4.

1 Compounds, mixtures and chemical change

A compound is made of atoms of different elements, bonded together.
A mixture contains different substances that are NOT bonded together.
Signs of a chemical change:

One or more new chemical substances are formed.

Energy is taken in or given out, during the reaction.
The change is usually very difficult to reverse.

If no new substance is formed, a change is a physical change.

4.2 Why do atoms form bonds?

Atoms bond in order to get a stable arrangement and get a full outer shell. Noble gases do not
form bonds because they already have a full outer shell. This make noble gases unreactive.
An ion is a charged particle. It is charged because it has an unequal number of protons and
electrons.

4.3 The ionic bond

Atoms bond to get a full outer shell (like the group 0 elements). Noble gases have a full outer
shell making them stable and unreactive. An ion is a charged particle.
Two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other. Forces between them are very
strong. The ionic bond is the bond that forms between two ions of opposite charges. Ions are
charged because they have an unequal number of protons and electrons. Ionic bond usually
happens between metals and non-metals:

Metals lose electrons

Non-metals they gain electrons

Ionic bonding is the bond between ions of opposite charge. Electrostatic forces hold them
together. Ions can be positive or negative.

Cat ions- positively charged ions (metals)

Anions- negatively charged ions

Ionic compounds have no overall charge.

A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound. The metal atoms lose electrons and
non-metals gain electrons. The ions form a lattice. The compound has no overall charge.

Sodium chloride (salt): NaCl

Magnesium oxide: MgO

Magnesium chloride: MgCl2

4.4 More about Ions - Metals which form more than one type of ion are called
transition metals.
Some examples of transition metals:

Copper (I) ion

Copper (II) ion
Iron (II) ion
Iron (III) ion

Important stuff

Hydrogen and the metals lose ions. The form positive ions.
No-metals form negative ions, because they gain ions.
The elements in group 4 and 5 do not usually form ions, because their atoms have to
gain or lose too many electrons, taking up too much energy.
Group 0 elements do not form ions.

How to write the formula for ionic compounds:

Write down the symbol for each element.

Work out the charge.
Work out the ratio of positive and negative ions necessary, to have an overall charge of
0.
Use the ratio to work out the formula.

List of important compound ions:

Hydroxide:
Nitrate:
Sulfate:
Carbonate:
Ammonium:
Hydrogen carbonate:

Work out the formula for the following ionic compounds:

1. Potassium Fluoride

2. Aluminium Bromide

3. Aluminium oxide

4. Sodium nitride

5. Ammonium sulphide

6. Sodium carbonate

7. Potassium nitrate

8. Potassium chloride

9. Calcium sulphide

10. Lithium sulphide

11. Magnesium Fluoride

12. Copper chloride

13. Iron oxide

14. Sodium sulphate

15. potassium hydroxide

16. Silver nitrate

4.5 The covalent bond

A covalent bond is made when atoms share one or many electrons in order to gain a full outer
shell. A single covalent bond is formed when atoms share two electrons. A molecule is a group
of atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Elements made of molecules containing two atoms are called diatomic. (Iodine and oxygen).
Here are some examples of covalent bonds between elements:

Hydrogen

Chlorine

Oxygen

Nitrogen

4.6 Covalent compounds

In a molecular compound, different elements share electrons. These compounds are called
covalent compounds.

The repulsion between pairs of electrons dictates the shape of the molecule. A molecule with
four electrons is called tetrahedral shape

Hydrogen chloride

Water

Methane
Methane
has
tetrahedral
shape.
Because
the 4 pairs
of
electrons
around
carbon
repel each
other and
move as

Ammonia

Methanol

Carbon dioxide

Ethane

4.7 Comparing
Metals and non-metals react to form ionic compounds. Non-metals react to form covalent
compounds.
Ionic compounds (salt)

A solid ionic compound is found in a

strong regular lattice
The forces between molecules are very
strong
Ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points
Ionic compounds are usually soluble in
water
Ionic compounds conduct electricity
when molten or dissolved in a water

Covalent compounds (water)

In a covalent compound the molecules

are held together in a strong lattice.
The forces between the molecules are
very weak
Molecular compounds have low
melting and boiling points
Covalent compounds tend to be
insoluble in water
Covalent compounds do not conduct
electricity

4.8 Giant Covalent structures

Diamond

A diamond is made of carbon atoms held in a strong lattice.

A carbon atom forms covalent bond to four others
Eventually billions of carbon atoms are bonded together in a giant
covalent structure
It is very hard as each atom is held in place by 4 strong
covalent bonds
It has a very high melting point
It cant conduct electricity because there are no free electrons to carry
the charge.

Silica

Silica occurs naturally in Quartz, the main mineral in sand.

It forms a very giant covalent structure as well
Each oxygen bonds to two silicon atoms
It has a high melting point

Graphite

Like diamond it is made of carbon atoms as well.

So diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon (two forms of the same element)
Each atom bonds to three others, giving a ring of 6 atoms
The rings form flat sheets, lying on top of each other, held
together by weak forces
It is very soft and slippery because the sheets slide over
each other easily (and that is why graphite breaks easily)
Unlike diamond, graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
(This is because each carbon atom has 4 outer electrons,
but forms only three bonds. So the 4th electron is free to
move through the graphite, carrying charge.

Comparisons
The properties of the giant covalent structures lead to different uses:
Properties

Uses

Diamond

Hardest known substance

Does not conduct electricity
Sparkles when cut

In tools for drilling and cutting

In jewellery

Graphite

Soft and slippery

Soft and dark in colour
Conducts electricity

Silica

Hard, can scratch things

Hard, lets light through
High melting point

As a lubricant
Pencil leads
Electrodes (for connecting
brushes in generators)
In sandpaper
For making glass and lenses
In bricks for lining furnaces

Molecular substances have low melting points

Giant structures such as sodium chloride (ionic) and diamond (covalent) have much
higher melting points.

4.9 The bonding in Metals

The metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions and free
electrons.
Because these metal ions are in a regular arrangement, metals are
(they form crystals).

crystalline

Properties of metals:

Metals usually have high melting points (because it takes a

lot of energy to break up the lattice, with its strong
metallic bonds)
Metals are malleable and ductile (because the layers
can slide over each other, without breaking the metallic bond; as
the
electrons are free to move)
Metals are good conductors of heat (because the free electrons
take in
heat energy, making them move faster
They are good conductors of electricity (the free electrons can move through the lattice
carrying charge

The electrons that move freely in the metal lattice are called delocalised.