IB Chemistry Introduction

IB Math Intro
We will use standard metric prefixes for orders of magnitude:
Prefix Symbol
Value
Micro

10-6
Milli
m
10-3
Centi
c
10-2
Kilo
k
103
Mega
M
106
Unit conversion will follow the method of unitary rates.
100 cm = 1 m. Therefore:

1=

1m
100 cm
=
100 cm
1m

Multiplying by this fraction will not change the value of the

quantity, only its units.
Example 2:
For each of the following, identify the equality and convert:
a) 250 cm into meters

b) 0.0342 m into km

c) 2500 s into minutes

d) 350mg into kg

e) 0.023 cm3 into m3

f) 125 km/h into m/s

IB Chemistry Introduction
In science, numbers usually represent measured values. These
measured values are not exact. The way they are written down
reflects the precision of that measurement.
We use significant digits to keep track of the precision of our
measured values and to keep track of the precision through a
calculation.
Significant digits (figures):
1) All non zero digits are significant.
2) All final zeros after the decimal point are significant.
3) Zeros between two other significant digits are
significant.
4) Zeros used only for spacing the decimal point are not
significant.
Example 3:
Give the number of significant digits in:
a) 16.392 m
b) 2.035 L
c) 5.900 cm
d) 0.00506 K
e) 120 000 km
f) 350 000.0 J
g) 0.00300 g
Scientific notation is very useful in designating significant
figures. Any digit shown in the numeric part of scientific
notation is significant.
How can you show 200 km with 2 s.f.?
2.0 x 102 km.

IB Chemistry Introduction
In our experiments, where we have detailed information about
errors, significant figure rules are often not detailed enough.
You will have to learn error propagation rules that show how
an error in measurement is carried through and effects your
results.
In text questions, we will use significant digit rules to
determine the significant digits in our answers.
Significant Figure Rules:
In multiplication and division, the answer has the same number
of S.F. as the least number of S.F. in the question.
Example 4:
a) 30.0 N x 12 m

b) 1.3975 m / 0.84 s

c) 80.034 kg x 1.3 m / 17.3985 s

In addition and subtraction, the answer must have the same

precision and the least precise value in the question (fewest
decimal points or smallest place value).
Example 5:
a) 121.45 m + 17.2 m

b) 5.743 L - 2 L

c) 12.034 m / 1.08 s - 8.392 m/s

IB Chemistry Introduction

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and Precision are two words that must be used
carefully.
Accuracy indicates how well a measured result indicates the
real or correct result.
Precision indicates how well the equipment was used and the
quality of the equipment in getting a result. Precision is
indicated by the number of significant figures used in a
measurement.
A good way to indicate accuracy is to use a percentage
difference.
For comparing to a known value:
! accepted value - experimental value $
% error = #
& x 100%
accepted value
"
%
For comparing two experimental values:
! value 1 - value 2 $
% difference = #
& x 100%
" mean value %

Here is a good visual representation

of accuracy and precision:

low accuracy
low precision

low accuracy
high precision

Precision can be estimated from:

knowledge of the equipment you are using, ie. a
centigram balance is 0.01g
Half of the smallest scale marking
Experience with your skill using a piece of equipment.
Calculation from repeated measurements
x = |(farthest from mean) - (mean)|

Accuracy involves an understanding of your experiment, with a

standard to compare with, or other information that tells you
about your experiment.
We will address these through experiments this course.
1.26, 30, 34, 50, 52, 54, 58, 60, 62, 66, 68, 70, 73
4

high accuracy
high precision

high accuracy
low precision

IB Chemistry Introduction

Graphing
Graphing is used extensively in Science. It is a very powerful
method to show the relationship between two variables.
The relationship is between an independent variable and a
dependant variable.
The independent variable is the variable that the experiment
intentionally changes.
The dependant variable is then measured to find if it changes,
to determine if it is dependant on the independent variable.
With a few notable exceptions, a graph is made with the
independent variable plotted on the x-axis, and the dependant
variable on the y-axis.
The shape of the graph will give us a strong indication of the
relationship between the variables.
See handout for rules for graphing.
We will be graphing variables to find the relationships between
those variables.
There are many complex mathematical relationships. We will
examine a few of them: linear, quadratic, and inverse.
The simplest is a line y = m x + b
A linear graph is the most useful for us
because we know a great deal of math about
straight lines.
We can calculate the slope (with units)
The degree of agreement between the line and
points of the graph tells us about our
experiment.
The y-intercept also gives us information
about errors in the experiment.
Give the equation of the line for:

IB Chemistry Introduction
A quadratic graph will have a general shape as follows:
The general form is:
y = ax2 + bx + c

An inverse graph will have the y-variable increasing with the

decrease in the x-variable.
A linear inverse graph will have a negative slope.
A non-linear relationship can look like part of a hyperbola.
This will have the general form of y = k/x or xy = k
An inverse relationship

Errors
The precision of a measurement or a number calculated from a
measurement can be shown on a graph in the form of an error
bar.
An error bar indicates the range a plotted point covers if its
error is included.
Error bars can give valuable information about experiments
and conclusions.
What do the next three graphs tell you?

IB Chemistry Introduction

Complete Graphing handout (1 - 4)

IB Chemistry Introduction
Absolute uncertainty is represented by the after a
measurement. (This is used in an error bar on a graph.)

realtive uncertainty =

absolute uncertainty
measurement

% uncertainty = (relative uncertainty)100%

Find the % uncertainty for:
220 m 5 m

0.126 g 0.018 g

Errors in measurements are carried through calculations using

those measurements.
For multiplication and division, the relative (or percentage)
uncertainties are added.
For addition and subtraction, the absolute uncertainties are
added.
Example
a) (2.05 m 0.08 m) + (17.1m .2 m)

b) (0.125 g 0.005 g) / (4.22 s 0.03 s)

c)

(6.5 m 0.2 m) - (2.1 m 0.2 m)

(0.28 s 0.01 s)2

IB Chemistry Introduction

3 Manipulating Graphs
Some relationships can be manipulated to form a straight line
graph.
The advantage of a straight line is that we can perform simple
calculations with linear relationships.
The basic form of the line equation will be used to get
information from the straight line: y = m x + b

A graph that is a quadratic graph, the data can be regraphed

with one of the variables squared.
A quadratic graph that looks like this can
be regraphed with the
x-variable squared.

A quadratic graph that looks like this can

be regraphed with the
y-variable squared.
This may yield a
straight line.

IB Chemistry Introduction

d(m)
0
5
20
45
80
125
180
245

t(s)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

A graph that is an inverse hyperbolic graph can be converted to

a straight line graph by regraphing with the inverse of one of
the variables (x-1 or y-1).
These are some approaches to some simple mathematical
relationships. These techniques may need to be combined, or
they may not work at all, or the data may be so poor that you
draw the wrong conclusion.
Regraph Handout # 3, 4
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IB Chemistry Introduction

I 1 Chemistry Introduction
Chemistry is a branch of Science that is based on the atom.
Chemistry tries to experimentally model the working of the
atom at a microscopic scale and understand the macroscopic
consequences for physical and biological world.
Chemistry is referred to as the central Science because
chemical principals underpin much of the functioning of the
world around us.
Some things known about matter ca. 1800:
Conservation of mass in reactions
Definite proportions
Water was always 1 g of hydrogen to 8 g of oxygen
Multiple proportions
The ratio of masses of elements could vary in different
compounds. Hydrogen and oxygen can also come in the ratio
of 1 g to 16 g in peroxide.
John Dalton published an atomic theory:
1. Elements made of tiny particles - atoms.
2. Different elements have different type of atoms with
specific masses.
3. Atoms joined in specific ratios produce different types of
compounds
4. Chemical reactions rearrange the way atoms are put
together. Reactions do not change the atoms themselves.
This model explained much of what was known about
chemistry. However, there was no direct evidence for atoms.
(Finally settled mathematically by Einstein in the early 1900s)
Daltons theory was used because it allowed reasonable
explanations of known chemical phenomenon and predictions
of new phenomenon.
Experimenters began to find results that indicated sub-atomic
character.
Any heated metal will give off rays that flow like light. These
rays interact with other charges and magnets like they have a
negative charge. They are common to all metals, therefore
they must be part of an atom. The atom is neutral, there must
also be positive parts of the atom.

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IB Chemistry Introduction
A quantum leap in sub-atomic structure was
made through Ernst Rutherfords gold foil
experiment.
He fires alpha particles (2 protons and 2
neutrons), at a thin foil of gold.
Most of the particles passed through
without any deflection.
Some were deflected a little.
Some were rebounded at very large angles.
What conclusion can be drawn from this
experiment?

Modern Structure of the atom:

Small positive nucleus with protons and neutrons.
Proton: 1.67 x 10-27 kg, 1 x 10-15m (dia)
Light, negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus
Electron: 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Ex 1: The radius of the hydrogen atom is about 3 x 10-11 m. If
a proton was a basketball, where is the electron?

From the Periodic table, we can identify:

What are the elements.
metals and non-metals.
# of protons
# of neutrons
Size, state, mass
Other properties

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IB Chemistry Introduction

1 Atomic Mass
The subatomic particles that we will consider are the proton,
neutron, and electron. The unit of mass for a proton or a
neutron is an atomic mass unit.
Proton: 1 amu, +1 charge
Neutron: 1 amu, 0 charge
Electron: 1/1800 amu, -1 charge
An atoms mass derives primarily from its protons and
neutrons. An atoms charge derives from its protons and
electrons.
The number of protons determines the type of atom. In a
neutral atom, the number of electrons and protons are equal.
The electrons do the interacting with other atoms, and
determine chemical properties.
Isotope: An isotope is an atom of an element with a different
number of neutrons.

12
6

Carbon has three main isotopes:

Carbon 12, 13, and 14. Thin number refers to the mass of the
isotope.
Carbon 12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
Carbon 13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons.
Carbon 14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.
The notation for an atom or ion is:
X = symbol
A = mass number
Z = atomic number
n = charge

Z
A

13
6

14
6

Ex 1: How many protons, neutrons, electrons in the following:

11
5

13

35
17

Cl

79
35

Br -1

27
13

Al+3

IB Chemistry Introduction
Carbon 12 was chosen as the standard mass and given the mass
of 12 amu.
Atomic masses can be given in amus or they can be refered to
as relative masses.
Relative atomic mass Ar is the mass of an atom relative to
carbon 12. It does not have units.
Atomic mass is the weighted average of the different isotopes
of an atom.
Ex 2:
The two main isotopes of carbon are carbon-12 (12 amu,
98.89%) and carbon-13 (13.003355amu, 1.11%). What is the
relative atomic mass of a sample of carbon?

Follow Up Problems 2.2, 3

Problems 2.29, 34, 37, 41, 45, 47

I 2 Inorganic Nomenclature
Classification of Matter
What makes something a pure substance?

What is the key microscopic and macroscopic property of

homogeneity?

What makes a substance an element?

What is the difference between a chemical and a physical

change?

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IB Chemistry Introduction

Inorganic Chemistry is chemistry with molecules not based on

a carbon chain.
Different systems are used for covalently bonded molecules
and ionically bonded molecules.
Definitions:
Ion: An atom that does not have equal numbers of protons
(positive) and electrons (negative)
Metal: atom that forms positive ions called cations. The
atom has lost electrons. Found on left of periodic table.
Draw the dividing line between metals and non-metals
on your periodic table.
Non-metals: tend to form negative ions called anions.
These atoms have gained electrons. Found on right of the
table.
Semi-metals: have properties of metals and non-metals.
Ionic Compound: A neutral species that forms between a
metal ion (positive) and a non-metal ion (negative).
Attraction is based on opposite charges.
Covalent compound: A neutral species with atoms bonded
together because they are sharing electrons.
Monatomic ion: A single atom acting as an ion.
Polyatomic ion: Several atoms covalently bonded together
acting as one ion.
Binary ionic compounds are compounds of two monatomic
ions.
Formulas show the atoms that are present in the simplest ratio.
The compound must have a neutral charge.
Names use words to describe the ions. The ending of the anion
is changed to ide. For cations with variable charges, roman
numerals are used to indicate the charge. The ratio of atoms is
left to the reader to determine.
Ex 1: Complete this table:
Formula
NaCl

Name
Barium iodide

Al2O3
Copper(II)nitride
FeCl3
Lead(IV) sulfide

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IB Chemistry Introduction
Polyatomic ions are listed on the back of the handout. These
are treated as single ions. Be very careful about the ending of
each name.
Many of these poly-atomic ions are combined with oxygen.
The most commonly found combination with oxygen was
given the ending ate.
The ion with one less oxygen atom is ended with ite.
The pattern is shown here:
ClO4- = perchlorate
ClO3- = chlorate
ClO2- = chlorite
ClO- = hypochlorite
Household bleach is 5% sodium hypochlorite.
These polyatomic ions are treated as one thing.
Ex 2:
Formula
Name
Na2SO4
Ammonium sulfite
AlPO43H2O
Copper(II)nitrite monohydrate
Fe3(PO3)27H2O
Ammonium carbonate
Ionic compounds are described by the ratio of the ions present.
This crystal of NaCl can go on indefinitely. There is no single
discrete NaCl molecule.
Covalent compound usually do have discrete molecules,
methane: CH4
Covalent compounds do not have ions. The ratio of atoms
must be shown in the name and the formula. The second
element (the least metallic, most upper right element on the
periodic table) has its name changed to ide.
Prefixes are used to indicate the numbers:
Mono = 1
Tetra = 4
Hepta = 7
Di = 2
Penta = 5
Octa = 8
Tri = 3
Hexa = 6
Nona = 9
Ex 3: complete the following table:
Formula
Name
H2O
Nitrogen dioxide
CO2
Trichlorine heptafluoride
P2N5
Carbon monoxide

16

Deca = 10

IB Chemistry Introduction
The last naming for now is for acids. Generally, acids are
compound that have an H+ as a cation that can be released in
water to make H+ ions. This is a general definition of an acid.
Acids with monatomic anions are named with the prefix
hydro
HCl = hydrochloric acid
H2Se = hydroselenic acid.
Acids with polyatomic anions change the suffix:
ate is changed to ic.
ite is changed to ous.
H2SO4 = sulfuric acid
H3PO3 = phosphorous acid.
HClO4 = perchloric acid
Ex 4: Complete the following table:
Formula

Name

Type of compound

Hg2SO4
Nitrogen triiodide
HClO
Copper(II)phosphide
CCl4
Silver nitrate

Follow Up Problems
2.4-12
Problems
2.88-100 (blue). You need to do these if you need more
practice writing formulas and naming compounds.

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