24 Logical Connectors GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION Introduction With the exception of our discussion of conjoined sentences, we have restricted our examination thus far to the structural components of single sentences. In this chapter we will look beyond surface structures which comprise single sentences, and consider logical connectors—words or phrases whose function it is to show some logical relationship between two or more basic sentences or—in some cases—between a basic sentence and a noun phrase. Conjunctions and correlatives, as we have seen, have as much a syntactic as a semantic function and serve to coordinate clauses within a surface structure sentence; logical connectors have primarily a semantic, cohesive function, which holds within or between surface structure sentences (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:244), Although using logical connectors properly is essential in the production of good writing, itis also important for ESL/EFL students to be able to recognize their function while reading and listening, and itis also important for the students to control the more common ones while speaking. Tomiyama (1980) found that native speakers were less able to correct ESL learners’ global errors related to the use of connectors than their “local”! errors such as problems with article usage. The explanation for this given by Tomiyama is that the connector errors so distorted the intended message that the native speakers were unable to reconstruct the clausal relationship the author/speaker had attempted to convey. Producing logical connectorsis often more challenging than might at first be apparent. In addition to the usual semantic and syntactic knowledge students must possess in order to use logical connectors appropriately, they must also have a sensitivity to register. Having a sensitivity to register means that students must know, for example, if they are introducing an “effect clause,” when to use a formal connector such asin consequence, and when the situation calls for a more informal connector such as so. One of the things that marks speakers as nonnative is their producing a logical connector of an inappropriate register. In any kind of informal situation, a native speaker of English would be surprised to hear somebody say notwithstanding the fact that to express the notion of concession. A connector such as even though would be much more likely. 1. The terms “local” and “global” errors come from the work of Burt and Kiparsky (1974).324. THE GRAMMAR BOOK Although logical connectors are probably best presented to a class group by group spread out over an entire term, we will treat them together here to facilitate classification and discussion. A functional classification of logical connectors Typically, logical connectors are presented according to the function they fulfill. The following, although not an exhaustive list, is an enumeration of the most common functions which logical connectors can express. We have chosen to follow Secord’s hierarchy (1978) of functional categories, which in turn draws heavily from Halliday and Hasan (1976). We present an abbreviated version of her hierarchy below. No claim is made that within each group, all logical connectors are completely synonymous, since each may convey a different aspect of the category's meaning. However, we feel itis the similarities which should be drawn upon initially when presenting logical connectors to ESL/EFL students. Like Secord, who basically followed Halliday and Hasan, the four broad headings under which we classify all the connectors are the following: 1, Additive (used to signal addition, introduction, to show similarity, etc.) 2. Adversative (used to signal conflict, contradiction, concession, etc) 3. Causal (used to signal cause/effect and reason/result, etc.) 4, Sequential (used to signal a chronological or logical sequence) We shall now proceed in greater detail with the classification. Additive 1. Addition a. Simple: additionally in addition (TO THIS) also furthermore moreover further not to mention THIS? and toot either (negative) 2. Following the convention of Halliday and Hasan (1976), THIS is a symbol we use to indicate that a referential item must follow a Jogical connector, In some cases the referential item for the logical connector is either implicit or can be stated explicitly, If this option exists for a particular logical connector. we will indicate the optionality of the reference word by using parentheses. Notice that sometimes when a reference word is optional. ifit1s made explicit, it must be preceded by a preposition, eg, in addition (10 THIS). In such cases the preposition is included with the THIS in parentheses 3. We have viewed and before as a sentential and phrasal conjunction. Here we refer to it as a logical connector, since it can convey the meaning of “in addition.” 4, We have also encountered this word before in Chapter 22 with reference to conjoined sentences. Atthat time we mentioned that 1ao is used within a sentence to signal the addition of a repeated constituent in an affirmative verb phrase: Marlene slaloms well and Burt does too, But notice semantically too implies “in addition” and therefore rightfully should be considered a logical connector in this category. Furthermore. as it can in conjoined sentences, t00 can also be found in simple sentences where it does not signal the repetition of a constituent but rather functions in the discourse to mark an additional comment with the same theme as that of an earlier sentence Av For selaxation we play hearts and pinochle, By Do you enjoy bridge too? S. Some logical connectors occur in « negative context or impose a negative mewning on the phrase or clause being connected to the text, In such cases, we have added the word “negative” in parentheses after the connector to signal this fact.b. Emphatic: besides (THIS) notonly THIS but. .. a c. Intensifying: in fact as a matter of fact to tell (you) the truth to say nothing of (negative) d. Alternative: or alternatively Exemplification a. To exemplify a representative member: such as for example for instance b. To exemplify the most important mem! especially particularly Logical Connectors 325 as well (AS THIS) what is more actually indeed let alone (negative) much less (negative) nor (negative) on the other hand as like ber: in particular notably c. To introduce an ordinary group member: including d. To introduce a specific example which comes in a separate sentence from the preceding general statement: for one thing as an illustration Reference To introduce a topic: speaking about THIS as for THIS considering THIS concerning THIS regarding THIS on the subject/topic of THI respect with/in {re | to reference Similarity similarly likewise in the same way Identification by way of example to illustrate iS THIS the fact that in a like manner by the same token equally To identify a constituent for which the reader/listener has already been prepared: that is (to say) namely specifically326 THE GRAMMAR BOOK Clarification To clarify or rephrase a preceding item: that is (to say) in other words I mean (to) put (it) another way : Adversative : 1. Conflict/Contrast® (Two ideas incompatible or in contrast) but? while however whereas in contrast conversely by way of contrast on the other hand (and) yet though (in sentence-final position) when in fact® 2. Concession (Reservation without invalidating the truth of the main clause) but on the other hand? . even so despite THIS however in spite of THIS (and) still regardless (of THIS) (and) yet notwithstanding (THIS) nevertheless be that as it may nonetheless granted (THIS) : although admittedly though albeit even though 3. Dismissal a. Alternative circumstances (Quirk et al., 1972): either way in either case whichever happens in either event b. Universal circumstances—two or more possibilities (Quirk et al., 1972): whatever happens in any case/event all the same at any rate 4, Replacement a. To rectify a preceding item: (or) at least (or) rather b. To substitute a positive statement for a negative one or to substitute an actual outcome for a prior expectation: instead 6. In some studies conflict and contrast are treated separately. We do not feel the criteria for distinguishing them are sufficiently clear-cut at this time to justify two separate categories, 7. Note that but (also Yealt with in the preceding chapters on conjoined sentences) occurs as a logical connector primarily in oral language and is usually unaccented. e 8 When in fact conveys the special meaning of simultaneously discrediting the validity of the first clause while affirming the truth of the second. , 9. Some logical connectors belong to more than one category or subcategory. They are used in different ways by native speakers depending upon the context and the speaker's intentions. To illustrate, consider the following sentences in which the logical connector serves a different function: The polls have indicated that inflation is the biggest problem facing the nation On the other hand. one could argue that the energy crisis is more detrimental to the economy. (contrast) On the other hand, the energy crisis is also a major problem. (concession)Causal 1. Cause/Reason being that seeing that since as inasmuch as forasmuch as because (of the fact that) 2. Effect/Result so that so so much (so) that for this reason as a result (of THIS) because (of THIS) therefore 3. Purpose so . { as to that in order { _ with this in mind with this intention 4. Condition a. To introduce the condition if in case provided that providing that on (the) condition that in the event that given that b. To introduce the consequence: then if so in that case that being the case Sequential 1. Chronological and Logical a. Numerical: (chronological and logical) in the (first) place first... second Logical Connectors 327 due to (the fact that) in view of (the fact that) owing to (the fact that) for the (simple) reason that for in that consequently as a consequence thus hence in consequence accordingly in the hope that for the purpose of to the end that for fear that (negative) for fear (negative) lest (negative) granted (that) granting (that) as/so long as even if only if unless (negative) under those circumstances if not (negative) otherwise (negative) initially ...: secondlyTHE GRAMMAR BOOK b. Beginning: (chronological) at first ¢. Continuation: (chronological) previously after THIS afterwards eventually subsequently before THIS 4. Conclusion: (chronological) finally eventually at last in the end Digression by the way incidentally Resumption anyhow anyway at any rate Summation a. General: in conclusion to sum up to summarize b. Review of main idea or purpose: as I have said as was previously stated (chronological and logical) to start with to begin with for a start first of all initially (chronological and logical) next then (logical) at last last but not least as a final point lastly to conclude (with) to change the subject to get back to the point to return to the subject to resume in summary in sum as has been mentioned/noted ¢. Combination of effect/result and summary: then given (all) these points therefore so d. Summary of points: on the whole altogether in all consequently thus hence all in all overallLogical Connectors 329 e. Condensation: to make a long story short in short to put it briefly to be brief briefly in a word The syntax of logical connectors The first time a new logical connector is presented to a class, it should be shown in a meaningful discourse context and also in the position in which it typically occurs in a sentence. In some cases the placement of a logical connector is restricted; ie., it either occurs only in initial position in a clause, only clause medially, or only clause finally. These three major positions and their variations can be represented schematically as follows: Clause Initial Before clause 1: Connector + clause 1 + clause 2 Before clause 2: Clause ! + connector + clause 2! Clause Medial Clause 1 + part of clause 2 + connector + rest of clause2 Clause Final Clause 1 + clause 2 + connector Sometimes a particular logical connector can occur in all three major positions. Of course, when a logical connector can occur in all three positions, one would expect that there would be a difference in meaning depending on its location and that free variation is not permissible. Salera (1978), in a study of logical connector mobility, hypothesized that the adversatives however, nevertheless, and instead would occur: 1. Clause initially if the situation calls for an emphatic, contrary-to-expectation expression. The fire swept down Mandeville Canyon. We were forced to evacuate, convinced we would return to find ashes. predicted as the preferred choice—-a. Instead, we found our home completely un- touched. b. We found, instead, our home completely un- touched. c. other _ 4. Comment: SS 10. In the discussion which follows, we further distinguish two types of sentences where the connector Precedes the second clause: those in which there is sentence-final punctuation after clause 1. eg Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. In addition, it enjoys a relatively mild climate. and those in which the connector does not begin a new sentence. eg Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. and it enjoys a relatively mild climate. We make this distinction because it is often the case that ESL/EFL learners err and use certain logical Connectors to begin new sentences, when prescriptively at least. the connectors in question should not be used in this manner, e.g, We were tired. *So we went home.330 THE GRAMMAR BOOK 2. Clause medially ifthe situation calls for a strong contrastive relationship (but one that is not emphatically counter to expectation) or one that expresses a reservation about the previous clause. Jack is a magazine columnist who is concerned that people aren't using words correctly. He notices that words sometimes mean different things to different people. This condition, he believes, could be corrected if people would use their dictionaries more often. predicted as the preferred choice—~a. He knows, however, that they won't. b. He knows that they won't, however. c. other _ d. Comment: 3. Clause finally if the situation calls fora contrastive comment or ‘afterthought that is not as important as what went on before. Miriam has been running for over a year. Two months ago she went into training for a 15 kilometer race by running the hilly perimeter of UCLA. The week before the test, she knew she was ready—she was running smooth and easy. When she gotto the race, she found the course more hilly than she had expected. a. She nevertheless ran a good race. predicted as the preferred choice—~b. She ran a good race nevertheless. ¢ other d. Comment: In general, the results of Salera’s study revealed a confirmation of the hypotheses, although agreement among native speakers with regard to the preferred sentence position of the logical connectors was by no means unanimous. More usage studies dealing with the mobility of these adversative connectors, not to mention the other categories of connectors, would be helpful In our discussion of the following categories, we illustrate the placement of logical connectors in the three locations. Additi | “1 Lh itive — 4 4 Clause Initial ES. a | Ww Before clause 1: In addition to Besides relatively mild climate. } Atlanta boasting an ideal geographic location, it enjoys a Before clause 2: Sentence initial: Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. Also In addition Furthermore it enjoys a relatively mild climate. Additionally Moreover Sentence internal: and Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location, { = eal g graphic location not to mention that } it enjoys a relatively mild climate.Logical Connectors 331 Clause Medial Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. also It {moreover | enjoys a relatively mild climate. furthermore Clause Final Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. It enjoys a relatively mild climate too also in addition as well ts «¢ ! is ple § Contras/Conflict = Clause Initial Before clause 1: While Whereas producing it, that was not Abdullah's problem. | most of our students have an easier time understanding English than Before clause 2: Sentence initial: Most students have an easier time understanding English than producing it. { However On the other hand | , that was not Abdullah's problem. Sentence internal: Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producing it, i } that was not Abdullah's problem. and yet Clause Medial Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producing however : | | , Abdullah's problem. that was not, Clause Final Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producing it That was not Abdullah's problem, ie oor nea however Exemplification ‘ Clause Initial : Before clause 2: Intensive language instructional programs require a great deal of time. | For example For instance}, students at the University of Michigan's English Language As an example Institute attend English classes four hours daily. Clause Medial Intensive language instruction programs require a great deal of time. Students at the for | fiend University of Michigan's English Language Institute, { ac English classes four hours daily.332. THE GRAMMAR BOOK Connector following example: Intensive language instructional programs, the University of Michigan's for example for instance as an example in particular » Fequire a great deal of time. Clause Final Intensive language instructional programs require a great deal of time. The students at the University of Michigan’s English Language Institute attend English classes for example for instance } Cause and Effect/Reason and Result by ‘awd Xk Vs Precedes effect/result: Clause Initial Before clause 2: Sentence initial: four hours daily, { For this reason Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself. { Because of this}, she caught As a result a cold. Sentence internal: so Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself, J therefore . she caught consequently thus a cold. Clause Medial Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself: she | caught a cold. Clause Final Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself. She caught a cold _{ 8 4 result for this reason Precedes causé/reason: ” Clause Initial Before clause 1. Due to the fact that Because | Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself, she caught a cold. Since Before clause 2 (also results in a change of clause order): Sentence internal: due to the fact that Mavis caught a cold { since she hasn't taken good care of because herself.Logical Connectors 333 Concession Clause Initial Before clause 1: Though Although eae Claude went on a strict diet, he continued to gain weight. In spite of the fact Despite the fact Before clause 2: Sentence internal (clauses are switched): even though in spite of the fact that despite the fact that regardless of the fact that Claude continued to gain weight he went ona strict diet. Clause Final in spite of this despite this regardless though Claude went on a strict diet He continued to gain weight We have not included all the logical connectors or all the possible permutations in the examples we have provided. What we have attempted to do is to illustrate the various positions that logical connectors can occupy and to reinforce our contention that an ESL/EFL teacher should not introduce logical connectors divorced from their semantic and syntactic contexts. Clause ordering As we have seen in two instances above, there are times when the clause order may vary— when Connector + clause 1 + clause 2 varies with Clause 2 + connector + clause 1. In our examples this pattern held for the adversative logical connectors: Even though Claude went on a strict diet, he continued to gain weight. Claude continued to gain weight even though he went on a strict diet. and for the causal logical connectors: Because Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself, she caught a cold. Mavis caught a cold because she hasn't taken good care of herself. The question we want to pose is what the meaning difference is between the two clausal orderings. Secord (1977) conducted a usage study in which she found support for the following hypotheses with regard to the concessive logical connectors 1. When the concessive clause is first, it reflects a counter-to-expectation which follows from the previous context or the speaker's presuppositions about the listener's viewpoint. It334. THE GRAMMAR BOOK. serves to either discredit the previous context or indicate that the main clause which follows will not be in perfect agreement with that context or what the speaker believes the listener's opinion is, e Although Hal's obnoxious, you have to admit he’s a very intelligent guy. 2. When the concessive clause comes second, the main clause basically continues the train of thought from the previous context. The function of the concessive clause here is an admission, a yielding, a reservation, or an acknowledgment of some point related to the main point, e.g: Star Wars was still drawing crowds a year after its release, though in smaller numbers. Thus, to account for such order variations and others which may exist, one should look to the discourse context in order to understand why speakers sequence the clauses joined by a logical connector in the order they do. Reductions Thus far we have discussed logical connectors which can precede clauses, occur medially within clauses, and follow full clauses. However, it is also the case that the clauses can be reduced in a number of ways and still be accompanied by logical connectors. We illustrate some of these reductions using concessive logical connectors as an example: 1. Clauses lacking a surface subject and the verb BE: Though Although duly elected, he failed to assume office. Even though 2. Subjectless gerunds preceding or following the main clause: In spite of Despite being duly elected, he failed to assume office. Regardless of in spite of He failed to assume office} despite being duly elected regardless of Your students should thus be made aware that two (or more) full clauses are not always necessary when logical relationships are expressed. Conclusion We began this chapter by pointing out that an understanding of logical connectors would be of enormous help to ESL/EFL students in improving their reading. writing, speaking, and listening skills. Indeed, as Hunt (1965) has shown for native speakers of English and Larsen- Freeman and Strom (1977) and Larsen-Freeman (1978) have claimed for ESL learners, an English speaker/writer's ability to use logical connectors to subordinate one clause to another is a fair measure of the learner's overall “syntactic maturity” (Hunt's term). Thus, by helping our students understand the meanings of logical connectors and by encouraging them to develop a sensitivity to both the register and the syntactic variations that occur in the use of these expressions, we can encourage our students to grow in all four skills.