, where the student takes
part in activities directly

Active thinker, explainer,

Interpreter,
Questioner,
Active social participator

3-5 Big ideas

in theory
concerning
teaching and
learning that
you will apply
in your
professional
practice.

relevant to the application of

learning and that take place
within a culture similar to the
applied setting (Brown et al.
1989). Cognitive apprenticeship
has been proposed as an
effective constructivist model of
learning that attempts to
"enculturate students into
authentic practices through
activity and social interaction in
a way similar to that evident,
and evidently successful, in craft
apprenticeship"
Students are viewed as thinkers
with emerging theories about the
world.
Students play a more active role.
List several Big Ideas that inform
your instructional planning you
have developed based on this
theory.
Learners do not passively absorb
info from the environment. They
actively work to make sense of
their environment and construct
their own, unique,
understandings of the world.
o Constructivism,
learning is not
passive.
o Learning is an
active approach.
o Lecturing does not
promote learning

Learners learn more effectively

when they relate new
information to prior knowledge.
Learning is enhanced when
learners engage in self-

A few strategies for cooperative learning

include
Reciprocal Questioning: students work
together to ask and answer questions
Jigsaw Classroom: students become
"experts" on one part of a group project
and teach it to the others in their group
Structured Controversies: Students work
together to research a particular
controversy (Woolfolk 2010)

Strengths and Weaknesses

Students are actively involved which
allows them to have a deeper
connection to what is being learning
and the overall learning experience.
Teachers are there to be the students
guide.
The teacher has opportunities to model
Weaknesses
The structure in the classroom is
lacking. Moving away from traditional
standard curriculum and methods
changes classroom/learning
environment.
Grading is more difficult.
Growth Mindset
Constructivism fosters GM.
Intelligence can be instructed
Actively working to solve problems,
facing challenges.
Challenging in learning may need help

Explain Big Ideas and how you applied them.

evaluation. Metacognition. We
want them to be aware of their
learning and be able to learn on
their own. Self evaluate
o We want our
students to question
what they are doing
so they can
understand the
world in their own
way.

Assessment
Type

Personal
Application
(Provide 3 or
more examples)

Explain the type of assessment

that is most appropriate for each
theoretical view of learning
According to this viewpoint
instructors should see
assessment as a continuous and
interactive process that measures
the achievement of the learner,
the quality of the learning
experience and courseware. The
feedback created by the
assessment process serves as a
direct foundation for further
development.
How do/could you apply this
theory for teaching learning?
Constructivist teachers pose
questions and problems, then
guide students to help them find
their own answers. They use
many techniques in the teaching
process. For example, they may:
prompt students to
formulate their own
questions (inquiry)
allow multiple
interpretations and
expressions of learning

from others.
Effort in activities is used to create
intelligence.
We learn more form experience.
The misuse of this theory can detract growth
mindset.
Practice makes perfect flaw. There
must be a guide. Practice makes
permanent. Student background if
ignored could detract growth. Students
with disabilities
Students may not have background
info to connect.
Authentic Assessment
Criterion-referenced test
Norm-referenced test
High School Graduation Exam
Assessments are used to enhance student
learning and teacher understanding of
student progress.
Reflective journals
Case studies
Debates

Classroom Application
A change to this classroom approach
doesnt have to be immediate.
Discovering and maintaining an
individuals intellectual identity.
Asking open ended questions and
allowing response time
Shifts
Shift in responsibility-listen to the
student and give the responsibility to
the learner.
There needs to be a shift from
textbooks to worksheets.

Add web links

for your
articles.

(multiple intelligences)
encourage group work
and the use of peers as
resources (collaborative
learning)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cons
tructivism_(philosophy_of_educati
on)
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/c
oncept2class/constructivism/index
_sub2.html
http://www.teachnology.com/currenttrends/constru
ctivism/classroom_applications/

Strategies
Students work together to help each other
answer questions.