I. FOUNDATION AND FOOTING THE FUNCTION OF A/FOUNDATION! IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND ACL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS. UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE. 3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING: ‘SUPERSTRUCTURE — WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING. SUBSTRUCTURES- WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION. FOUNDATION'— WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL. 3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES: SLAB-ON FILL C CRAWLSPACE BASEMENT 2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS: SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE. THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF ©THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE, DEEP FOUNDATIONSITRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE SUBSTRUCTURE FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES: WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING —1S A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD-TO THE SO! A.STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO §.2 TG0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL: AREA. OF CONGRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES. COLUMN FOOTING - IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES: ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING * SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING + SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING + SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING COMBINED FOOTING RECTANGULAR = TRAPEZOIDAL CONTINUOUS FOOTING + INVERTED SLAB FOOTING = _ INVERTED TEE FOOTING RAFT OR MAT FOOTING + UNIFORM SLAB «THICKENED SLAB «BEAM & GIRDER Wl POST AND COLUMN POST - REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING. COLUMN — REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS. STOREY — IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVEBEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS A) SIMPLE BEAM 8) CONTINUOUS BEAM C)_ SEMI~CONTINUOUS. [SIMPLE BEAM ~ REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT ITS ENO. WITHOODA RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS (SIMPLY ‘SUPPORTED BEAM. “RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT. [CONTINUOUS BEAM — IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO SUPPORTS.—"— ‘SEMECONTINUOUS BEAM -- REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR WITHOUT. RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS. WEB REINFORCEMENT (WEB REINFORCEMENT ISTHE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS'USED IN THE BEAM TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE. REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB: REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES: ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM it TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM RIBBED FLOORS ert, FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS ee (OnE w — ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM ‘50. METERS” ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE ULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED {TEMPE 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES. URE, IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER ffWO"WAY SLAB! - SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHE! THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF SHE SLAB SHALL NOT BE | ‘OR 10 CME NOR LESS TI TER OF THE SLA DIVIDED BY 180% REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE ‘STIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS. RIBBED FLOOR SLAB - IS AN ECONOMICAL’ TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD. ‘A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. 0.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE. THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM, THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE. =SS THAN 4 INCHI F THE SPACING OF THIIP ROOF, IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING STRAIGHT SIDES. iS TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILOING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE. {iP AND VALLEY ROOF- {S A COMBINATION OF THE HIP.ROOF AND AN INTERESTING GABLE ROOF ING AT OR L SHAPED BUILDING, THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED. 1S A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPIN NG TO TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT. ROOK- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE HAVING TWO ff IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE CENTER OF ING 'MANSARD ROO WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROMEACH SIDE OF IG TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP. FRENCH OR CONCAVE ROOF 1S A MODIFICATION OF THE MANZARD ROOF WHERE 1 THE. SIDES ‘ARE CONCAVE, IDOME~ iS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON OBNSERVATORIES. CONICAL ROOF.OR SPHIRE? IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT. TYPES OF ROOF FRAME THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE: 1 RAFTERS TYPE 2 TRUSS TYPE 3 LAMINATED TYPE THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE: + [GONIMON RAFTERS! ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT. ANGLES FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS “TTHE RIDGE. ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM, THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR GIRTS TO «VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS ‘PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS' AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF. JAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE AT THE + ACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT-EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE. JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO: 1 HIT JACKS: 2. VALLEY JACKS 3, CRIPLE JACKS JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JAGKS! THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIOGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY. JACKSI WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED,CRIPPLE JACKS. FRUSS — |S A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF UNSUPPORTED 8Y INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS.IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED ‘TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY. (BURLINS - THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OF A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.«IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS. «THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING. PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON. PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL. {METAL FORM ARE SELOOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE EXTENSIVELY USEQ. ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADE OUT OF Gi SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED 'BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS. CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE ‘STRUCTURE. «SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS, «MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS. © MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 18mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY'50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS. ‘TWO TYPES OF FRAMING: LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE ‘TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS: SQUARE RECTANGULAR CIRCULAR BEAM FORMS: CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS. TYPES OF WALL FORMS: CONTINUOUS FULL UNIT LAYER UNIT GREASING OF FORMS _ THE [PURP' = GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD, YOKE Is A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN. 'SCAFFOLDING)— WORKER'S PLATFORMPRECAST BEAMS THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING, THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE: . + RECTANGULAR BEAM «INVERTED TEE BEAM © _L-SHAPED BEAM + [AASHTO) BRIDGE GIRDER - AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND ‘TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS, ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS + | SOLID FLAT SLAB WIDE RANGES FROM 00.60M. TO 2.4M. * HOLLOW CORE SLAB ~ WIDE RANGES FROM/0.60M. TO 2.4M. + DOUBLE TEE - WIDE RANGES FROM2.4TO 3.0N, + (SINGLE TEE - WIDE RANGES FROM/2.4 TO 3.0M. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 ( RANGE FROM'S0-200mm, ~~ + AN 20Gmin" PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN. SPAN APPROXIMATELY /7.60M., 250m SLAB ‘APPROX. 9.80M., AND A'300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN + ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 4/28°OF THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE 200, 50,400,450,510,610, AND815mm. + APRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 921 TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN. - + ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND ITS SPAN: DEPTH TYPICALLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L'SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIROER JS USUALLY ABOUT % ITS DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEOGERS ‘SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP: ~ + TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN: ADD UP THE TOTAL FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. |A 250mm) COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP 185 sq.m. OF AREA, A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A 4001 AREA. A’500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A SOOMM. COLUMN FOR 740 q.m. AREA. JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND CORROSION. THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS, FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS OF HIGH. DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED. \2