Literature Review

6900..L.
Gonzalez
Access: Rural Populations & Educational Opportunities
I began with a general Google search for articles. I was able to find a lot of
anecdotal articles, from various newspapers and postings. These articles primarily
dealt with the problems Navajo tribal members in rural areas had, when trying to
access the internet for distance learning. Due to the number of entries I found
quickly, I thought that meant that there would be a lot to pull from in the academic
literature. The first two searches using UGAs Library system only yielded one
article, tangentially on target, dealing with music and distance learning. I sought
assistance from a librarian and he helped me refine my search parameters in ERIC
and use some different selections for the search. Eventually I started getting hits
that were more focused on my subject matter. I had to cull through a lot of articles
that were based on foreign studies on distance learning. I resumed my search a few
weeks later when I had to re-create my bank of articles. Suddenly there were more
hitsit appears that more articles were added to UGAs library system in the
meantime.
From my initial search via Google, I found several pertinent articles.
Landry, Alysa. (2013) Indian Country Left on Far Side of the Digital Divide. Special to
the Times.
Smithson, Shelly. (2012) Navajo Nation Implementing 4G Network. Flagstaff
Business & Online News.
Fujitsu and Sacred Wind Bring Rural Broadband to Navajo Nation. New Services
Expand Economic,
Educational Opportunities for Navajo Community. Fujitsu
Network Communications. Press Release.
Those anecdotal articles comprise a small list of the early anecdotal and
background articles I read through. I also looked at current maps of cell phone
coverage from AT&T and Verizon, as well as the NTUA (Navajo Tribal Utility
Authority) proposed coverage map. Several pilot projects based on the bold
initiative to bring expanded wireless coverage have been in progress in the past few
years.
Using rural education, reservations, access to education as my search parameters,
I found several peer reviewed articles, I read through them and chose three as the
best fit for my subject. They all deal with some aspect of Native American
populations accessing educational opportunities via distance learning/internet.
Bates, Rodger A. (2012) Distance Learning for Special Populations. Online Journal of
Distance Learning
Administration 15 (2) .

Brescia, W. & Daily, T. (2007) Economic Development and Technology-Skill Needs on

American Indian
Reservations. American Indian Quarterly. 31 (1), 23-43.
Lambert, L. (2004). Invisible Bridges: Wireless Technology Links Minds over Space
and Time. Tribal
College Journal of American Indian Higher Education. 15 (4),
14-17.

Distance Learning for Special Populations by Rodger A. Bates covers distance

education strategies for specific populations. His chosen populations are
categorized as: Military, Remote Populations, Institutionalized Populations, and
Athletes. Native Americans were included in the Remote Populations section and the
challenges faced by the Southwestern and Alaskan tribes were discussed.
The parallels between the Military and Institutionalized Populations were striking.
Both had a strong need for online security and some asynchronous strategies to
present the educational material. Military personnel go out on deployments that
may not coincide neatly with semester or quarter systems back home. If they are in
regions of turmoil, online access is monitored and restricted. The armed forces
encourage education for advancement, but it can be difficult to access during the
course of an individuals deployment. Of particular interest was Sociology in a
Sack, designed specifically for the Community College of the Air Force by New
Mexico State University. Using a combination of pre-loaded iPods, textbooks and
quizzes, the material covered what was needed for the class. The sack also included
the necessary cables, ear buds, charging station and rubberized carrying case to
protect the iPod.
Institutionalized persons are also given monitored and restricted access to the
internet. They may pursue higher education, but they are given limited access to
the internet to prevent security breaches.
Athletes were a group that I had not considered as being heavily dependent on
distance learning. Their schedules often take them away from the traditional
classroom. Down time, especially during travel, can be used to study if it has been
taken into consideration.
Remote populations, including Native American tribal members, was the section I
focused on for my subject. The author noted that wireless webs are becoming more
common on reservations and coverage is expanding. Wireless accessibility is
becoming more reliable, and it is allowing more individuals to use cell phone
services and use the internet. However specific niche populations still have to
travel distances to reach areas covered by the wireless services. They may also be
unable to readily recharge their mobile devices from home. As with the military,
portable devices pre-loaded with educational material are useful for offline learning
in asynchronous situations.

Wireless technology is cheaper to install in these remote areas than traditional

wired services. Advances in the technology have brought down the prices and
improved reliability. Using somewhat older technology methods (iPods, CDs, DVDs)
reduces the burden on a distance learner. They dont have to have constant access
to the internet or the cloud to do their work.
My initial premise, access to the internet for distance learning on Native American
reservations turned out to be too broad. There are many nuances contained within
the subject, specific populations (adults vs children); infrastructure needs beyond
the internet (electricity, cell phone services)that have to be in place for a successful
educational experience; deliberate strategies for delivering the material
(asynchronous iPod lessons, material on CDs for long distance commuters, etc.)
being just three facets of a complex issue.

Peer reviewed
Bates, Rodger A. (2012) Distance Learning for Special Populations. Online Journal of
Distance Learning Administration. (15) 2.
Brescia, W. & Daily, T. (2007) Economic Development and Technology-Skill Needs on
American Indian Reservations. American Indian Quarterly. (31) 1, 23-43.
Hebert, D. G. (2007) Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher
Education. Research and Issues in Music Education. (5) 1, 1-10.
Huffman, T. (2008) Factors Associated with the Personal Assessment of College
among American Indian Students at a Rural University. Rural Educator. (29) 3, 1829.
Huffman. T. (2011) Plans to Live on a Reservation Following College Among
American Indian Students: An Examination of Transcultural Theory. Journal of
Research in Rural Education. 26 (3) .
Lambert, Lori. (2004) Invisible Bridges: Wireless Technology Links Minds over Space
and Time. Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education. (15) 4, 14-17.
Richardson, J. W. & McLeod, S. (2011) Technology Leadership in Native American
Schools. Journal of Research in Rural Education, (26) 7.
Salant, P. & Laumatia, L. (2011) Better Together: Coeur d Alene Reservation
Communities and the University of Idaho. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and
Engagement. (15) 3, 101-112.
Simon, J. Burton, K., Lockhart, E. & ODonnell, S. (2014) Post-Secondary Distance
Education in a Contemporary Colonial Context: Experiences of Students in Rural

First Nation Canada. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Learning. (15) 1, 1-19.
Interview
Individual with personal experience working on the Navajo Reservation during early
distance learning programs. Instruction offered via the phone lines using
microphones, for specific classes. *(removed personal identifying elements.)
Background
Caputo. Ibby. (2015) Solar Power Makes Electricity more Accessible on Navajo
Reservation. NPR.
Kane, Jenny. Navajo Nation nearing completion of $46 million broadband projectFarmington Daily Times.
Landry, Alysa. (2013) Indian Country left on far side of the digital divide. Special to
the Times.
Smithson, Shelly. (2012) Navajo Nation Implementing 4G Network. Flagstaff
Business & Online News.
Fujitsu and Sacred Wind Bring Rural Broadband to Navajo Nation. New services
expand economic, Educational Opportunities for Navajo Community. Fujitsu Network
Communications Inc. Press release.
Navajo Nation-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
The State of the Nation. President Ben Shelly & Vice President Rex Lee Jim. 22 nd
Navajo Nation Council. October 21, 2013.
Verizon wireless printer friendly coverage map. Verizon wireless.
AT&T map. Domestic Wireless Data Coverage.
NTUA Wireless. Navajo Tribal Utility Authority, proposed Network Map.