LECTURE NOTES

ON

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

BY

Dr. T.R.Seethram
(Mech.Engg. Department, PESIT, Bangalore)

1
 CHAPTER 3

GAS POWER CYCLES

3.1. Introduction:- Two important applications of thermodynamics are power generation
and refrigeration. Both are usually accomplished by systems that operate on
thermodynamic cycles. Hence thermodynamic cycles are usually divided into two general
categories, viz., “power cycles” and “refrigeration cycles”. Power or refrigeration
cycles are further classified as “gas cycles” and “vapour cycles”. In the case of gas
cycles, the working substance will be in gaseous phase throughout the cycle, where as in
vapour cycles, the working substance will be in liquid phase in one part of the cyclic
process and will be in vapour phase in some other part of the cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles are also classified as “closed cycles” and
“open cycles”. In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to its original state at the
end of each cycle of operation and is recirculated. In an open cycle, the working
substance is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being re-circulated. In
automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel
mixture at the end of each cycle. Though the engine operates in a mechanical cycle, the
working substance does not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle.

3.2. Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles:- The cycles encountered in
actual devices are difficult to analyse because of the presence of friction, and the absence
of sufficient time for establishment of equilibrium conditions during the cycle. In order to
make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to make some idealizations by
neglecting internal irreversibilities and complexities. Such cycles resemble the actual
cycles closely but are made up totally of internal reversible processes. These cycles are
called ideal cycles.

3.3. Carnot Power Cycle:- The T-s and p-v diagrams for a Carnot power cycle are
shown in Fig.3.1. The cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic and two reversible
isothermal processes, The working of the cycle is as follows:

Process 1-2:Reversible isothermal heating of the working substance from state1to state 2.

Process 2-3 :- Isentropic expansion of the working substance from state 2 to state 3.
During this process work is done by the working substance on the surroundings.

Process 3-4:- Reversible isothermal cooling of the working substance from state 3 to state
4.
Process 4-1:- Isentropic compression of the working substance so that it comes back to its
initial state. During this process work is done on the working substance by the
surroundings.

2
 p
T
1
1 2
Th 2

Tc 4
4 3
3

s
v

Fig. 3.1: T-s and p-v diagrams for a Carnot power cycle

Expression for Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle

Net work output from the cycle = Wn = ∫ dW .

1-2-3-4-1

2 3 4 1
By first law for a cyclic process we have ∫dW = ∫ dQ = ∫dQ + ∫dQ + ∫dQ + ∫dQ
1-2-3-4-1 1-2-3-4-1 1 2 3 4
2 4

Or Wn = ∫TdS + 0 + ∫TdS + 0 = Th [S2 – S1] + Tc [S4 – S3]

1 3

Since S4 = S1 and S3 = S2, we have

Wn = (S2 – S1)[Th – Tc] ………………………(3.1)

Assuming that the working substance behaves as a perfect gas and since process 1 – 2 is
isothermal we have

S2 – S1 = m R ln(p1 / p2).

Substituting this expression in Eq. (3.1) we have

Wn = m R ln(p1 / p2) [Th – Tc] ……………….(3.2)

3
 2
External heat supplied per cycle = Qs = Q1 – 2 = ∫TdS = Th[S2 – S1]
1

(S2 – S1)[Th – Tc]

Thermal Efficiency = ηCarnot = Wn / Qs = ---------------------------------
Th[S2 – S1]

Or ηCarnot = [Th – Tc] / Tc = 1 – Th / Tc .....................................(3.3)

Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston and cylinder device or in a
steady flow device. It can be seen from Eq. (3.3) that the thermal efficiency depends only
on two temperatures Th and Tc and is independent of working substance. The Carnot
cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at
temperature Th and a heat sink at temperature Tc. But reversible isothermal heat transfer
process is difficult to achieve in practice, because, it would require very large heat
exchangers and it would take a very long time (a power cycle in a typical engine has to be
completed in a fraction of a second). Therefore it is not practical to build an engine that
would operate on a cycle that closely approximates a Carnot cycle.
The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from the fact that it is used as a
standard against which the actual or other ideal power cycles are compared. It can be seen
from Eq. (3.3) that the thermal efficiency of the Carnot power cycle increases with
increase in Th and with decrease in Tc. Hence in actual or other ideal cycles attempts are
made in increasing the average temperature at which heat is supplied or by decreasing the
average temperature at which heat is rejected. It should also be noted that the source and
sink temperatures that can be used in practice have their limitations. The highest
temperature in the cycle is limited by the maximum temperature the components of the
engine can withstand and the lowest temperature is limited by the temperature of the
cooling medium used in the cycle such as the atmospheric air, ocean, lake or a river.

3.4. Illustrative examples on Carnot cycle

Example 3.1:- A Carnot cycle using air as the working substance works between
temperature limits of 900 K and 300 K. The pressure limits are 60 bar and 1 bar.
Determine (i) pressure at salient points of the cycle, (ii) the heat supplied per unit mass
of air, (iii) net work output per unit mass of air, (iv)mean effective pressure and (v)
thermal efficiency of the cycle

Given:- Refer to T – s diagram shown in Fig. E3.1. Tmax = T1 = T2 = 900 K ;

Tmin = T3 = T4 = 300 K ; pmax = p1 = 60 bar ; pmin = p3 = 1 bar.

For air the following property values are assumed: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg – K; γ = 1.4 ;

4
Hence Cv = Cp / γ = 1.005 / 1.4 = 0.718 kJ/kg-K ; R = 1.005 – 0.718 = 0.287.kJ/(kg-K)

To find:- (i) p2 ; p4 ; (ii) q 1-2 ; (iii) wn (iv) mep ;(v) η Carnot.

Solution:-

q 1-2

T1

T3

q 3-4

Fig. E3.1: T – s diagram for example 3.1

(i) Process 2 – 3 is isentropic. For a perfect gas undergoing isentropic process we have

p2 / p3 = (T2 / T3)γ / (γ – 1)

Or p2 = p3 (T2 / T3)γ / (γ – 1)

= 1 x [ 900 / 300 ] 1.4 / 0.4 = 46.77 bar.

Similarly for process 4 – 1 we have

p4 = p1 (T4 / T1)γ / (γ – 1) = 60 x [ 300 / 900 ] 1.4 / 0.4

= 1.283 bar

(ii) Applying first law for process 1 – 2 we have

q 1-2 − w1-2 = (u2 – u1)

= Cv(T2 – T1) = 0 because T2 = T1.

5
 2
Hence q1-2 = w1-2 = ∫pdv = p1v1 ln(p1/p2), as process 1-2 is isothermal.
1

For a perfect gas p1v1 = RT1. Hence

q1-2 = w1-2 = RT1 ln(p1/p2) = 0.287 x 900 x ln (60 / 46.77)

= 64.34 kJ/kg.

(iii) For process 3 -4 we have q3-4 = w3-4 = RT3 ln (p3 / p4)

= 0.287 x 300 x ln (1 / 1.283)

= − 21.46 kJ/kg.
( negative sign indicates that during this process heat is rejected by air to the
surroundings).

Net work output = wn = ∑w = ∑q = q1-2 + q3-4 = 64.34 – 21.46

= 42.88 kJ/kg

(iv) mean effective pressure is given by

Net work output wn
mep = ------------------------------------- = ----------
Stroke volume of the piston (v2 – v1)

Now (v2 – v1) = [(RT2 / p2) – (RT1/p1)] = RT1 [ 1 / p2 – 1/p1]

= 287 x 900 x [ (1/ 46.77) – (1 / 60)] x (1 / 10 5)

= 0.0122 m3/kg.

42.88 x 1000
Hence mep = ----------------- = 35.15 x 10 5 N / m2 = 35.15 bar
0.0122

Example 3.2:- The maximum pressure and temperature in a Carnot gas power cycle are
limited to 20 bar and 400 C. The volumetric ratio of isentropic compression is 6 and
volumetric ratio of isothermal expansion is 1.5. Assuming that air is the working
substance and the volume of air at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 0.1 m3,
determine (i) the minimum temperature in the cycle, (ii) change in entropy during
isothermal expansion process, (iii) thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) power output from
the cycle if there are 200 cycles per minute and (v) mean effective pressure.

Solution: The T-s and p-v diagram for the cycle are shown in figure below.

6
Given:- p1 = 20 bar ; T1 = 400 + 273 = 673 K = T2 ; V4 / V1 = 6 ; V2 / V1 = 1.5 ;

V1 = 0.1 m3; For air Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K); γ = 1.4 ; R = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K); Cv = 0.718
kJ/(kg-K).
.
To find :- (i) T3 ; (ii) S2 – S1 ; (iii) η Carnot ; (iv) Wn ; (v) MEP.

Isothermal
p 1 Process
T 2
Isentropic
process
1 2
T1
4

T3 3
4 3

V
s

(i) Since process 1 – 2 is isothermal and air is assumed to behave as a perfect gas, it
follows that
p1V1 = p2V2 .Hence p2 = (V1 / V2) p1 = (1/1.5) x 20 = 13.33 bar.

Process 4-1 is isentropic. Hence T4= (V1 / V4) (γ – 1) T1 = (1/6) 0.4 x 673 = 328.7 K.

Also T3 = T4 = 328.7 K.

(ii) mass of air = m = (p1V1) / (RT1)

20 x 10 5 x 0.1
= ------------------- = 1.035 kg
287 x 673

Change in entropy for process 1-2 for a perfect gas is given by

S2 – S1 = m [ Cv ln (T2 / T1) + R ln (V2 / V1) ]

= 1.035 x [ 0 + 0.287 x ln (1.5) ] = 0.1204 kJ/kg-K.

(iii) η Carnot = (T1 – T3) / T1 = [673 – 328.7] / 673 = 0.5116 = 51.16 %.

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(iv) Heat supplied per cycle = Qs = Q1-2 = W1-2 = mRT1 ln(V2 / V1)

= 1.035 x 0.287 x 673 x ln (1.5)

= 81.06 kJ/cycle.

Net work output per cycle = Wn = η Carnot Qs = 0.5116 x 81.06

= 41.47 kJ/cycle.

Power output = P = Wc Nc, where Nc = Number of cycles executed per unit time.

Hence P = 41.47 x 200 /60 = 138 kJ/s (kW).

Net work output per cycle in J/cycle Wn

(v) MEP = -------------------------------------------- = ---------------------
Swept volume per cycle in m3 / cycle (V3 – V1)

Now for process 2-3 we have

V3 = V2 (T2 / T3) 1 / (γ – 1) = 1.5 x 0.1 x (673 / 328.7) 2.5

= 0.9 m3.

41.47 x 1000
Hence MEP = ---------------- = 51837.5 N / m2
(0.9 – 0.1)

Example 3.3:- In an air-standard Carnot cycle, 110 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to the
working fluid at 1110 K. Heat is rejected at 273 k. The minimum pressure in the cycle is 1
bar. Find (i) thermal efficiency, (ii) mean effective pressure.

Solution: The T – s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E3.3.

Given :- T1 = T2 = 1110 K ; T3 = T4 = 273 K; q 1-2 = 110 kJ/kg ; p3 = 1 bar.

To find:- (i) η Carnot ; (ii) MEP

(T1 – T3) (1110 – 273)

(i)η Carnot = ------------- = ----------------- = 0.754 = 75.4 %.
T1 1110

(ii) MEP = wn / (v3 – v1)

8
 wn = η Carnot q1-2 = 0.754 x 110 = 82.94 kJ/kg

Applying I law for process 1 – 2 we have q 1-2 = w1-2 = RT1 ln (v2 / v1)

Hence v2 / v1 = exp [q1-2 / RT1] = exp [ 110 / (0.287 x 1110)]

= 1.4124.

Also v3 = RT3 / p3 = 287 x 273 / (1 x 10 5)

= 0.7835 m3 / kg.

Process 2-3 is isentropic. Hence T2 v2 (γ – 1) = T3 v3 (γ – 1)

Or v2 = (T3 / T2) 1 / (γ – 1) v3 = (273 / 1110) 2.5 x 0.7835

= 0.0235 m3 / kg

Therefore v1 = 0.0235 / 1.4124 = 0.0166 m3 / kg.

82.94 x 1000
Therefore MEP = -----------------------
(0.7835 – 0.0166)

= 1.082 x 10 5 N/m2 = 1.082 bar.

3.5 Air Standard Cycles: In gas power cycles, the working fluid will be in gaseous
phase throughout the cycle. Petrol engines (gasoline engines), diesel engines and gas
turbines are familiar examples of devices that operate on gas cycles. All these devices are
called “Internal combustion engines” as the fuel is burnt within the boundaries of the
system. Because of the combustion of the fuel, the composition of the working fluid
changes from a mixture of air and fuel to products of combustion during the course of the
cycle. However, considering that air is predominantly nitrogen which hardly undergoes
any chemical reaction during combustion, the working fluid closely resembles air at all
times.
The actual gas power cycles are complex. Hence actual gas cycles are
approximated by ideal cycles by making the following assumptions called “air standard
assumptions”.

Air standard assumptions:- (i) The working fluid is air which continuously circulates in
a closed loop.
(ii). Air behaves as a perfect gas.

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(iii) All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
(iv) The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an external
source.
(v) The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the working
substance to its original state.
(vi) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working substance is very small and
hence negligible.

A cycle which is analyzed making use of these assumptions is called an “air standard
cycle”. The air standard assumptions make the thermodynamic analysis very simple
without significantly deviating from the actual cycle. This simplified model will help to
study qualitatively the influence of major parameters on the performance of the cycle.

3.5. Air standard Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark ignition engines.
The cycle is named after Nikolaus A Otto, a German who built a four – stroke engine in
1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.The p
– V and T – s diagrams for an Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 3.2.The cycle consists of the

p
T Constant 3
3 volume
process
2 Isentropic
Process 4

4 2

1 1

V s

Fig. 3.2: p-V and T-s diagrams for Otto cycle.

following processes.

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process
work is done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2 -3 : Constant volume of heating of air from state 2 till the maximum
permissible temperature is reached.

10
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. During this process work
is done by air on the surroundings.

Process 4 – 1: Constant volume cooling of air till the air comes back to its original state.

3.5.1. Expressions for Net work output and thermal efficiency

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1

By I law for the cycle we have w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 = q1-2 + q 2-3 + q 3-4 + q 4-1.

Also q 1-2 = q 3-4 = 0 as processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic.

Hence wn = q 2-3 + q 4-1. ……………………………..(3.4)

Since both the processes 2-3 and 3-4 are at constant volume, applying I law for these two
processes we have

q2-3 = (u3 – u2) = Cv[T3 – T2] ……………………………(3.5)

and q4-1 = (u1 – u4) = Cv[T1 – T4] ……………………………(3.6)

It should be noted that q4-1 will be negative (T1 < T4) as heat is transferred from the
working substance to the surroundings.

Hence the net work output in terms of temperatures at the four salient points of the cycle
is given by

wn = Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] ………………………….(3.7)

Thermal efficiency is given by

Net work output wn
η Otto = ---------------------- = --------
Heat Supplied q2-3

Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] [T4 – T1]

η Otto = ------------------------- -------- = 1 − -----------------
Cv[T3 – T2] [T3 – T2]

…………………………(3.8)

Eq. (3.8) gives the expression for thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle in terms of the
temperatures at the salient points of the cycles. It is possible to express the net work
output and thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle in terms two parameters namely (i) the

11
comprssion ratio, Rc and the maximum cycle temperature ratio, t. The compression ratio
is defined as the ratio of volume of air befor compression to the volume of air after
compression; i.e., Rc = V1 / V2 and the maximum cycle temperature ratio is defined as the
ratio of the maximum temperature in the cycle to the minimum temperature in the cycle;
i.e., t = T3 / T1.

Now Process 1 – 2 is isentropic. Hence T1V1(γ – 1) = T2V2(γ – 1)

Or T2 / T1 = (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = Rc(γ – 1) ……………………………………….(3.9)

Similarly we have for ptocess 3-4,

T3 / T4 = (V4/V3) (γ – 1) = (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = Rc(γ – 1) ……………………... (3.10)

Therefore T2 T3 [T3 – T2]

---- = ------ = ------------ = Rc(γ – 1)
T1 T4 [ T4 – T1]

Suibstituting this in Eq.(3.8) we have

1
ηOtto = 1 − ------------------- ………………(3.11)
Rc(γ – 1)

It can be seen from Eq. (3.11) that the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only
on the compression ratio Rc. The efficiency increases with increase in Rc. The increase is
steep at low values of Rc , but becomes flatter as Rc exceeds 8 as shown in Fig. 3.3.

ηOtto

0.6

0.4

0.2

2 4 6 8 10
12 14 16
Rc
Fig.3.3: Effect of Rc on thermal efficiency of Otto cycle

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For very high compression ratios (Rc >10), the temperature of the air fuel mixture in an
actual petrol engine will be so high as to cause pre-ignition of the fuel leading to
“knocking” of the engine and hence should not be used. Therefore the compression ratio
cannot be increased arbitrarily to have higher efficiency. Between the same temperature
limits the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is less than that for a Carnot cycle.In order
to know how far the Otto cycle deviates from Carnot cycle, a parameter called “relative
efficiency” is defined as the ratio of the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle to the
thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle working between the same temperature limits.

i.e.,
Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle
Relative efficiency of Otto cycle = ----------------------------------------------- ……..(3.12)
Efficiency of Carnot cycle working
between same temperature limits.

3.5.2. Condition for optimum work output from an Otto cycle

Net work output per unit mass of air is given by Eq. (3.7) :

wn = Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] ………………………….(3.7)

= Cv T1 [ T3 / T1 – T2 / T1 – T4 / T1 + 1 ]

T3 / T1 is the ratio of maximum temperature in the cycle to the minimum temperature in

the cycle and is called “maximum cycle temperature ratio” and is denoted by ‘t’.

t
Now T4 / T1 = (T4 / T3) x (T3 / T1) = ---------- ……………………………………(3.13)
Rc(γ – 1)

Hence wn = CvT1 [ t – Rc(γ – 1) – t / Rc(γ – 1) + 1] ………………...(3.14)

For given values of ‘t’ and T1, wn depends only on Rc.

Hence for optimum output, dwn / dRc = 0.

i.e., dwn / dR = Cv T1 [−(γ – 1) Rc(γ – 2) − t (1 – γ)Rc− γ ] = 0

or Rc 2(γ – 1) = t

or Rc = t 1 / 2(γ – 1) = Rc*…………………………………..(3.15)

If this value of Rc is substituted in Eq. (3.14) we get the expression for maximum work
output as

(wn)maximum = CvT1[ t − t ½ - t / t1/2 + 1]

13
 3.13

Or (wn)Maximum = Cv T1 [ √ t – 1 ] 2 …………………………….(3.16)

Thermal efficiency corresponding to maximum work output is therefore given by

(ηOtto) * = 1 − 1 / Rc* (γ – 1) = 1 – [1 / √ t ] ………………(3.17)

3.5.3. Illustrative examples on Otto cycle

Example 3.4:- An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. The conditions at the
beginning of compression stroke are 100 kPa and 17 C. If the heat added during the
cycle is 800 kJ/kg find (i) temperatures and pressures at salient points of the cycle, (ii)
net work output per unit mass of air, (iii)thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) mean
effective pressure, (v) compression ratio corresponding to maximum work output, (vi)
maximum work output and (vii) thermal efficiency corresponding to maximum work
output.

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown below.

Vs = Stroke Volume = V1 – V2.

p
Vc = ClearanceVolume =V2=V3
3
Given:- Rc = V1 / V2 = 8.

T1 = 17 + 273 = 290 K.
2
p1 = 100 kPa.
4
Heat supplied = q2-3 = 800
1 kJ/kg.

To find:- (i) T2, p2, T3,p3, T4, p4

V
Vc Vs = V1 – V2
(ii) wn; (iii) ηOtto; (iv) MEP;

(v) Rc* ; (vi) (wn) maximum

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T1V1(γ – 1) = T2V2(γ – 1)

Or T2 = T1 (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = 290 x 8 0.4

= 666 K.

14
 3.14

Also p1V1 / T1 = p2V2 / T2 .

Or p2 = p1 (V1/V2) (T2 / T1) = 100 x 8 x (666 / 290)

= 1837.24 kPa = 18.3724 bar.

Now q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) or T3 = T2 + q2-3 / Cv

Hence T3 = 666 + 800 / 0.718 = 1780.2 K.

Also p3V3 / T3 = p2V2 / T2 and V3 = V2.

Hence p3 = p2 (T3 / T2) = 18.3724 x (1780.2 / 666)

= 49.11 bar.

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = T3 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1)

= 1780.2 x (1/8) 0.4

= 775 K.

Also p4V4 / T4 = p1V1 / T1 and V4 = V1.

Hence p4 = p1 (T4 / T1) = 100 x (775 / 290)

= 267.24 kPa.

(ii)Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv (T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (290 – 775)

= − 348.23 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings
during this process).

Hence Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 800 – 348.23 = 451.77 kJ/kg.

(iii)Thermal efficiency = η Otto = wn / q2-3 = 451.77 / 800 = 0.565 = 56.5 %.

Check for thermal efficiency: η Otto = 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) = 1 – 1 / 8 0.4

= 0.565 = 56.5 %
(iv) Volume of air per unit mass at the beginning of compression is given by

15
 v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 290 / (100 x 1000) = 0.8323 m3/kg.

Net work output in J/kg wn 451.77 x 1000

MEP = --------------------------------------- = ---------------- = ----------------------------
Stroke volume in m3 / kg (v1 – v2) [0.8323 – 0.8323 / 8]

= 6.203 x 105 N/m2 = 6.203 bar.

(v) Maximum cycle temperature ratio = t = Tmaximu / Tminimum = T3 / T1 = 1780.2 / 290

= 6.138.

For maximum work output, Rc = Rc* = t 1/ 2 (γ – 1) = 6.138 1 / (2 x 0.4)

= 9.66

(vi) Net work output corresponding to Rc * is maximum and is given by

(wn)maximum = CvT1 [√ t − 1] 2

= 0.718 x 290 x [√ 6.138 – 1] 2

= 454.54 kJ/kg.

Example 3.5:- An air standard Otto cycle is to be designed according to the following
specifications.
Pressure at the start of the compression process = 101 kPa ;
Temperature at the start of compression process = 300 K;
Compression ratio = 8;
Maximum pressure in the cycle = 8.0 MPa;
Find (i) the net work output per unit mass of air, (ii) cycle efficiency, and (iii)MEP.

Solution: Refer to p-V diagram of the cycle shown in example 3.4.

Given:- p1 = 101 kPa ; T1 = 300 K; V1 / V2 = Rc = 8 ; p3 = 8 MPa ;

Assume Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg – K ; γ = 1.4.

To find:- (i) wn ; (ii) η Otto ; (iii) MEP

(i)Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x (8) 0.4

= 689.2 K.

Also p2 = p1 (V1/ V2) γ = 101 x 8 1.4 = 1856.3 kPa.

16
For process 2-3 we have p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and V2 = V3.

Hence T3 = T2 (p3 / p2) = 689.2 x (8 x 103 / 1856.3)

= 2970 K.

Process 3 -4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = T3 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1)

= 2970 x (1 / 8) 0.4 = 1292.9 K.

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q 2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (2970 – 689.2)

= 1637.6 kJ/kg.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 1292.9)

= − 712.9 kJ/kg.

(Negative sign for q 4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings)

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = ∑q = 1637.6 – 712.9 = 924.7 kJ/kg.

1 1
(ii) Thermal efficiency = η Otto = 1 − ------------- = 1 − --------------
Rc (γ – 1) 8 0.4

= 0.565 = 56.5 %.

Thermal efficiency can also be calculated from the formula

wn 924.7
η Otto = ------------- = -------------- = 0.565 = 56.5 %
q2-3 1637.6

(ii)Specific volume at state 1 = v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 300 / 101 x 10 3

= 0.8525 m3 / kg.

Hence v2 = v1 / 8 = 0.8525 / 8 = 0.10656 m3/kg.

wn 924.7 x 1000
MEP = -------------- = ---------------------- = 12.396 x 10 5 N/m2 = 12.396 bar.
(v1 – v2) (0.8525 – 0.10656)

17
Example 3.6:- From the p – V diagram of an engine working on Otto cycle, it is found
that the pressure in the cylinder after 1/8th of the compression stroke is completed is 1.4
bar. After 5/8th of the compression stroke is completed, the pressure is found to be3.5 bar.
The maximum cycle temperature is limited to 1000 C.If the compression process is
according to the law pV1.35= constant, find (i) the compression ratio, (ii) work output per
unit mass of air, and (iii) thermal efficiency. Assume the minimum temperature in the
cycle to be 27 C.

Solution: Refer to p – V diagram shown below.

p 3
Given:-
V1 – Va = (1/8)Vs

2 pVn = Const V1 – Vb = (5/8)Vs.

b pa = 1.4 bar; pb = 3.5 bar;
4
T3 = 1000 + 273 =1273 K.
a
1 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Compression index = n =
V 1.35
Vb Va V1

Fig. E3.6: Figure for example 3.6.

To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) wn ; (iii) η

(i) V1 – Va = (1/8) (V1 – V2) or Va = V1 – (1/8)(V1 – V2)

= (7/8)V1 + (1/8)V2

Hence Va / V2 = (7/8)Rc + 1/8 ………………………..(a)

Similarly Vb / V2 = (3/8)Rc + 5/8 ………………………..(b)

From Eqs. (a) and (b) we have

Va (7/8)Rc + 1/8 7Rc + 1

--- = ----------------- = ----------- ……………….(c)
Vb (3/8)Rc + 5/8 3Rc + 5

18
For the compression process we have paVan = pbVbn

Or Va / Vb = (pb/pa) 1/n = (3.5 / 1.4) 1/1..35

= 1.971

Substituting this value in Eq. (c) we have

7Rc + 1
--------- = 1.971
3Rc + 5

1.971 x 5 – 1
Or Rc = ------------------- = 8.146.
(7 – 1.971 x 3)

(ii) For process 1-2 we have T2 = T1 Rc(n – 1) = 300 x 8.146 0.35

= 625 K.

q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (1273 – 625)

= 465.26 kJ/kg.

For process 3-4 we have T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = 1273 x (1 / 8.146) 0.4

= 550.1 K.

q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 550.1)

= − 179.6 kJ/kg.
(Negative sign for q 4-1 indicates that during the process 4-1 heat is transferred from air to
the surroundings)

Since process 1-2 is not isentropic q1-2 is not equal to zero and therefore we have to find
q1-2.

Applying first law for process 1-2, we have, per unit mass of air

q1-2 – w1-2 = (u2 – u1) …………………………(d)

Now w1-2 = (p1v1 – p2v2) / (n – 1) = R(T1 – T2) /(n – 1)

And u2 – u1 = Cv(T2 – T1).Substituting these expressions in Eq.(d) we have

19
 R(T1 – T2)
q1-2 = ------------- + Cv(T2 – T1) = (T2 – T1) [Cv – R /(n – 1)]
(n – 1)

Hence q1-2 = (625 – 300) x [ 0.718 – 0.287 / 0.35]

= − 33.15 kJ/kg

wn = ∑w = ∑q = q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1

= − 33.15 + 465.26 + 0 − 179.6

= 252.5 kJ/kg.

Wn 252.5
Thermal efficiency = η = ----------------- = -------------- = 0.5427 = 54.27 %.
q2-3 465.26

Example 3.7:- Derive an expression for thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio
and maximum cycle temperature ratio for a cycle which is similar to Otto cycle except
that the compression process is isothermal.Compare the efficiency and work output of
this cycle with that of an Otto cycle having the same compression ratio of 6 and same
maximum cycle temperature ratio of 5..

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E3.7.

p 3

Isentropic process

2 Isothemal process
4

1
V

Fig. E3.7: p – V diagram for example 3.7.

20
Solution:

Net work output per unit mass = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1.

But w2-3 = w4-1 = 0 as both the processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant volume processes.

Since process 1-2 is isothermal ( for a perfect gas this is equivalent to process according
to the law pv= constant)

w1-2 = p1v1 ln (v2/v1) = − RT1 ln Rc

where Rc = v1/v2.
(p3 v3 – p4v4) R(T3 – T4)
Since process 3-4 is isentropic, w3-4 = ----------------- = ----------------------
(γ – 1) (γ – 1)

RT1 (T3 / T1 – T4 / T1)

= ------------------------------
(γ – 1)

Now T3 / T1 = t = maximum cycle temperature ratio,

And T4 / T1 = (T4/T3) x (T3/T1) = (V3/V4)(γ – 1) t = t / Rc(γ – 1)

RT1 [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ]
Hence w3-4 = ---------------------------
(γ – 1)

RT1 [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ]
Therefore wn = − RT1 ln Rc + ------------------------------
(γ – 1)

={ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}……………..(a)

Heat supplied = q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = Cv(T3 – T1) = CvT1(T3/T1 – 1)

= CvT1(t – 1)

Thermal efficiency = η = wn / q2-3

{ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}

= ------------------------------------------------------------
CvT1(t – 1)

21
Since Cv = R / (γ – 1), the above expression simplifies to

{t [ 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}
η = -----------------------------------------------------------
( t – 1)

(ii) Given:- Rc = 6 ; t = 5 ; To find (a) wn / (wn)Otto ; and (b) η / ηOtto

(a)Work output for an Otto cycle in terms of T1, Rc and t is given by Eq.(3.14) as

(wn)Otto = CvT1 [t – Rc(γ – 1) – t / Rc(γ – 1) +1]

= 0.718 T1 x [ 5 – 6 0.4 – 5 / 6 0.4 + 1]

= 1.0844 T1

For the given cycle, from Eq. (a)

wn ={ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}

0.287 x T1
= --------------- x { [ 5 – 5 / 60.4] – 0.4 x ln 6 }
0.4

= 1.321 T1

Hence (wn)Otto 1.0844 T1

--------- = --------------- = 0.821.
wn 1.321 T1

(b) Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle = η otto = 1 – 1 / 6 0.4

= 0.5116 = 51.16 %

For the given cycle thermal efficiency is

{t [ 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}
η = -----------------------------------------------------------
( t – 1)

{ 5 x [ 1 – 1/ 60.4] – 0.4 x ln 6}
= ------------------------------------------ = 0.4603 = 46.03 %.
(5 – 1)

22
3.6. Diesel Cycle:- The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression ignition engines
(CI engines). CI engine was first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in 1890. The diesel engine
works on the principle of compression ignition. In such an engine, only air is compressed
and at the end of the compression process, the fuel is sprayed into the engine cylinder
containing high pressure air, so that the fuel ignites spontaneously and combustion
occurs. Since only air is compressed during the compression stroke, the possibility of
auto ignition is completely eliminated in diesel engines. Hence diesel engines can be
designed to operate at much higher compression ratios (between 12 and 24). Also another
benefit of not having to deal with auto ignition is that fuels used in this engine can be less
refined (thus less expensive).
The p – V and T – s diagrams for an air-standard diesel cycle are
shown in Fig. 3.4. The diesel cycle is similar to Otto cycle except that the heating process
takes place at constant pressure in a diesel cycle. The various processes involved in an
ideal diesel cycle are as follows.
p Constant 3
T Pressure Process
2 3

Isentropic
Process 4

4 2

1
1 Constant volume
process
V
s

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process
work is done on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heating of air till the maximum permissible temperature
is reached.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. during this process work
is done by air on the surroundings.
Process 4-1: Constant volume cooling of air so that air comes back to its original state to
complete the cycle.

23
3.6.1.Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp (T3 – T2).

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv (T1 – T4)

Net work ouput per unit mass of air = wn = ∑w = ∑q

= q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1.

But q1-2 = q3-4 = 0 as these two processes are isentropic.

Hence w n = q2-3 + q4-1

= Cp (T3 – T2).+ Cv (T1 – T4) ………………(3.18)

Therefore thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle is given by

wn Cp (T3 – T2).+ Cv (T1 – T4)
η Diesel = ---------- = ----------------------------------
q2-3 Cp (T3 – T2).

(Cv/Cp) (T4 – T1)

= 1 − ----------------------- …………………………(3.19)
(T3 – T2).

Temperatures T2, T3 and T4 can be expressed in terms of T1, the compression ratio Rc and
the cut off ratio ρ (ρ = V3 / V2) as follows.

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(V1/V2)(γ – 1)

= Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 2-3, p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and p2 = p3.

Hence T3 = (V3 / V2) T2

= ρ Rc(γ – 1) T1.

Proocess 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1).

But V4 / V3 = Expansion ratio = (V4 / V2)(V2 / V3) = (V1 / V2)(V2 / V3)

= Rc / ρ.

24
Therefore T4 = ( ρ / Rc) (γ – 1) T3

= ( ρ / Rc) (γ – 1) ρ Rc(γ – 1) T1

= ρ γ T1.

Substituting the expressions for T2,T3, and T4 in Eq. (3.19)

( ρ γ− 1 )
η Diesel = 1 − ------------------------------
γ [ρ Rc(γ – 1) − Rc(γ – 1) ]

( ρ γ− 1 )
or η Diesel = 1 − ------------------------------ ………………(3.20)
γ Rc(γ – 1) [ρ −1]

Now substituting the expressions for T2,T3, and T4 in terms of T1 in Eq. (3.18) we get

wn = CvT1[γ (ρ Rc(γ – 1) – Rc(γ – 1)) − ρ γ + 1 ]

Or wn = CvT1[ γ Rc(γ – 1) (ρ – 1) − ρ γ + 1] …………..(3.21)

ηDiesel

Rc
1
Fig. 3.5 : Effect of Rc and ρ on efficiency of diesel cycle

25
It can be seen from Eq. (3.20) that the thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle depends on
the compression ratio Rc and the cut-off ratio ρ. The effect of these parameters on thermal
efficiency is shown in Fig. 3.5. It can be seen from this figure that for a given value of the
cut-off ratio the thermal efficiency increases with Rc and for a given value of Rc, the
efficiency deceases with increase in the cut-off ratio.The increase in cut-off ratio results
in decrease in the expansion ratio which in turn decreases the work done during
expansion process. At the same time increase in cut-off ratio also results in increase in
heat supplied. The overall effect is that the efficiency decreases.

3.6.2.Illustrative examples on diesel cycle

Example 3.8:- An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 14. The air
condition at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 27 C.The maximum temperature
in the cycle is 2500 C. Determine (i) temperature and pressure at salient points of the
cycle, (ii) net work output per unit mass of air, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) specific air
consumption in kg/kWh, and (v) MEP.

Solution:

p Given:- Rc = V1/V2 = 14; p1= 1 bar;

2 3 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ;

q2-3 T3 = 2500 + 273 = 2773 K ;

Assume:γ = 1.4;Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K

Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K
4
q4-1 To find:- (i) T2,p2, p3, T4, p4 ;

1 (ii) wn ; (iii) η Diesel ; (iv) SAC in

V
kg/kWh ; (v) MEP

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x 14 0.4

= 862.13 K.

Also p2 = p1(V1/V2) γ = 1 x 14 1.4 = 40.23 bar

26
 For process 2-3 we have p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and p2 = p3.

Hence cut – off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 2773 / 862.13

= 3.216.

Expansion ratio = V4 / V3 = Rc / ρ = 14 / 3.216 = 4.353.

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1)

= 2773 x (1 / 4.353) 0.4

= 1539.7 K.

Also p3V3 γ = p4V4 γ or p4 = p3 (V3 / V4) γ

Hence p4 = 40.23 x (1/ 4.353) 1.4

= 5.131 bar.

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2)

= 1.005 x (2773 – 862.13)

= 1920.4 kJ/kg

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 1539.7)

= − 890.11 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings
during this process).

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 1920.4 – 890.11

= 1030 kJ/kg

wn 1030
(iii) Thermal efficiency = η Diesel = --------- = ----------------
q2-3 1920.11

= 0.5364 = 53.64 %.
.
(iv) Let m = mass of air consumed in kg / s.

27
 .
Air consumption in kg/h m x 3600
Then Specific air consumption in kg/kWh = --------------------------------- = --.-----------
Net work output in kW m x wn

3600 3600
= ----------- = -------------- = 3.495 kg/kWh.
wn 1030

(v) Specific volume at the beginning of compression = v1 = RT1 / p1

287 x 300
Hence v1 = --------------- = 0.861 m 3/kg
1 x 10 5

Therefore v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.861 / 14 = 0.0615 m3 / kg.

Wn 1030 x 1000
Mean effective pressure = MEP = ---------------- = -----------------------
(v1 – v2) ( 0.861 – 0.0615)

= 12.883 x 10 5 N / m2 = 12.883 bar

Example 3.9:- A diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16. The temperature before
compression is 300 K and after expansion it is 900 K. Determine (i) Net work input per
unit mass of air, (ii) the air standard efficiency and (iii) MEP if the minimum pressure in
the cycle is 1 bar.

Given:- Rc = V1 / V2 = 16 ; T1 = 300 K ; T4 = 900 K ;

To find :- (i) wn ; (ii) η Diesel ; (iii) MEP.

Solution: Refer to p-v diagram of example 3.8.

(i)Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(V1 / V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x 16 0.4

Or T2 = 909.4 K

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T3 = T4 (V4/V3) (γ – 1) = T4 [V1/V3] (γ – 1)

Or T3 = T4 [(V1/V2) (V2/V3)] (γ – 1) = T4 Rc(γ – 1) (T2 / T3) (γ – 1)

Or T3γ = T4 [Rc T2](γ – 1)

Or T3 = {T4 [Rc T2](γ – 1) }1 / γ = { 900 x [ 16 x 909.4] 0.4} 1/1.4 = 1993.27 K

28
Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (1993.27 – 909.4)

= 1089.3 kJ/kg.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (900 – 300)

= 430.8 kJ/kg

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 1089.3 – 430.8

= 658.5 kJ/kg.

wn 658.5
(ii) Thermal efficiency = ηDiesel = --------- = --------------- = 0.6045
q2-3 1089.3

= 60.45 %

(iii)Specific volume of air at the beginning of compression = v1 = RT1 / p1

287 x 300
Hence v1 = ------------------- = 0.861 m3 / kg.
1 x 105

Therefore v2 = v1 / 16 = 0.861 / 16 = 0.0538 m3/kg.

wn 658.5 x 1000
MEP = --------------- = ---------------------
(v1 – v2) (0.861 – 0.0538)

= 8.158 x 10 5 N/m2 = 8.158 bar.

Example 3.10:- In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure at the end of expansion is
240 kPa and temperature is 550 C. At the end of compression process, the pressure is 4.2
MPa and temperature is 700 C. Determine (i) the compression ratio, (ii) the cut-off ratio,
(iii) heat supplied per unit mass of air, and (iv) cycle efficiency.

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E3.10.

Given:- p4 = 240 kPa ; T4 = 550 + 273 = 823 K ; p2 = 4.2 x10 3 kPa ;

T2 = 700 + 273 = 973 K.

To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) ρ ; (iii) q 2-3 ;(iv) η Diesel

29
 (i) Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T3 = T4 (p3 /p4) (γ – 1) / γ = T4 (p2 /p4) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T3 = 823 x (4.2 x103 / 240) 0.286

= 1866 K

Cut-off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 1866 / 973

= 1.92.

(ii) Expansion ratio = Re = V4 / V3 = (p3 / p4) 1 / γ = (4.2 x 103 / 240) 1/ 1.4

= 7.725

Compression ratio = Rc = V1/V2 = Re ρ = 7.725 x 1.92

= 14.832
(iii) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2)

= 1.005 x (1866 – 973)

= 897.5 kJ/kg.

(iv) For process 1-2 we have, T1 = T2 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1) = 973 x (1/14.832) 0.4

= 331 K

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (331 – 823)

= − 353.3 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings
during this process).

Net work output = wn = 897.5 – 353.3 = 544.2 kJ/kg.

544.2
Hence thermal efficiency = η Diesel = wn / q2-3 = -------------------
897.5

= 0.6063 = 60.63 %.

Example 3.11:- An oil engine works on diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 20. Heat
addition takes place up to 10 % of the stroke. Initial pressure and temperature of air are
1 bar and 27 C.The bore and stroke of the engine are 16 cm and 20 cm respectively. The

30
compression process is according to the law pV 1.32= constant and the expansion process
is according to the law pV 1.30= constant. Find (i) the pressure and temperature at salient
points of the cycle, (ii) the net work output per unit mass of air, (iii) MEP, (iv) thermal
efficiency of the engine, (v) relative efficiency with respect to air standard efficiency.

Solution:

p q2-3
Given:- Rc = V1/V2 = 20
2 3
V3 – V2 = 0.1(V1 – V2)
pV ne = Constant
p1 = 1 bar;
pV nc = Constant
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K;

4 nc = 1.32 ; ne = 1.30

q4-1 bore = d = 0.16 m ;

1 stroke = L = 0.20 m
V
To find:- (i) p2, p3,p4,T2,T3,T4 ; (ii) wn ; (iii) MEP ; (iv) η engine ;
(v) η engine / η Diesel

(i) Stroke volume = V1 – V2 = (π / 4) d 2 L = (π / 4) x 0.16 2 x 0.20 = 4.02 x 10 − 3 m3.

Hence 20 V2 – V2 = 4.02 x 10 − 3 Or V2 = 2.116 x 10 − 4 m3.

And V3 = V2 + 0.1 (V1 – V2).

Hence cut-off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = 1 + 0.1 (V1/V2 – 1) = 1 + 0.1 x (20 – 1)

= 2.9.
Expansion ratio = Re = V4 / V3 = Rc / ρ = 20 / 1.9 = 6.9.

Now T2 = T1 Rc (nc – 1) = 300 x 20 0.32 = 782.44 K

T3 = T2 ρ = 782.44 x 2.9 = 2269.1 K

T4 = T3 (1 / Re)(ne – 1) = 2269.1 / 6.9 0.3 = 1271.6 K.

p2 = p1 Rcnc = 1 x 20 1.32 = 52.163 bar = p3.

31
 p4 = p3 (1/Re) ne = 52.163 / 6.9 1.30 = 4.235 bar.

(ii) Since both the compression process 1-2 and the expansion process 3-4 are not
isentropic, the heat transfer during these processes will not be equal to zero.It is therefore
necessary to calculate the heat transfer during these processes to determine the total
external heat supplied during the cycle.

Now (p1v1 – p2v2) R(T1 – T2) 0.287 x (300 – 782.44)

w1-2 = ------------------ = --------------- = -----------------------------
(nc – 1) (nc – 1) (1.32 – 1)

= − 431.2 kJ/kg.

w2-3 = p2 (v3 – v2) = p3v3 – p2v2 = R(T3 – T2)

= 0.287 x (2269.1 – 782.44) = 425.2 kJ/kg.

(p3v3 – p4v4) R (T3 – T4) 0.287 x (2269.1 – 1271.6)

w3-4 = ----------------- = ---------------- = ---------------------------------
(ne – 1) (ne – 1) (1.30 – 1)

= 951.4 kJ/kg.

w4-1 = 0 as process 4-1 is at constant volume.

Hence net work out put = wn = − 431.2 + 425.2 + 951.4 = 945.3 kJ/kg.

(iii) specific volume at state 1 = v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 300 / 1 x105

= 0.861 m3/kg.

Therefore v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.861 / 20 = 0.04305 m3/kg.

wn 945.3 x 1000
MEP = --------------- = ----------------------
(v1 – v2) [0.861 – 0.04305]

= 11.597 x 10 5 N/m2 = 11.597 bar.

(iv) q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (2269.1 – 782.440 = 1494 kJ/kg.

q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x ( 300 – 1271.6) = − 698.3 kJ/kg.

Applying I law for process 1-2 we have

32
 q1-2 = w1-2 + (u2 – u1) = w1-2 + Cv(T2 – T1)

= − 431.2 + 0.718 x (782.44 – 300) = − 84.32 kJ/kg

Applying I law for the cycle we have

q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1 = wn

Or q3-4 = wn − (q1-2 + q2-3 + q4-1)

= 945.3 − (− 84.32 + 1494 − 698.3) = 233.92 kJ/kg

Total heat supplied during the cycle = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = 1494 + 233.92 = 1727.9 kJ/kg

945.3
Thermal efficiency of the engine = η Engine = wn / qs = ------------
1727.9

= 0.547 = 54.7 %.

(v) Air standard efficiency of the diesel cycle is given by

(ργ – 1) (2.9 1.4 – 1)

ηDiesel = 1 – -------------------------- = 1 − ----------------------------
γ Rc(γ – 1) (ρ – 1) 1.4 x 20 0.4x (2.9 – 1)

= 0.6098 = 60.98 %

Relative efficiency = η Engine / ηDiesel = 0.547 / 0.6098 = 0.897 = 89.7 %.

Example 3.12:- In an air standard diesel cycle, air is compressed isentropically from 26
C and 105 kPa to 3.7 MPa. The entropy change during heat rejection process is − 0.6939
kJ/kg-K. Determine (i) heat supplied per unit mass of air, (ii)thermal efficiency, (iii)
maximum temperature in the cycle, and (iv) temperature at the start of the heat rejection
process.

Given:- T1 = 26 + 273 = 299 K ; p1 = 105 kPa ; p2 = 3.7 x 10 3 kPa ; s1 – s4 = − 0.6939

kJ/(kg-K).

To find :- (i) q2-3 ; (ii) η Diesel ; (iii) T3 ; (iv) T4

The p-v and T-s diagram for the air standard diesel cycle are shown in Fig. E3.12.

It follows from the T-s diagram that s2 – s3 = s1 – s4

33
Process 2-3 is at constant pressure. Therefore

s3 – s2 = Cp ln (T3 / T2). Or T3 / T2 = exp {(s3 – s2) / Cp}

Or T3 / T2 = exp {0.6939 / 1.005} = 1.995

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ

= 299 x {3.7 x 10 3 / 105 }0.286 = 828 K

Hence T3 = 1.995 x 828 = 1651.86 K

(i) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (1651.86 – 828)

= 828 kJ/kg.

(ii)For process 4-1 which is at constant volume we have

s1 – s4 = Cv ln (T1 / T4)

Hence T4 = T1 exp {(s4 – s1) / Cv}

= 299 x exp {0.6939 / 0.718}

= 784.9 K.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (299 – 784.9)

= − 349.4 kJ/kg.

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 828 – 349.4 = 478.6 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηDiesel = wn / q2-3 = 478.6 / 828

= 0.578 = 57.8 %.

(iii) Maximum temperature in the cycle = T3 = 1651.86 K.

(iv) Temperature at the start of heat rejection process = T4 = 784.9 K.

34
3.7. Dual - Combustion Cycle or Semi-Diesel Cycle In practice, the p-V diagrams
taken from oil engines indicate that the combustion do not take place at constant pressure
as in a diesel cycle, but is found to take place partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure. Hence for most oil engines the ideal cycle is taken as one in which
heating takes place partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. Such a cycle
is called as “dual combustion or semi-diesel cycle”. The p-V and T-s diagrams for a dual
combustion cycle are shown in Fig.3.6.

4
p 3 4 Constant
pressure
process 5
s = const. 3
2

5
2
Constant
1 volume
1 process
V

Fig. 3.6 : p-V and T-s diagrams for dual combustion cycle.

Process 1-2:- Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process
work is done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2-3:- Constant volume heating of air from state 2 to state 3.

Process 3-4:- Constant pressure heating of air till maximum permissible temperature is
reached.

Process 4-5:- Isentropic expansion of air from state 4 to state 5. During this process work
is done by air on the surroundings.

Process 5-1:- Constant volume cooling of air till the air comes back to its original state to
complete the cycle.

3.7.1.Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv (T1 – T5)

35
Net work out put per unit mass of air = wn = ∑w = ∑q = qs + q5-1

Or wn = Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) + Cv (T1 – T5)

Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) + Cv (T1 – T5)

Hence thermal efficiency = η Dual = wn / qs = ---------------------------------------------------
Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

Cv (T5 – T1)
= 1 − ---------------------------------- ……………(3.22)
Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

The temperatures T2, T3, T4, and T5 can be expressed in terms of T1 as follows.

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = (V1 / V2) (γ – 1) T1 = Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 2-3, p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3, and V2 = V3.

Hence T3 = (p3 / p2) T2 = Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 3-4, p3V3 / T3 = p4V4 / T4, and p3 = p4.

Hence T4 = (V4 / V3) T3 = ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 4-5 we have T5 = (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) T4 = {(V4 / V3)(V3 / V1)} (γ – 1) T4

= {ρ / Rc}(γ – 1) ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1

= ρ γ Rp T1

Substituting these expressions in Eq. (3.22) we have

T1 [ρ γ Rp − 1]
η Dual = 1 − -----------------------------------------------------------------------
T1[{Rp Rc(γ – 1) − Rc(γ – 1) } + γ{ ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) − Rp Rc(γ – 1)}]

[ρ γ Rp − 1]
η Dual = 1 − --------------------------------------------- ……………………….(3.23)
Rc (γ – 1) [ (Rp – 1) + γ Rp (ρ – 1) ]

It can be seen from Eq. (3.23) that the air standard efficiency of the dual combustion
cycle depends on the compression ratio Rc, the pressure ratio Rp and the cutoff ratio ρ.
The effect of these parameters on efficiency is shown in Fig.3.7. It can bessen from this
figure that for given values of Rp and ρ , the efficiency increase with Rc, rapidly for small
values of Rc, but gradually for higher values of Rc. For a given value of Rc and Rp, the

36
efficiency decreases with increase in the cut – off ratio and for given values of Rcand ρ,
the efficiency increases with increase in Rp.

η Dual

Rp

Rc

Fig. 3.7: Effect of Rc, Rp and ρ on efficiency of dual cycle

It can also be seen from Eq.(3.23) that this expression reduces to that of the diesel cycle
if Rp = 1 and to that of Otto cycle if ρ = 1. It is also clear from this expression that the
efficiency of the dual combustion cycle is intermediate between those of an Otto cycle
and a Diesel cycle which have the same compression ratio and same cut-off ratio.

3.7.2. Illustrative examples on dual combustion cycle

Example 3.13:- The compression and expansion ratios of an oil engine working on a
dual cycle are 9 and 5 respectively. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and
30 C. The heat added at constant pressure is twice that added at constant volume.
Determine the thermal efficiency and the mean effective pressure.

Given : Rc = V1 / V2 = 9 ; Re = V5 / V4 = 5 ; p1 = 1 bar ; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K ;

q 3-4 = 2 q 2-3 ;

To find :- (i) η Dual ; (ii) MEP

Solution: Refer to p – V diagram shown in Fig. E3.13.

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 Rc (γ – 1) = 303 x 9 0.4 = 729.7 K.

37
 Compression ratio (V1 / V2) 9
Cut off ratio = V4 / V3 = ---------------------------- = ----------------- = -------
Expansion ratio (V5 / V4) 5

= 1.8.

For process 3-4, p3V3 / T3 = p4V4/T4 and p3 = p4.

Hence T4 = (V4 / V3) T3 = 1.8 T3 …………………………….(a)

Also q3-4 = 2 q 2-3

i.e., Cp (T4 – T3) = 2Cv(T3 – T2)

or (γ / 2) [1.8 T3 – T3] = T3 – T2

T2 729.7
Or T3 = ------------------ = ----------------------
[1 – 0.8(γ / 2)] [1 – 0.8 x 1.4 / 2]

= 1658.7 K.

Hence T4 = 1.8 x 1658.7 = 2985.4 K

Process 5-1 is isentropic. Hence T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 2985.4 x (1 / 5) 0.4

= 1568.2 K.

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = 3q 2-3 = 3 Cv (T3 – T2)

= 3 x 0.718 x (1658.7 – 729.7)

= 2003.85 kJ/kg.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv(T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (303 – 1568.2)

= − 909.7 kJ/kg.

(Negative sign for q5-1 indicates that during the process heat is transferred from air to the
surroundings).

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 2003.85 – 909.7 = 1094.15 kJ/kg

38
 wn 1094.15
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = ------------ = ------------------ = 0.546 = 54.6 %.
qs 2003.85

287 x 303
Specific volume of air before compression = v1 = RT1 / p1 = ------------------------
1 x 10 5

= 0.8666 m3 / kg.

Specific volume after compression = v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.8666 / 9

= 0.0963 m3 / kg.

wn 1094.15 x 1000
Mean effective pressure = MEP = ----------------- = -----------------------
(v1 – v2) (0.8666 – 0.0963)

= 14.2 x 10 5 N/m2 = 14.2 bar.

Example 3.14:- The maximum and the compression pressures in a dual cycle are 64 bar
and 32 bar respectively. The compression curve is polytropic with index n = 1.35. The
pressure in the cycle after 1/3rd of the compression stroke is completed is 1.65 bar. If 60
percent of the energy addition occurs at constant volume while 40 percent occurs at
constant pressure, find (i) the compression ratio, (ii) the suction pressure, (iii)work
output if the expansion index is 1.34, and (iv) thermal efficiency.

p Given:- p3 = p4 = 64 bar
3 4
p2 = 32 bar; nc = 1.35 ; ne = 1.34 ;
pVne = const
pVnc = const pa = 1.65 bar ; q2-3 = 0.6 qs;
2
q3-4 = 0.4 qs ;

V1 – Va = (1/3) (V1 – V2)

5 To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) p1 ; (iii) wn ;

a
1 (iv) η Dual

V
Va V1

39
Solution: (i) V1 – Va = (1/3) (V1 – V2) or Va = V1 – (1/3) (V1 – V2)

Hence Va / V2 = (2/3)(V1/V2) + 1/3 ……..(a)

Now paVanc = p2V2nc or Va / V2 = (p2/pa) 1 / nc

Or Va / V2 = (32 / 1.65) 1 / 1.35 = 8.99

Substituting this in Eq.(a) and solving for (V1 / V2) we have

(8.99 x 1/3)
Compression ratio = V1 / V2 = ---------------- = 13
(2/3)

(ii)For process 1-2 we have p1 = (V2 / V1) nc p2 = (1 /13) 1.35 x 32

= 1.003 bar.

(iii) It is not possible to calculate the temperatures at staes 2, 3, 4 and 5 unless

temperature at state 1 is known. Since T1 is not given it is assumed as 300 K.

Hence for process 1-2, T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (nc – 1) = 300 x 13 0.35

= 736.21 K.

For process 2-3 we p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and V2 = V3.

Hence T3 = T2(p3 / p2) = 736.21 x (64 / 32)

= 1472.42 K.

q2-3 0.6 qs
Now ---------------- = ----------- = 1.5
q3-4 0.4 qs

Therefore q2-3 = 1.5 q3-4 Or Cv (T3 – T2) = 1.5 Cp (T4 – T3)

Or T4 = T3 + (1/ 1.5)(1 / γ) [T3 – T2]

= 1472.42 + (1/1.5) x (1/ 1.4) x [1472.42 – 736.21]

= 1823 K.

Cut off ratio = ρ = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1823 / 1472.42 = 1.24

40
 Compression ratio 13
Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = ----------------------- = --------- = 10.5
Cut-off ratio 1.24

For the expansion process 4-5 we have, T5 = T4 (V4/V5) (ne – 1)

= 1823 x (1/10.5) 0.34

= 819.6 K.

Since the index for compression process and expansion process are not equal to γ, these
processes are not isentropic. Therefore there will be heat transfers during these processes
which have to be determined to know the total heat supplied during the cycle.

(p1v1 – p2v2) R (T1 – T2) 0.287 x (300 – 736.21)

Now w1-2 = ----------------- = ----------------------- = -----------------------------
(nc – 1) (nc – 1) 0.35

= − 356.5 kJ/kg.

w2-3 = 0 as the process is at constant volume.

w3-4 = p3(v4 – v5) = p4v4 − p5v5 = R(T4 – T5) = 0.287 x (1823 – 1472.42)

= 100.3 kJ/kg.

(p4v4 – p5v5) R (T4 – T5) 0.287 x (1823 – 819.6)

w4-5 = ----------------- = ----------------------- = -----------------------------
(ne – 1) (ne – 1) 0.34

= 844 kJ/kg.

w5-1 = 0 as the process is at constant volume.

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-5 + w5-1

= − 356.5 + 0 + 100.3 + 844 + 0

= 587.8 kJ/kg.

(ii) Now for process 4-5 by I law q4-5 = w4-5 + Cv(T5 – T4)

= 844 + 0.718 x (819.6 – 1823) = 122.55 kJ/kg.

41
Total heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-5

= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3) + q4-5

= 0.718 x(1472.42 – 736.21)

+ 1.005 x(1823 – 1472.42) + 122.55

= 1004.25 kJ/kg

587.80
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = wn / qs = --------------- = 0.5853 = 58.53 %
1004.25

Example 3.15:- . A diesel engine works between the temperatures of 1250 C and 25 C.
The energy addition during combustion is 550 kJ /kg. A dual combustion cycle operates
between the same temperature limits, and has the same total energy addition as for diesel
cycle except that this energy is equally divided between the constant volume and constant
pressure processes. Compare the efficiencies of the two cycles

p p
2 3 3 4

4 5

1 1
V
V
Diesel Cycle Dual combustion cycle

(i) Analysis of diesel cycle:- Given: Tmax = T3 = 1250 + 273 = 1523 K ;

Tmin = T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K ; qs = q 2-3 = 550 kJ/kg.

42
To find: η Diesel and compare it with η Dual.

Solution: q2-3 = Cp (T3 – T2). Or T2 = T3 – q2-3 / Cp = 1523 – 550 / 1.005

= 975.74 K .

Cut – off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 1523 / 975.74 = 1.56.

Compression ratio = Rc = V1 / V2 = (T2 / T1) 1 / (γ – 1) = (975.74 / 298) 1 / 0.4

= 19.4
1 [ρ γ – 1]
Thermal efficiency = η Diesel = 1 − ------------------- x -------------
γ Rc(γ – 1) [ρ – 1]

1 [ 1.56 1.4 – 1]
= 1 − ----------------- x ------------------
1.4 x 19.4 0.4 [ 1.56 – 1]

= 0.6635 = 66.35 %

(ii) Analysis of Dual combustion cycle: Given:- q2-3 = q3-4 = (1/2) x550 = 275 kJ/kg ;

Tmax = T4 = 1523 K ; Tmin = T1 = 298 K ;

To find: η Dual and compare it with η Diesel

q 3-4 = Cp(T4 – T3) or T3 = T4 – q3-4 / Cp = 1523 – 275 / 1.005

= 1249.4 K

Similarly T2 = T3 – q2-3 / Cv = 1249.4 – 275 / 0.718

= 866.5 K.

Compression ratio = V1 / V2 = (T2 / T1) (γ – 1) = (866.5 / 298) 0.4

= 14.4

Cut-off Ratio = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1523 / 1249

= 1.22

43
 Compression ratio 14.4
Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = ------------------------ = ------------
Cut –off ratio 1.22

= 11.8

For expansion process 4-5 we have T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 1523 x (1/11.8) 0.4

= 567.4 K.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv (T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (298 – 567.4)

= − 193.7 kJ/kg

( 550 – 193.7)
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = ------------------- = 0.6478 = 64.78 %.
550

Comparing the two efficiencies we have η Diesel > η Dual

44
Example 3.16:- In a dual cycle, two thirds of the total energy added occurs at constant
volume.. If the compression ratio is 15, and the maximum pressure in the cycle is 53 bar,
compute(i)the temperatures at the salient points of the cycle, and (ii) thermal efficiency.
Assume standard conditions of air at the start of the compression process. Assume the
minimum temperature and pressure in the cycle to be 27 C and 1 bar.

p 3 4 Given:- q2-3 = (2/3) qs ;

q3-4 = (1/3) qs ; V1 / V2 = 15 ;

pmax = p3 = p4 = 53 bar ;
2
Tmin = T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ;

pmin = p1 = 1 bar.

To find:- (i) T2, T3, T4, T5

5
(ii) η Dual
1

Solution: (i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (γ – 1)

Or T2 = 300 x 15 0.4 = 880.3 K.

Also p2 = p1(V1/V2) γ = 1 x 15 1.4 = 44.3 bar.

For process 2-3 we have T3 = T2 (p3 / p2) = 880.3 x (53 / 44.3)

= 1053.2 K.

q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (1053.2 – 880.3) = 123.85 kJ/kg.

Hence qs = (3/2) x 123.85 = 185.775 kJ/kg.

Therefore q3-4 = (1 / 3) x 185.775 = 61.925 kJ/kg

Now q3-4 = Cp (T4 – T3). Or T4 = T3 + q3-4 / Cp = 1053.2 + 61.925 / 1.005 = 1114.82 K

Cut – off ratio = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1114.82 / 1053.2 = 1.06

45
Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = 15 / 1.06 = 14.15.

Hence T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 1114.82 x (1 / 14.15) 0.4

= 386.3 K.

Heat rejected = q5-1 = Cv(T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (300 – 386.3)

= 61.96 kJ/kg

Net work out put = wn = 185.775 – 61.96 = 123.815 kJ/kg.

Thermal efficiency = η Dual = 123.815 / 185.775 = 0.6665

= 66.65 %.
3.8. Comparison between Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles:- The important
variables which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are compression ratio,
peak pressure, heat supplied, heat rejected and the net work output. In order to compare
the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles some of these variables
have to be fixed.

3.8.1. Comparison with same compression ratio and heat supply: The comparison of
these cycles for the same compression ratio and same heat supply are shown in Fig. 3.8
on both p – V and T – s diagrams.In these diagrams, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents Otto

T 3
p
3’’
3’
2’’
3 4’
2’’ 3’’ 4”
3’ 4
2
4’
4’’ 2
4
1
1
V s
5 6 6” 6’
Fig.3.8: Comparison with same compression ratio and heat supply

46
Cycle, cycle 1-2-3’-4’-1 represents diesel cycle and cycle 1-2”-3”-4”-1 represents the
dual combustion cycle for the same compression ratio and heat supply.

From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that area 5236 = area 522”3”6” =
area 523’6’ as this area represents the heat supply which is same for all the cycles.All the
cycles start from the same initial point 1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to state 2
as the compression ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram, that for the same heat
supply, the heat rejection in Otto cycle (area 5146) is minimum and heat rejection in
Diesel cycle (area 514’6’) is maximum. Consequently Otto cycle has the highest work
output and efficiency. Diesel cycle has the least efficiency and dual cycle has the
efficiency between the two.

3.8.2:- Same compression ratio and heat rejection:- Fig. 3.9 shows the comparison
between the Otto cycle and Diesel cycle on p-V and T-s diagrams.Cycle 1-2-3-4-1
represents the Otto cycle and cycle 1-2-3’-4-1 represents the Diesel cycle.

T
p 3
3
3’

2 3’
4
2
4

1 1
5 6
V
s
Fig. 3.9: Same compression ratio and same heat rejection

Since both the cycles start from the same state point 1 and the heat rejection is same for
both the cycles state 4 is same for both the cycles. Also since the compression ratio is
same for both the cycles the state after compression process (state 2) is same for both the
cycles.It can be seen from the T-s diagram that the area representing the Otto cycle (area
1234) is more than that representing the Diesel cycle (area 123’4). Hence the work output
for the Otto cycle is more than that for the Diesel cycle.Thermal efficiency of any power
cycle can be expressed as

Heat supply – Heat rejection Heat rejection

Thermal efficiency = ----------------------------------- = 1 − -----------------------
Heat supply Heat supply

47
Since the heat rejection is same for both the cycle and heat supply for Otto cycle (area
2365) is more than that for the Diesel cycle (area 23’65), thermal efficiency for the Otto
cycle is higher than that for the diesel cycle.

3.8.3:Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection: Fig. 3.10 show the
comparison, on p-V and T-s diagrams, between Otto and Diesel cycles with same peak
pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection.Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents the Otto cycle,

p
T
3

2’ 3 4

2’
2
4
2
1 1
5 6
V s

Fig. 3.10: Same peak pressure, same peak temperature and same
heat rejection

Cycle 1-2’-3-4-1 represents the Diesel cycle. It can be seen from the T-s diagram that
area representing the Diesel cycle (area 12’34) is more than that representing the Otto
cycle (area 1234) and hence Diesel cycle has higher work output than Otto cycle.It can
also be seen that the heat supply for Diesel cycle (area 52’36) is more than that for Otto
cycle (area 5236). Since the heat rejection is same for both the cycles, it follows that the
thermal efficiency for the Diesel cycle is more than that for the Otto cycle for the same
peak pressure, peak temperature and same heat rejection.

3.9. Stirling Cycle The Carnot power cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of
its low work output. Hence one of the modified forms of the cycle to produce higher
mean effective pressure with the efficiency equal to Carnot efficiency is the Stirling
cycle. The Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes.
The heat rejection and addition take place at constant temperatures. The p-V and T-s
diagrams for the Stirling cycle are shown in Fig. 3.11. It is clear from the T-s diagram
that the amount of heat addition and rejection during constant volume processes is
same.Hence the thermal efficiency of the cycle is given as:

48
 ∑w ∑q
ηStirling = ------------------ = -------------------
qs q3-4

q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q-41

= -------------------------------------
q3-4

Now q2-3 = −q4-1.

q1-2 + q3-4 RT3 ln(V4/V3) + RT1 ln(V2/V1)
ηStirling = ----------------- = --------------------------------------
q3-4 RT3 ln(V4/V3)

Since V4 = V1 and V3 = V2, the above expression for efficiency reduces to

T3 – T1
ηStirling = ------------
T3

This expression is same as that for a Carnot cycle working between the same temperature
limits.
The Stirling cycle was used for hot air engines and became obsolete as Otto and
Diesel cycle came into use. The design of stirling engines involves a major difficulty in
the design of a heat exchanger to achieve the heat transfer processes at constant volume
and to operate at high temperature continuously. However, with the development of new
materials and intensive research on this engine, Stirling engine has staged a come back.
Since the heat exchanger cannot have 100 % efficiency in practice, the thermal efficiency
of a practical Stirling engine will be less than that for a Carnot engine working between
the same temperature limits.

49
3.10. Gas Turbine Cycles

3.10.1. Assumptions for analysis of Ideal Gas Turbine Cycles :- Following assumptions
are made to analyse ideal gas turbine cycles:
(i) The working substance is air and air behaves as a perfect gas
(ii) Expansion and compression processes are isentropic.
(iii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components as well
as in the heat exchangers.
(iv) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are negligible
(v) Flow through various components is one dimensional, steady and uniform

3.10.2. Brayton Cycle (Simple Gas Turbine Cycle):- Brayton cycle is the basic cycle
for the simple gas turbine power plant.The p-v and T-s diagram for this cycle is shown in
Fig.3.12.It can be seen from these diagrams that the cycle consists of two isentropic
processes and two constant pressure processes. The schematic for the cycle is shown in
Fig. 3.13.

p
T 3

2 3
4

1 4 1
s
v

Fig.3.12: p-v and T – s diagrams for a Brayton cycle

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work
is done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of air in the heater till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.

50
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. During this process work is done
by air on the surroundings. Part of this work is used to drive the compressor.

Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure cooling of air in the intercooler till the air comes back to
its original state.(Process 4-1 is executed only in a closed cycle gas turbine plant, where
as in an open cycle plant air is exhausted from the turbine and fresh air is drawn in from
the atmosphere by the compressor)

.
Qs
.
m

2 3
. .
Wc T Wt
C

1 4
C: Compressor
T: Turbine
CC: Combustion
IC Chamber
.
Qr IC: Inter cooler

Fig. 3.13: Schematic for Brayton cycle

Expression for thermal efficiency in terms of the pressure ratio Rp :

Applying steady flow energy equation to the compressor and neglecting the changes in
kinetic and potential energies we have

Energy entering the compressor = Energy leaving the compressor

. . .
Or Wc + m h1 = m h2
. . .
Or Wc = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp[T2 – T1] ...................................3.24
. .
Compressor work per unit mass = wc = Wc / m = Cp[T2 – T1] …………………...3.25

Similarly applying steady flow energy equation to the turbine we have

. . .
Wt = m (h3 – h4) = m Cp[T3 – T4] ...................................3.26
. .
And turbine work per unit mass = wt = Wt / m = Cp [T3 – T4] ……………………3.27

51
The heat supplied in the heater similarly is given by
. . .
Qs = m (h3 – h2) = m Cp[T3 – T2] ....................................3.28
. .
And heat supply per unit mass = qs = Qs / m = Cp[T3 – T4] ……………………….3.29

Net work out put per unit mass = wn = wt – wc

= Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = η = wn / qs

Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

= -----------------------------------
Cp[T3 – T2]

[T4 – T1] T1[(T4 / T1) − 1]

Or η = 1 − ------------------- = 1 − --------------------- ..........................................3.30
[T3 – T2] T2[(T3 / T2) − 1]

Process 1-2 is isentropic and the working substance is assumed to behave as a perfect gas.

Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Similarly for process 3-4 we have T3 / T4 = (p3 / p4) (γ – 1) / γ

Since it is assumed that there are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various
components and in the heat exchangers

p2 / p1 = p3 / p4 = Rp ……………………….3.31

Therefore it follows that T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = Rp(γ – 1) / γ ……………………………3.32

Substituting this expression in equation 3.30 we get after simplification

1
η = 1 − ------------------- ………………………3.33
Rp(γ – 1) / γ

Equation 3.33 indicates that the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle depends on the
pressure ratio Rp. The effect of Rp on the efficiency is shown in Fig 3.14(a).It can be seen
from this figure that initially the efficiency rapidly increases with the pressure ratio but as
Rp increases the rate of increase of efficiency decreases.

52
Expression for net work output in terms of pressure ratio Rp and the maximum cycle
temperature ratio t:

80

60
η

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rp

Fig.3.14(a) : Effect of pressure ratio on efficiency of a Brayton cycle

Net work output per unit mass = wn = Cp[(T3 – T4) – (T2 – T1)]

= CpT1 [(T3 / T1) – (T4 / T1) – (T2 / T1) + 1] ………….3.34

T3 / T1 is the ratio of maximum temperature in the cycle to minimum cycle temperature

and it is normally denoted by ‘t’.
t
T4 / T1 = (T4 / T3) (T3 / T1) = -----------------
Rp(γ – 1) / γ.

Substituting these expressions in Eq.3.34 we get

wn = CpT1[ t – {t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ} – Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]

Or wn* = wn / (CpT1) = [ t – {t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ} – Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]……………3.35

53
 In Eq. 3.35 wn* represents dimensionless net work output and
depends not only on the pressure ratio but also on the maximum cycle temperature ratio t.
This is illustrated in Fig. 3.14(b).
0.28 wn*

0.24

0.20

0.16

0.12

0.08

0.04

0
Rp
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fig. 3.14(b): Effect of Rp and t on net work output for Brayton cycle

For a given value of t we can find the pressure ratio Rp which gives maximum net work
output by differentiating the expression for wn* with respect to Rp and equating it to zero.
Thus

dwn*
---- = CpT1[ 0 – {t (1 – γ) / γ}Rp{(1 - γ ) / γ } – 1 - {(γ – 1) / γ}Rp{(γ – 1)/ γ } – 1 ] = 0
dRp

Or t Rp(1 - 2γ) / γ = Rp- (1 / γ)

Or Rp = t γ / 2 (γ – 1) ………………………………3.36

It also follows from Eq. (3.36) that for maximum work output

√t = Rp(γ – 1) / γ = T2 / T1 = T3 / T4.

Hence (T2 / T1) x (T3 / T4) = (√t) x (√t) = t.

But T3 / T1 = t and consequently it follows that T2 = T4. Thus the specific work output is a
maximum when the pressure ratio is such that the compressor and turbine outlet
temperatures are equal.
If this value of Rp is substituted in the expression for wn we get the expression for
maximum work output from a Brayton cycle as follows:

54
 (wn)max = CpT1[t – (t / √t) – (√ t) + 1] = CpT1[ t – 2 √t + 1]

Or (wn) max = CpT1[√ t – 1]2 ……………………..3.37

The efficiency corresponding to the maximum work output is given by

1
η* = 1 − ------------------- ………………….3.38
√t

3.10.3. Brayton Cycle with Regenerator (Exhaust Heat Exchanger) :- The thermal
efficiency of a Brayton cycle can be increased by incorporating an heat exchanger to
heat the air coming from the compressor internally before it enters the combustion
chamber. By so doing the external heat supplied is decreased without any change in the
net work ouput from the cycle. A schematic of a gas turbine cycle employing an exhaust
heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 3.15 (a) and the corresponding T-s diagram is shown in
Fig.3.15(b).
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-5: Constant pressure heating of air in the regenerator. During this process the
air absorbs heat from the exhaust gases coming out of the turbine.
Process 5-3: Constant pressure heating of air in the combustion chamber using an
external source till the maximum permissible temperature is reached.

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. During this process work is done
by air on the surroundings. Part of this work is used to drive the compressor.
Process 4-6: Constant pressure cooling of exhaust from the turbine in the regenerator.
During this process heat is transferred from the exhaust gases to the incoming air from
the compressor.

Regenerator .
Qs
6
4
. .
Wc 2 5 3 Wt

Fig. 3.15 (a): Schematic for Brayton cycle with regenerator

55
 3
T
1-2-5-3-4-6-1 = cycle
with exhaust heat
exchanger.
5 4
1-2-3-4-1 = Brayton
2 cycle
6

Fig. 3.15(b): T-s diagram for Brayton cycle with exhaust exchanger

Expression for Thermal Efficiency:- While deriving the expression for thermal
efficiency it is assumed that the effectiveness of the exhaust heat exchanger is 100
percent i.e. the incoming air from the compressor is heated to the temperature of the
exhaust gases entering the exchanger(T5 = T4).The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is
defined as follows:
Actual heat transferred to air in the regenerator
Effectiveness = ε = ---------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum possible heat transfer in the regenerator

Cp [ T3 – T5] [ T3 – T5]
ε = ------------------ = ------------- .............................................3.39
Cp [T3 – T4] [T3 – T4]

Net work ouput per unit mass = wn = wt – wc = Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

External heat supply per unit mass = qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = Cp[T3 – T4]

wn Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1] [T2 – T1]

Thermal efficiency = η = ------- = ---------------------------------- = 1 − ---------------
qs Cp[T3 – T4] [T3 – T4]

T1[(T2 / T1) − 1]
= 1 − -----------------------
T4[(T3 / T4) − 1]

Since T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = Rp(γ – 1) / γ, it follows that

56
 η = 1 − (T1/T4) = 1 − (T1/T3) (T3/T4)

Rp(γ – 1) / γ
Or η = 1 − ------------------ ............................................3.40
t

It can be seen from Eq. 3.40 that the thermal efficiency of this cycle depends both on the
pressure ratio Rp and the maximum cycle temperature ratio t. The effects of these two
parameters on efficiency are shown in Fig. 3.16. The efficiency curve for simple cycle is
also shown in this figure for comparison.

It can be seen from the figure and it is evident from Eq. 3.39, that for a
given value of “t”, the thermal efficiency decreases with increase in Rp and for a given
value of Rp the efficiency increases with increase in t.The efficiency curves for different
values of t have been drawn upto a value of Rp where the curve intersects the curve for
simple cycle. Beyond this value of Rp , for any Rp, the temperature of the exhaust gases
from the turbine will be less than that for air coming out of the compressor and therefore
adding an exhaust heat exchanger will deteriorate the performance of the cycle.

80

60
η

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fig. 3.16: Effects of pressure ratio and maximum cycle temperature

ratio on efficiency for a cycle with exhaust heat exchanger
3.10.4. Gas Turbine Cycle With Multi-Stage Expansion:- The net work out put from a
Brayton cycle can be increased either by employing multi-stage compression with
intercooling between the stages or by using multi-stage expansion with reheating in
between the stages. By employing multi-stage expansion with reheating in between the

57
stages, the total turbine work as compared to single stage expansion is increased resulting
an increase in the net work output.A schematic of an ideal gas turbine cycle employing
two stages of expansionwith reheating in between the stages is shown in Fig. 3.16(a). The
corresponding T-s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig.3.16 (b).

qs

4 2
5
3 wc
T2 T1 C

wt1 wt2

1
6

Fig. 3.16(a): Schematic for a gas turbine cycle with multi stage expansion

Air from atmosphere is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2 in the

compressor C .It is then heated at constant pressure in the heater H1 till the maximum
permissible temperature T3 is reached. Then the air is expanded isentropically in the first
stage turbine T1 from state 3 to state 4. It is then heated at constant pressure in the second
heater H2 till the maximum permissible temperature T5 (T5 = T3) is reached. The air is
finally expanded isentropically in the second stage turbine from state 5 to state 6.In the
open cycle the air from the turbine is exhausted to the atmosphere and fresh air is drawn
in by the compressor for the next cycle of operation, where as in the closed cycle the
exhaust from the turbine is cooled back to its original temperature in another heat
exchanger and fed to the compressor for the cycle to be repeated.

58
 T 5

4 2

3 1

Fig. 3.16(b): T – s diagram for a gas turbine cycle with two stage compression
It can be seen from the T-s diagram that by employing multi-stage compression with inter
cooling the area representing the cycle has increased as compared to the area for a
Brayton cycle. Since area of a closed curve on a T-s diagram represents the net work
transfer during the cycle, it follows that the net work output from a cycle with multi stage
compression is more than that for a Bray ton cycle working between the same pressure
limits and the same maximum cycle temperature. As far as heat supply is concerned, it is
evident from the T-s diagram that in the case of the cycle with multi-stage compression
the air has to be heated from a lower temperature (T4 < T2’) than for Brayton cycle.
Therefore more heat has to be supplied in the cycle with multi-stage compression than
that required for Brayton cycle. The overall effect is that the thermal efficiency of the
cycle with multi-stage compression will be lower than that for a simple cycle.

Expressions for Net Work Output and Condition for Maximum Work output:- For the
cycle with multi-stage compression net work output per unit mass of air is given by

wn = wt – (wc1 + wc2) = Cp[T5 – T6] – Cp[(T2 – T1) + (T4 – T3)]

= Cp[T5 – T6] – Cp[(T2 – T1) + (T4 – T3)]

= CpT1[(T5 / T1) – (T6 / T1) – (T2 / T1) – (T4 / T3) + 2] ................3.41

Let p2/p1 = R1 = Pressure ratio for first stage compression,

p4/p3 = R2 = Pressure ratio for second stage compression,

and p5 / p6 = Rp = Pressure ratio for expansion.

59
Now process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ = R1(γ – 1) / γ

Similarly T4 / T3 = (p4/p3) (γ – 1) / γ = R2(γ – 1) / γ

For expansion process we have T5 / T6 = (p5 / p6) (γ – 1) / γ = Rp(γ – 1) / γ

p5 / p6 = p4 / p1 = (p4/p3) (p3 / p1) = (p4 / p3) (p2 / p1)

Hence Rp = R1 R2 ………………………………….3.42

T5 / T1 = maximum cycle temperature ratio = t.

t
T6 / T1 = (T6 / T5)(T5 / T1) = ------------------
Rp(γ – 1) / γ

T4 / T3 = R2(γ – 1) / γ = [Rp / R1] (γ – 1) / γ

Substituting the expressions for temperature ratios in Eq. 3.41 we have

wn = CpT1[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – R1 (γ – 1) / γ − {Rp / R1} (γ – 1) / γ + 2] ……………3.43

It can be seen from Eq. 3.43 that for given values of T1 (Atmospheric temperature) and
the overall pressure ratio wn depends only on R1. Therefore for maximum work output
dwn / dR1 = 0.
Or dwn / dR1 = CpT1[0 – 0 − {(γ – 1) / γ}R1− (1/ γ) − Rp (γ – 1) / γ {(1 – γ) / γ}R1 (1 - 2γ) / γ ] = 0

Or R1− (1/ γ)
-------------- = Rp (γ – 1) / γ
R1 (1 - 2γ) / γ

Or R1 = √ Rp ……………………………………3.44

and R2 = Rp / R1 = √ Rp …………………………..3.45

Therefore, for maximum work out put from a cycle with two stages of compression with
inter cooling in between the stages, the pressure ratio has to be same for both the stages
and it should be equal to the square root of the overall pressure ratio for the cycle.
Since R1 = R2 = √Rp it follows that the intermediate pressure p2 = √(p1p6) i.e. the
intermediate pressure is the geometric mean of the maximum and minimum pressures in
the cycle for maximum work output.If this condition is substituted in Eq. 3.43 we get the
expression for maximum work output as :

60
[wn]max = CpT1[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2] …………………………….3.46

Since R1 = R2 and T1 = T3, it follows, that the exit temperature from the second stage is
same the exit temperature from the first stage compression, which means that the work
input for the first stage is same as that for the second stage.

Thermal Efficiency:- Heat supply per unit mass of air is given by

qs = Cp[T5 – T4] = CpT1[(T5 / T1) – (T4 / T1)]

= CpT1[(T5 / T1) – (T4 / T3)] = CpT1[ t – R2(γ – 1) / γ]

Substituting the condition for maximum work output (R2 = √Rp) we get

qs = CpT1[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

Hence thermal efficiency is given by

wn CpT1[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2]

η = -------- = --------------------------------------------------------
qs CpT1[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2]

or η = -------------------------------------------------- ...............................3.47
[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

80

60 Fig. 3.17 : Effects

η of Rp and ‘t’ on
thermal efficiency
40 of a cycle with
multi-stage
20 compression

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rp

61
3.10.5.Gas Turbine Cycle Multi-Stage Expansion With Reheat:- The net work out put
can also be increased by splitting the expansion process and reheating the gas back to its
original temperature after expansion in the high pressure turbine. It can be shown that the
work output will be a maximum if the pressure ratio is same for both the stages of
expansion and equal to the square root of the overall pressure ratio. Since the gas is
reheated after first stage expansion the heat supply in this cycle is more than that for a
simple cycle and the overall effect is that the thermal efficiency of this cycle is less than
that for a simple cycle for the same pressure ratio and maximum cycle temperature ratio.
The detailed analysis of this cycle is illustrated in example 3.19.

3.10.6. Illustrative examples on Ideal Gas Turbine Cycles:

Example 3.17:- An air standard Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor at 100
kPa and 27 0C. The pressure ratio is 10 and themaximum allowable temperature in the
cycle is 1350 K. Determine (i)temperatures at salient points of the cycle, (ii) compressor
and turbine work per unit mass of air, (iii)net work output and work ratio, (iv)thermal
efficiency of the cycle, (v) specific air consumption in kg/kWh, and (vi) improvement in
the thermal efficiency of the cycle if a regenerator with 100 % effectiveness is
incorporated in the cycle.

Given: T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; T 3

T3 = 1350 K; p2/p1 = p3/p4 = 10

Assume: γ = 1.4 ; Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K);

5 4
To find : (i) T2 and T4; (ii) wc and wt ;

(iii) wn and wn / wt ; (iv) ηcycle ;

2 6
(v) S A C in kg/kWh
1
(vi) ηcycle for cycle with regenerator
s

Solution:- (i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T2 = T1 (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 300 x 10 (1.4 – 1) / 1.4 = 579.6 K

62
Similarly T4 = T3 (p4/p3) (γ – 1) / γ = 1350 x (1 / 10) (1.4 – 1) / 1.4 = 698.8 K

(ii)compressor work per unit mass = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [579.6 – 300]

= 281 kJ/kg.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [1350 – 698.8]

= 654.5 kJ/kg

(iv) Net work output per unit mass = wn = wt – wc = 654.5 – 281

= 373.5 kJ/kg

Work ratio = wn / wt = 373.5 / 654.5 = 0.57

(v) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = Cp[T3 – T2] = 1.005 x [1350 – 579.6]

= 774.25 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 373.5 / 774.25 = 0.4824 = 48.24 %

(v) Specific air consumption = SAC = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 373.5 = 9.64 kg / kWh

(vi) when a regenerator is incorporated in the cycle then air has to be heated from 5 to 3
(see T-s diagram) where T5 = T4. Then heat supplied per unit mass of air is given by

qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = 1.005 x [1350 – 698.8]

= 654.5 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = wn / qs = 373.5 / 654.5 = 0.57 = 57 %

Example 3.18:- If the simple gas turbine cycle of example 3.17 is modified such that
there are two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages, determine
the net work output per unit mass of air and the thermal efficiency of the modified cycle.
Assume the pressure ratio for each stage is such that the work output from the cycle is
maximum.Assume the overall pressure ratio, the minimum cycle temperature and the
maximum cycle temperature to be same as that in example 3.17.

Given: T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; T5 = 1350 K; p5 / p6 = 10

Since the cycle is designed for maximum work output, p2/p1 = p4/p3 = √(p5/p6)

63
and T3 = T1. Assume γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg –K)

T
5

4 2

3 1

To find: (i) wn ; (ii) ηcycle

Solution: p2/p1 = p4/p3 = √10 = 3.162

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ - 1) /γ

= 300 x (3.162) 0.286

= 417 K.

Similarly T4 = T3 (p4/p3) (γ - 1) /γ
= 300 x (3.162) 0.286 = 417 K

Total compressor work = wc = wc1 + wc2 = 2wc1 = 2 Cp[T2 – T1] = 2 x 1.005 x [417 – 300]

= 235.17 kJ/kg

Turbine work = wt = same as in example 3.17 = 654.5 kJ/kg

(i) net work output = wn = 654.5 – 235.17 = 419.33 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = Cp[T5 – T4] = 1.005 x [1350 – 417]

= 937.7 kJ/kg

ηcycle = wn / qs = 419.33 / 937.7 = 0.447 = 44.7 %

64
Example 3.19:- An ideal gas turbine cycle has an overall pressure ratio Rp. The
expansion takes place in two stages with reheating in between the stages. If R1 and R2 are
the pressure ratios for the first and second stages of expansion show that for maximum
work output from the cycle
R1 = R2 = √Rp.
Also obtain expressions for the maximum net work output and for the corresponding
thermal efficiency in terms of Rp and the maximum cycle temperature ratio ‘t’.Also draw
the schematic and T-s diagrams for the cycle

Solution:
Rp = p2 / p1 = p3 / p6 = (p3 / p4) (p5 / p6) = R1 R2

Or R2 = Rp / R1 ………………………………..(1)

Compressor work per unit mass = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = CpT1[(T2/T1) – 1]

= CpT1[Rp(γ – 1) / γ – 1]

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = wt1 + wt2 = Cp[T3 – T4] + Cp[T5 – T6]

= CpT1[(T3/T1) – (T4/T1) + (T5 / T1) – (T6/T1)]

Now T3 / T1 = T5 / T1 = maximum cycle temperature ratio = t (It is assumed that after
first stage expansion the gas is reheated back to its original temperature i.e. T5 = T3).

qs2
qs1 CC 2
CC 1

4 5
wc 2 3
wt2
C T1 T2

1 6
wt1

Fig. : Schematic for a gas turbine cycle with two stage expansion & Reheat

65
 T 3 5

4 6

1
s

Fig: T-s diagram for a gas turbine cycle with multi stage expansion & reheat

t
T4 / T1= (T4/T3)(T3 / T1) = ----------------------
R1 (γ – 1) / γ

t t R1 (γ – 1) / γ
T6 / T1 = (T6 / T5)(T5 / T1) = ------------------- = ------------------
R2 (γ – 1) / γ Rp (γ – 1) / γ

Hnece the net work out put from the cycle is given by

t { t R1 (γ – 1) / γ }
wn = Cp T1 [ t – -------------- + t – --------------------- − Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1 ] ......................(2)
R1 (γ – 1) / γ Rp (γ – 1) / γ

For given values of ‘t’ and Rp the net work output will be maximum if dwn / dR1 = 0
dwn / dR1 = CpT1[ t (1 – γ)/γ R1(1 – 2 γ) / γ − t {(γ – 1 )/γ}R1 − 1 / γ / Rp (γ – 1) / γ ] = 0

or R1(1 – 2 γ) / γ = R1 − 1 / γ / Rp (γ – 1) / γ

66
or R1 = √ Rp

Also R2 = Rp / R1 = Rp / √ Rp or R2 = √Rp

Substituting these expressions for R1 and R2 in Eq. (2) and simplifying we get

[wn]max = CpT1[2t –2t Rp(1 – γ) / 2γ − Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]

Total heat supplied per unit mass = qs = qs1 + qs2 = Cp[(T3 – T2) + (T5 – T4)]

Or qs = CpT1[(T3 / T1) – (T2/T1) + (T5/T1) –(T4/T1)]

Or qs = CpT1[2 t - Rp (γ – 1) / γ – t Rp(1 – γ ) / 2γ ]

CpT1[2t –2t Rp(1 – γ) / 2γ − Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]

Hence thermal efficiency = ηcycle = -------------------------------------------------
CpT1[2 t - Rp (γ – 1) / γ – t Rp(1 – γ ) / 2γ ]

[2t –2t Rp(1 – γ) / 2γ − Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]

Hence thermal efficiency = ηcycle = -------------------------------------------------
[2 t - Rp (γ – 1) / γ – t Rp(1 – γ ) / 2γ ]

Example 3.20:- Determine the net work output and thermal efficiency of an ideal gas
turbine cycle having two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages
and two stages of expansion with reheating in between the stages. The overall pressure
ratio for the cycle is 4 and the maximum cycle temperature is 900 0C Assume that the
atmospheric temperature is 15 0C and the cycle is designed for maximum work output.
Draw the schematic and T-s diagrams for the cycle.What would be the improvement in
the thermal efficiency if an ideal regenerator is incorporated in the cycle?

Given: Overall pressure ratio = p4 / p1 = p5 / p8 = 4; T5 = T7 = 900 + 273 = 1173 K;

T1 = T3 = 15 + 273 = 288 K; Cycle is designed for maximum work output i.e.

p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 = √ 4 = 2 ; p5 / p6 = p7 / p8 = √4 = 2 ;

Assume γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)

To find:- (i) wn ; (ii) ηcycle ; (iii) improvement in efficiency when an exhaust heat

exchanger is incorporated in the cycle.

67
 qs1

2 3 8
4 5 wt1
C1 C2 T1 T2
wc1 wc2 wt2
1 6 7

qs2

Fig. E3.20(a) : Schematic diagram for Example E3.20

Solution: Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 288 x 2 0.286

=351.1 K
Since T3 = T1 and p2/p1 = p4/p3, T4 = T2 and wc1 = wc2.

Therefore total compressor work per unit mass = wc = 2 wc1 = 2Cp[T2 – T1]

68
 T 5 7

9
6 8

4 2

3 1
s
Fig. E3.20 (b): T – s diagram for example E 3.20

Or wc = 2 x 1.005 x [351.1 – 288] = 126.8 kJ / kg.

For expansion process 5-6 we have T6 = T5 (p6/p5) (γ – 1) / γ = 1173 x 2 0.286

= 962 K

Since T7 = T5 and p7/p8 = p5/p6 we have T8 = T6 and wt1 = wt2.

Therefore total turbine work per unit mass = wt = 2 wt1 = 2 Cp[T5 – T6]

Or wt = 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 962] = 424 kJ/kg

Hence net work output = wn = wt – wc = 424 – 126.8 = 297.2 kj?kg

Total heat supplied per unit mass = qs = qs1 + qs2 = Cp[T5 – T4] + Cp[T7 – T6]

= 1.005 x [1173 – 351.1 + 1173 – 962]

= 1038.1 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 297.2 / 1038.1 = 0.2863 = 28.63 %

69
When an ideal exhaust heat exchanger is incorporated in the cycle then air is heated in the
heat exchanger up to a temperature T9 = T8.

Hence total heat supply = qs = Cp[T5 – T9] + Cp[T7 – T6] = 2 Cp{T5 – T9]

= 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 962 ] = 424.11 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = 297.2 / 424.11 = 0.70 = 70 %.

3.10.7. Practical Gas Turbine Cycles:

Deviations of Practical cycles from Ideal Cycles:

1. It was assumed in the analysis of ideal cycles that the compression and expansion
processes are isentropic (reversible adiabatic). But in actual cycles because of friction the
actual processes will not be isentropic. Therefore in the analysis of practical cycles the
frictional losses during these processes are accounted by defining a parameter called
“isentropic efficiency”. Fig. 3.18 illustrates the actual and isentropic processes on the T-s
diagram. For the compression process the isentropic efficiency is defined as follows:

Isentropic work of compression

Isentropic efficiency of compressor = η c = ----------------------------------------
Actual work of compression

2
2’

Fig. 3.18: Representation of isentropic and actual compression processes

70
The isentropic efficiency in terms of enthalpies is given by

[h2’ – h1] Cp [T2’ – T1]

ηc = ------------- = -------------------
[h2 – h1] Cp [T2 – T1]

[T2’ – T1]
Or ηc = ------------- ...........................................................................3. 47
[T2 – T1]

Fig 3.19 illustrates the actual and isentropic expansion processes on the T-s diagram. The
isentropic efficiency for an expansion process is given by

Actual work of expansion

Isentropic efficiency of expansion = --------------------------------------------
Isentropis work of expansion

[h3 – h4] Cp [T3 – T4]

i.e. ηt = ------------- = --------------------
[h3 – h4’] Cp [T3 – T4’]

4
4’

Fig.3.19: Actual and isentropic expansion processes on the T-s diagram

[T3 – T4]
Or ηt = ---------------- ..........................................................3.48
[T3 – T4’]

71
Because of frictional losses in the compressor and in the turbine, the actual work of
compression is more than that required for ideal compression and the actual work output
from the turbine is les than that from an ideal turbine and therefore the net work output
from the actual cycle is less than that from an ideal cycle. For the same heat supply the
thermal efficiency of the actual cycle will be less than that for the ideal cycle.

2. In the practical cycle, there will be pressure losses in the piping connecting the various
components as well as in the heat exchanger. Therefore the pressure at inlet to the turbine
will be less than that at the exit of the compressor and the pressure at the exit of the
turbine will be more than that at the inlet to the compressor with the result the pressure
ratio for expansion process is reduced which in turn decreases the turbine work and hence
the net work output from the cycle.

3. In the practical cycle only air is compressed in the compressor where as the products of
combustion undergoes expansion in the turbine. Our assumption of constant specific heat
throughout the cycle is not valid while analyzing the actual cycle. Therefore for practical
cycles it is assumed that γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) for the compression process
whereas γ = 1.33 and Cp = 1.148 kJ/(kg-K).

4. Air-Fuel Ratio: In an actual cycle,because fuel is mixed with air in the combustion
chamber, the mass flow rate during combustion and expansion will be more than the
mass flow rate during compression. An expression for air fuel ratio by mass can be
obtained by applying the steady flow energy equation to the combustion chamber as
follows

Fuel (mf)

Air (ma) CC Products of

2 3 combustion (ma + mf)

mah2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) h3 ,

72
where hf is the calorific value of the fuel and η comb is the combustion efficiency.ηcomb is
introduced in the above equation as all the energy in the fuel will not be released in an
actual combustion process. Assuming that both air and the products of combustion
behave as perfect gases the above equation can be written as

ma CpT2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cp T3

Dividing throughout by mf and solving for the air-fuel ratio ma/mf we have

ma [ ηcomb hf – CpT3]
----- = --------------------- ........................................3.49
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

since L >> CpT3, the above equation can be approximated as follows:

ma ηcomb hf
----- = --------------------- ........................................3.50
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

3.10.8.Illustrative Examples on Practical Gas Turbine Cycles:

Example 3.21:-The pressure ratio of an open cycle gas turbine cycle is 6. The
compressor inlet conditions are 1 bar and 15 0C. The maximum temperature in the cycle
is 800 0C. The isentropic efficiency of compressor is 85 % and that of the turbine is 90
%. The combustion efficiency is 95 %. There is a pressure drop of 2 % of the inlet
pressure in the combustion chamber. The calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000
kJ/kg.Assuming that the values of γ and Cp remain same throughout the cycle and equal
to 1.4and 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) respectively determine (i)net work output per unit mass of air,
(ii) air-fuel ratio, (iii) thermal efficiency of the plant, (iv) specific fuel combustion in
kg/kWh, and (v) power output from the plant for a mass flow rate of air of 1.0 kg/s.

73
Given :

p2/p1 = 6 ; T1 = 15 + 273 =288 K ; T

3
ηc = 0.85 ; ηt = 0.90 ; ηcomb = 0.95 ;

T3 = 800 + 273 = 1073 K ;

4
p2 – p3 = 0.02 p2 ; p1 = 1 bar ;
2
hf = 42,000 kJ/kg ; γ = 1.4
2’
Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)

To find: (i) wn; (ii) ma/mf; (iii) ηcycle 1

.
(iv) SFC; (v) Wn if ma = 1 kg / s. s

Solution: Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Hence T2’ = T1(p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T2’ = 288 x 6 0.286 = 480.8 K.

(T2’ – T1)
ηc = --------------.
(T2 – T1)
Or T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc = 288 + (480.8 – 288) / 0.85

= 514.8 K

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [514.8 – 288]

= 227.96 kJ / kg

Pressure at inlet to the turbine = p3 = p2 – 0.02(p2 – p3)

Or p3 = (1- 0.02)p2 / (1 +0.02) = .98 x 6 / 1.02

= 5.765 bar

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Hence T4’ = T3 (p3 / p4’) (γ – 1) / γ = 1073 x (1/ 5.765) 0.286

74
 = 650.15 K

Now ηt = (T3 – T4) / (T3 – T4’) or T4 = T3 – ηt(T3 – T4’)

= 1073 – 0.90 x (1073 – 650.15)

= 692.75 K

(ii) To find air – fuel ratio: Using Eq. 3.49 we have

ma [ ηcomb hf – CpT3]
----- = --------------------- ........................................3.49
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

[ 0.95 x 42,000 – 1.005 x 1073]

= ---------------------------------------
1.05 x [1073 – 514.8]

= 69.2

(i) Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = (ma + mf)Cp (T3 – T4) / ma

= (1 + mf / ma) Cp[T3 – T4]

= (1 + 1 / 69.2) x 1.005 x [1073 – 692.75]

= 387.7 kJ/kg

Net work out put per unit mass of air = wn = wt – wc = 387.7 – 227.96

= 159.74 kJ/kg

(iii)Heat supplied per unit mass of air =qs = (1 + mf / ma) Cp[T3 – T2]

= (1 + 1 / 69.2) x 1.005 x [1073 – 514.8]

Or qs = 569.1 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 159.74 / 569.1= 0.281 = 28.1 %

Mass of fuel in kg /h
(iv) Specific fuel consumption in kg/kWh = ----------------------------------
Net work output in kW

75
 3600 mf 3600
= ------------------ = -------------------
ma wn 69.2 x 159.74

= 0.326 kg / kWh
.
(v) Power out put = Wn = ma wn = 1.0 x 159.74 = 159.74 kW

Example 3.22:-The isentropic discharge temperature of air flowing out of a compressor

is 195 0C, while the actual temperature is 240 0C. The conditions of air at compressor
inlet are 1 bar and 170C. If the air fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is 75:1 and net
power output is 650 kW, compute (i)the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and
turbine and (ii) the overall cycle efficiency. Assume that the plant consumes 5.2 kg/min of
fuel and the calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg. Assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)
and γ = 1.4 for air and Cp = 1.148 kJ/(kg-K) and γ = 1.148 for products of combustion.

3
Given: T2’ = 195 + 273 = 468 K ;

T2 = 240 + 273 = 513 K ; p1 = 1 bar ;

4
T1 = 17 + 273 = 290 K ; ma / mf = 75;
2
. 4’
Wn = 650 kW ; hf = 42,000 kJ / kg ;
2’
mf = 5.2 / 60 = 0.087 kg / s ;

For compression γa = 1.4 ;

1
Cpa = 1.005 kJ / (kg – K)

For heating & expansion γg = 1.33

and Cpg = 1.148 kJ / (kg – K) ;

To find : (i) ηc ; ηt ; (ii) ηcycle

Solution :

[T2’ – T1] ( 468 – 290 )

(i) ηc = ------------- = ----------------- = 0.798 = 79.8 %
[T2 – T1] (513 – 290)

76
 [T3 – T4]
ηt = -------------
[T3 – T4’]

To find T3 :- Energy balance equation for the combustion chamber gives

ma Cpa T2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cpg T3

(ma / mf) Cpa T2 + ηcomb hf

Or T3 = -----------------------------------
Cpg [ma / mf + 1]

75 x 1.005 x 290 + 1.0 x 42,000

= ----------------------------------------
1.148 x [75 + 1]

= 924.6 K

To find T4’:- Pressure ratio for expansion = p3 / p4 = p2 / p1 = (T2’ / T1) γ / (γ – 1)

Hence p3 / p4 = [468 / 290] 1.4 / 0.4 = 5.34

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ = T3 [p4 / p3] (γ – 1 ) / γ =

Or T4’ = 924.6 x [1 / 5.34] (1.33 – 1 ) / 1.33

= 608.4 K

.
To find (T3 − T4):- Compressor work per unit time = Wc = ma Cpa [T2 – T1]
.
Or Wc = 0.087 x 75 x 1.005 x [513 – 290] = 1462 kW

. . .
Hence Turbine work per unit time = Wt = Wn + Wc = 650 + 1462

= 2112 kW
.
But Wt = (ma + mf) Cpg [T3 – T4]

. .
Wt Wt
Or (T3 – T4) = ------------------ = ---------------------------
(ma + mf) Cpg mf (ma / mf + 1) Cpg

77
 2112
= ---------------------------------
0.087 x ( 75 + 1 ) x 1.148

= 278.2 K

[T3 – T4] 278.2

Therefore ηt = -------------------- = ---------------------
[T3 – T4’] [924.6 – 608.4]

= 0.879 = 87.9 %

(iii) Thermal efficiency is given by

.
Wn
ηcycle = -----.-------
Qs
.
Qs = mf hf = 0.087 x 42,000 = 3654 kW.

650
Therefore ηcycle = ------------- = 0.1778 = 17.78 %
3654

Example 3.23:- Determine the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine cycle having two stages
of compression and two stages of expansion with an overall pressure ratio of 4 and a
maximum cycle temperature of 900 0C. The compressor inlet temperature is 15 0C. The
compression stages have efficiencies of 80% each and the turbine stages have
efficiencies of 85% each. Assume that the pressure ratio for the two stages of
compression and expansion are chosen for maximum work output from the cycle.
What would be the improvement in thermal efficiency if a regenerator of 85%
effectiveness is incorporated in the cycle? Draw the schematic and T-s diagram for the
cycle.

Given: Overall pressure ratio = p4 / p1 = p5 / p8 = 4 ; T5 = 900 + 273 = 1173 K ;

T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K ; ηc1 = ηc2 = 0.80 ; ηt1 = ηt2 = 0.85 ; Cycle designed for maximum
thermal efficiency i.e. p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 = √(p4 / p1) = √ 4 = 2 ;

P5 / p6 = p7 / p8 = √ (p5 / p8) = √ 4 = 2 ; T3 = T1 ; T7 = T8 ; ε = 0.85

To Find : (i) ηcycle ; (ii) Improvement in cycle efficiency when a regenerator is

Incorporated in the cycle.

78
Solution: For schematic diagram see Fig.3.20(a). The T –s diagram for the given cycle is
shown in Fig. E 3.23
T 5 7

6 8
9
6’ 8’
4 2
4’ 2’

3 1

Fig. E 3.23: T – s diagram for example 3.23

For isentropic process 1 – 2’ we have T2’ = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 288 x 2 0.286

= 351.1 K.
[ T2’ – T1]
ηc1 = ------------- Or T2 = T1 + [ T2’ – T1] / ηc1 = 288 + [351.1 – 288] / 0.80
[T2 – T1]

Or T2 = 366.9 K.

Since p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 and T3 = T1, it follows that T4’ = T2’.Further since ηc1 = ηc2

andT3 = T1 it follows that T4 = T2 = 366.9 K

Also work is equally divided between the two compressor stages. Hence

Total compressor work per unit mass = wc = 2 wc1 = 2 Cp [T2 – T1]

= 2 x 1.005 x [366.9 – 288]

= 158.6 kJ/kg.
For expansion process 5 – 6’ we have T6’ = T5 (p6 / p5) (γ – 1) / γ

= 1173 x (1 /2 0.286)

= 962 K

79
 (T5 – T6)
Now ηt1 = ------------------. Or T6 = T5 - ηt1(T5 – T6’ )
(T5 – T6’ )

Or T6 = 1173 – 0.85 x [1173 – 962]

= 993.65 K

Since the pressure ratio for the two stages of expansion are same, the inlet temperatures
for both stages are same and the efficiencies of the two stages are same, it follows that the
exit temperature of gas for both the stages are same and the work output from both the
stages are equal;

i.e. T8 = T6 = 993.65 K.

and wt = 2 Cp [T5 – T6] = 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 993.65]

= 360.5 kJ/kg

Hence net work output = wn = 360.5 – 158.6 = 201.9 kJ/kg

Total heat supply per unit mass = qs = Cp[T5 – T4] + Cp[T7 – T6]

= 1.005 x [1173 – 366.9 + 1173 – 993.65]

= 990.4 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 201.9 / 990.4 = 0.204 = 20.4 %

When a regenerator is incorporated in the cycle:- When a regenerator is incorporated in

the cycle then the total heat supplied per unit mass of air is given by
qs = q9-5 + q6-7 = Cp[T5 – T9] + Cp[T7 – T6}

[T9 – T4]
Now effectiveness of the regenerator = ε = --------------
[T8 – T4]

Therefore T9 = T4 + ε [T8 – T4] = 366.9 + 0.85 x [993.65 – 366.9] = 899.6 K

Hence qs = 1.005 x [1173 – 899.6] + 1.005 x [1173 – 993.65]

= 452.75 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 201.9 / 452.75

= 0.446 = 44.6 %

80
Example 3.24:- Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a gas turbine power plant using a regenerator and having the following
specifications:
Compressor pressure ratio = 4.0
Turbine inlet temperature = 1100 K;
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 0.85;
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 0.87;
Mechanical transmission efficiency = 0.99;
Combustion efficiency = 0.98;
Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.80;
Combustion chamber pressure loss = 2 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger air side pressure loss = 3 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger gas side pressure loss = 0.04 bar
Calorific value of the fuel used = 42,000 kJ/kg
Compressor inlet conditions = 1 bar and 300 K

Given: p2 / p1 = 4 ; T3 = 1100 K ; ηc = 0.85 ; ηt = 0.87 ; ηTrans = 0.99 ; ηcomb = 0.98 ;

ε = 0.80 ; p5 – p3 = 0.02 p2 ; p2 – p5 = 0.03 p2 ; p4 – p6 = 0.04 bar ; p1 = p6 = 1 bar ;

T1 = 300 K ; hf = 42,000 kJ /kg .

To find : (i) work output per unit mass of fuel ; (ii) SFC ; (iii) ηc

Solution

81
 T 3

4
4’
5

2
6
2’

1
s

For process 1-2’ we have T2’ = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 300 x 4 0.286 = 446 K .

ηc = (T2’ – T1) / (T2 – T1) or T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc

or T2 = 300 + (446 – 300) / 0.85 = 471.8 K.

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [471.8 – 300]

= 172.7 kJ/kg.
Because of transmission losses, actual compressor work per unit mass of air is

(wc)actual = wc / ηTrans = 172.7 / 0.99

= 174.4 kJ/kg

Turbine inlet pressure = p3 = p5 – 0.02p2 = (p2 – 0.03p2) – 0.02p2 = 0.95 p2

= 0.95 x 4 = 3.8 bar

Turbine exit pressure = p4 = p6 + 0.04 = 1 + 0.04 = 1.04 bar.

Hence pressure ratio for turbine = p3 / p4 = 3.8 / 1.04 = 3.654

For process 3 – 4’ we have T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3) (γ – 1) / γ = 1100 x (1 / 3.654) 0.286= 759.3 K.

Therefore T4 = T3 – ηt[T3 – T4’] = 1100 – 0.87 x [1100 – 759.3]

82
 = 803.6 K

Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [1100 – 803.6]

= 297.9 kJ/kg

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 297.9 – 174.4 = 123.5 kJ/kg

Effectiveness of the regenerator = ε = (T5 – T2) / (T4 – T2)

Hence T5 = T2 + ε (T4 – T2) = 471.8 + 0.80 x (803.6 – 471.8)

= 732.2 K

Energy balance equation for the combustion chamber can be written as :

ma Cp T5 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cp T3

[ ηcomb hf – Cp T3] [0.98 x 42,000 – 1.005 x 1100]

Or ma / mf = ----------------------- = --------------------------------------------
Cp [T3 – T5] 1.005 x [1100 – 732.2]

= 108.4
mf ηcomb hf 0.98 x 42,000
Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = ------------------ = -------------------- = 379.7 kJ/kg
ma 108.4
Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 123.5 / 379.7 = 0.325 = 32.5 %

Specific work out put = work output per unit mass of fuel = ma wn / mf

= 123.5 x 108.4 = 13387.4 kJ / kg of fuel

mf x 3600 3600
Specific fuel consumption in kg / kWh = ---------------------- = ------------------
ma wn 108.4 x 123.5

= 0.269 kg / kWh.

Example 3.25:- In a closed cycle gas turbine plant, the compressor inlet and exit
pressures are 5 bar and 32.5 bar respectively. After passing through a regenerator with
an effectiveness of 0.83, the air is heated in a nuclear reactor to a temperature of 945 K.
the pressure drop in the regenerator and the reactor reduces the air pressure at turbine
inlet to 31.5 bar. After expansion to5 .25 bar in the turbine with an efficiency of 0.88, the
air passes through the regenerator and a cooler before being ready to enter the

83
compressor whose efficiency is 0.80.The temperature of air at compressor inlet is 20 0C.
Calculate (i) cycle thermal efficiency, (ii) the turbine and compressor power, (iii) the
heat transfer in the reactor and the mass flow rate of air if the net power output from the
plant is 650 kW. Draw the schematic diagram for the plant.

C : Compressor;
T : Turbine;
NR:Nuclear Reactor:
1 R : Regenerator;
coolant out IC : Inter cooler

C T .
IC . . Wt
Wc Qs
4
coolant in 2 5
NR 3
R
6

Given : p1 = 5 bar ; p2 = 32.5 bar ; p3 = 31.5 bar ; p4 = 5.25 bar ; ε = 0.83 ; ηc = 0.80 ;
.
ηt = 0.88 ; T3 = 945 K ; T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K ; Wn = 650 kW ;
.
To find : (i) ηcycle ; (ii) wc and wt; (iii) Qs and ma

84
Solution:

3
T

5
4’

2
2’
6

1
s

For process 1 – 2’, T2’ = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ – 1 ) / γ = 293 x (32.5 / 5) 0.286 = 500.45 K.

Hence T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc = 293 + (500.45 – 293) / 0.80

= 552.3 K.

For process 3 – 4’, T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3) (γ – 1 ) / γ = 945 x (5.25 / 31.5) 0.286 = 566.1 K.

Hence T4 = T3 – ηt [T3 – T4’] = 945 – 0.88 x [945 – 566.1]

= 611.5 K

T5 = T2 + ε [T4 – T2] = 552.3 + 0.83 x [611.5 – 552.3] = 601.44 K.

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [552.3 – 293]

= 260.6 kJ/kg

Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [945 – 611.5]

= 335.17 kJ/kg

Net work out put = wn = 335.17 – 260.6 = 74.57 kJ/kg

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = 1.005 x [945 – 601.44]

85
 = 345.3 kJ/kg

(i) Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 74.57 / 345.3 = 0.2159

= 21.59 %
.
Mass flow rate of air = ma = Wn / wn = 650 / 74.57

= 8.72 kg /s
.
(ii) Hence Turbine power = Wt = ma wt = 8.72 x 335.17 = 2922.7 kW
.
Compressor Power = Wc = ma wc = 8.72 x 260.6 = 2271.6 kW
.
(iv)Heat supplied in the reactor per unit time = Qs = ma qs = 8.72 x 345.3

= 3011 kW

86
 Chapter 4

Vapour Power Cycles

4.1. Introduction:Gas power cycles with the possible exception of the Gas turbine cycle
are not suitable for the use of fuels like coal. Since the fuel has to be burnt in the engine
cylinder, the internal combustion cycle cannot use fuels that leave large amounts of
refuse in the combustion chamber. Even in the open Brayton cycle, it is not possible to
use coal, because, the gases after combustion pass into the turbine, and these gases have
to be totally free from abrasive materials like ash. But the Vapour power cycles use a
working substance which does not contact the fuel. So, impurities in the fuel will not
affect the working substance or the machine through which the hot fluid has to pass in
doing work. Secondly, in gas power cycles it is extremely difficult to achieve an
isothermal process where as this can be easily achieved in a vapour power cycle using
constant pressure phase change process.Vapour power cycle has the further advantage
that it can use high speed, light weight turbines to produce work output instead of the
bulky reciprocating piston engines that are used in internal combustion engines. Another
advantage of vapour power cycle over the Brayton cycle is that compression work is very
small as to neglect it in comparison with the net work output. But vapour power cycles
suffer from poor thermal efficiencies as compared to gas power cycles. High efficiencies
in vapour power cycles can be achieved only by using very high pressure or super-critical
pressure system with multi stage feed water heating and reheating. Power plants
employing vapour power cycles have water as the working substance, and pressures
around 250 bar have to be used to reach the super-critical state, with temperatures around
600 C. Even under such conditions the overall thermal efficiency can be as high as 40 %,
but the life of the equipment will be seriously affected, unless high quality and expensive
materials are used. In Brayton cycle temperatures of the order of 1100 K are reached as
the equipment is not subjected to steady high pressure continuously. In reciprocating
engine cycles, even temperatures greater than 2500 K may be reached, since there is no
steady high temperature and pressure maintained during the operation of the engine.

4.2 The Rankine Cycle (Ideal simple vapour power cycle)

Assumptions made in the analysis of Ideal Vapour power cycles:- (i) The expansion
process in the turbine and the compression process in the pump are isentropic.
(ii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting various components as well as
in the heat exchangers like boiler, condenser, re-heaters and feed water heaters.
(iii) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid as it flows through the
various components are negligible.
(iv) Fluid flow is steady and one-dimensional

A schematic diagram for the Rankine cycle along with the corresponding
T – s and h – s are shown in Fig.4.1.

87
 P: Feed water pump; B: Boiler; T: Turbine; C: Condensor

T wt
qs B
4
C qc
2
wp P 1

Fig.4.1(a) Schematic diagram for Rankine cycle

T h

s s

Fig.4.1(b) T – s and h – s diagrams for Rankine cycle

Process 1 -2 : Isentropic pumping of feed water. During this process the feed water
pressure is raised from condenser pressure to boiler pressure by doing work on it.

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of water in the boiler till it becomes a saturated
dry steam.

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine from boiler pressure to the
condenser pressure. During this process work is done by the steam on the surroundings.

88
Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure condensation of steam in the condenser till it becomes a
saturated liquid. During this process heat is rejected by the working substance to the
surroundings

4.2.1 Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency:

Applying steady-state, steady flow energy equation to the feed water pump we have
. .
Wp = m (h2 – h1) …………………….(4.1)
.
Where m is the mass flow rate of feed water through the pump.

or per unit mass of water the pump work is given by

. .
wp = Wp / m = (h2 – h1) ………………(4.2)
. .
Similarly for the turbine we have wt = Wt / m = (h3 – h4) ……………..(4.3)
. .
qs = Qs / m = (h3 – h2) ………………(4.4)
. .
and qc = Q / m = (h4 – h1)……………….(4.5)

Net work output per unit mass of steam = wn = wt - wp

= (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

Therefore thermal efficiency is given by

wn (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1) (h4 – h1)
η Rankine = --------------- = --------------------------- = 1 − ----------------……...(4.6)
qs (h3 – h2) (h3 – h2)

It can be seen from Eq. (4.5) and (4.6) the net work output and thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle depends on the enthalpies h1,h2, h3, and h4, which in turn depends on the
boiler pressure, the condenser pressure and the temperature at which steam is entering
the turbine.
4.2.2.Expression for Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle in terms of temperatures

wn w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1

η Rankine = --------------- = ------------------------------- = ------------------------------
qs q2-3 q2-3
q2-3 + q4-1
Or η Rankine = ----------------
q2-3

89
 s1
Now q4-1 = ∫Tds = T1(s1 – s4)
s4
s3
and q2-3 = ∫Tds = Tm(s3 – s2).
s2

Tm is defined such that when it is multiplied by the change in entropy during the heating
process gives heat supplied during the process. Tm is called as the “thermodynamic mean
temperature” at which heat is supplied to the working substance. Substituting these
expressions for q4-1 and q2-3 in the expression for thermal efficiency for the Rankine
cycle ,we have
Tm(s3 – s2) + T1(s1 – s4). Tm(s3 – s2) − T1(s4 – s1).
η Rankine = ------------------------------- = ---------------------------------
Tm(s3 – s2). Tm(s3 – s2).

Since s1 = s2 and s4 = s3, the above expression reduces to

(Tm – T1) T1
η Rankine = ---------------- = 1 − ------- ………………………………………(4.7)
Tm Tm

It can be seen from Eq.(4.7) that higher the value of Tm higher will be the thermal
efficiency for a given value of the condensation temperature T1.Also if the entire heat is
supplied at one constant temperature then the Rankine efficiency will be equal to the
Carnot efficiency between the same temperature limits. Therefore in present day steam
power plants efforts are being made to see that major portion of the heat supply takes
place at one constant temperature.

4.3. Effects of pressure and temperature on the performance of the Rankine cycle

4.3.1. Effects of condsensor pressure: The effects of decreasing the condenser pressure
on the performance of the Rankine cycle are illustrated both on T – s diagram and h – s
diagram shown in Fig. 4.2. In the figure cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents Rankine cycle with
higher condenser pressure and cycle 1’-2’-3-4’-1’ represents the cycle with lower
condenser pressure. It can be seen from both the diagrams that area of the cycle 1’-2’-3-
4’-1’ is more than that for the cycle 1-2-3-4-1. Since area of a closed curve on a T-s
diagram represents the net work transfer during the cycle, it follows that cycle with lower
condenser pressure will have a higher work output as compared to the cycle with higher
condenser pressure. However with decrease in condenser pressure the water has to be
heated from 2’ to 3 instead of from 2 to 3. This means that lowering the condenser
pressure will result in an increase in heat supply. But the increased work output will more
than compensate the additional heat supply with the result the thermal efficiency of the

90
cycle also increases with decrease in condenser pressure. But lower condenser pressure
has certain disadvantages. It can be seen from

T
h

s s

Fig.4.2.Effects of Condenser pressure on performance of Rankine cycle

The T – s diagram that as the condenser pressure decreases the quality of steam during
the last stages of expansion also decreases (x4’ < x4) which in turn decreases the
efficiency of the turbine. For good turbine efficiency and long turbine life the quality of
steam during expansion should not be less than 0.9.Also if the condenser pressure is
below the atmospheric pressure then there is a tendency for the atmospheric air to leak
into the condenser which in turn affects the performance of the condenser in the form of
decrease in ts efficiency. In such cases it becomes necessary to have air extractors fitted
to the condenser at extra cost to remove air from the condenser.

4.3.2.Effects of Boiler Presure: The effects of increasing the boiler pressure on the
performance of the Rankine cycle are illustrated both on T – s and h – s diagrams in Fig.
4.3.It can be seen from these diagrams that a rise in boiler pressure will result in an
increase in the area representing the cycle by an amount A1 and a decrease in the area by
an amount A2.Up to a certain boiler pressure say about 170 bar, A1 > A2, indicating that
there is a net increase in the work out put from the cycle. Also up to this pressure the
thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied increases with increase in
boiler pressure there by increasing the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Beyond this
pressure the thermodynamic temperature starts decreasing with increase in boiler pressure
and hence the thermal efficiency decreases with increase in boiler pressure.This can be
seen clearly from Fig. 4.4, which is a graph of cycle efficiency versus boiler pressure.

91
 A rise in boiler pressure will also results in decrease in
the quality of steam during the last stages of expansion thereby affecting the performance
and life of the turbine.
4.3.3. Effects of Superheating of steam: The effects of superheating the steam before it
enters the turbine on the performance of the Rankine cycle are shown both on T – s and h
– s diagrams in Fig.4.5. It can be seen from these diagrams that by super heating the

T h

s s

Fig. 4.3: Effects of boiler pressure on Rankine cycle

60

40
η

20

0
0 50 100 150 200

Boiler pressure (bar)

Fig. 4.4: Rankine cycle efficiency as a function of boiler pressure

92
steam the area representing the cycle has increased indicating that the net work output
from the cycle has increased. The diagram also shows that the quality of steam during the
last stages of expansion has increased thereby improving the performance of the turbine.
Superheating of steam needs additional heat supply.But the increased heat supply is more
than compensated by the increased work output, with the result the thermal efficiency
increases with the superheating of steam before it enters the turbine. But with the present
day materials used in the manufacture of steam turbines, the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand is about 650 C.Fig. 4.6 shows the effect of superheating
of steam on Rankine cycle efficiency.Thus superheating has two beneficial effects on the

T h

s
s

Fig. 4.5: Effects of superheating of steam on Rankine cycle

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Fig. 4.6. Efficiency of Rankine cycle with superheated steam

93
Overall cycle efficiency. First it helps reduce moisture in the exhaust steam and friction
at the turbine blades, thus increasing the internal efficiency of the turbine. Secondly,
superheating increases the thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied
which in turn increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Also with superheating, the
Rankine cycle thermal efficiency continuously increases with increase in boiler pressure.

4.4. Modifications of simple Rankine cycle :- In a simple Rankine cycle, as the boiler
pressure goes higher and higher, a stage is reached when superheating of steam once to
600 C is not sufficient to maintain a sufficiently low moisture level in the steam during
last stages of expansion. Further very low condenser pressure will also result in poor
quality of steam during last stages of expansion. Therefore, in order to take the
advantages of high boiler pressure and low condenser pressure in terms of higher work
output and higher thermal efficiency, the simple Rankine cycle is modified by adding
additional components. One modification is the “Reheat cycle” which increases the net
work output and the second modification is the “Regenerative cycle” which increases the
thermal efficiency as compared to the simple Rankine cycle.

4.4.1. Reheat Cycle:- The net work output of a simple Rankine cycle can be increased by
employing multistage expansion with reheating between the stages of expansion. A
schematic diagram of a Reheat cycle employing two stages of expansion with reheating
in between the stages is shown in Fig. 4.7(a). The corresponding T – s and h – s diagrams
are shown in Fig. 4.7 (b) and Fig. 4.7 (c) respectively.

wt1

3
wt2

6
4
qs
qc
5
2
Fig.4.7(a) Schematic
1
wp
For Reheat cycle

Superheated steam at high pressure and temperature (state point 3) enters the first stage
turbine T1 and expands to an intermediate pressure (state point 4) and is then reheated at
constant pressure back to its original temperature (state point 5 ) by passing the steam

94
through the re-heater coils provided in the boiler. Then the steam is expanded for the
second time from the intermediate pressure to the condenser pressure in the second stage

T h

s s

Fig.4.7(b): T – s diagram for Reheat Fig. 4.7(c) h – s diagram for Reheat

Cycle cycle

turbine. It is then condensed in the condenser at constant pressure and pumped back to
the boiler where the water is converted in to superheated steam to complete the cycle.
The pressure at which the steam has to be withdrawn for reheating should be chosen such
that the work output from the turbine is a maximum for the given boiler exit conditions
and the condenser pressure. If this reheating pressure p4 is too high, the benefit obtained
by reheating will be limited; on the other hand, if p4 is too low, the pressure losses
occurring in the pipe line carrying steam to be reheated will be so great as to off-set the
advantages gained by reheating. It is best to choose p4 such that the thermodynamic mean
temperature for the entire heating process, including the boiler, the superheater and the
reheater becomes the highest attainable. If T5 = T3, p4 may be approximated as 25 % of
p3.

Expression for net work output and thermal efficiency in terms of enthalpies

Pump work per unit mass = wp = (h2 – h1).

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = wt1 + wt2 = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)

Net work out put = wn = wt – wp = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6) – (h2 – h1)

Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = q2-3 + q4-5 = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4)

95
 wn [(h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6) – (h2 – h1)]
Thermal efficiency = ηReheat = -------- = --------------------------------------- …….(4.8)
qs [(h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4)]

4.5.Illustrative examples on Ideal Rankine and Reheat Cycles

Example 4.1:- In a simple Rankine cycle, dry saturated steam at 20 bar expands to a
pressure of 1 atmosphere. Determine (i) the pump work, (ii) turbine work, (iii) network
output, (iv) thermal efficiency, (v) quality of steam entering the condenser, and (vi)
specific steam consumption in kg/kWh.
What would be the (i) network output, (ii) cycle efficiency, (iii) specific
steam consumption in kg/kWh and (iv) quality of steam entering the condenser if the
condenser pressure is reduced to 0.06 bar and compare the performance of the two
cycles.

Case 1:- When the condenser pressure is 1 atmosphere

Given:- Boiler exit pressure = p2 = p3 = 20 bar; Condenser pressure= p4 = p1 = 1.01325

bar;

To find:- (i) wp; (ii) wt ;(iii) wn ; (iv) ηRankine ; (v) x4 ; (vi) s.s.c

96
Solution:- From Mollier chart, h3 = 2798 kJ/kg ; h 4 = 2305 kJ/kg ; x 4 = 0.834 ;

From steam tables: h1 = hf at 1.01325 bar = 419.1 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf = 0.0010437 m3 / kg.

(i) For an isentropic process we have dh – vdp = 0.

p2
Hence wp = h2 – h1 = ∫vdp . For a liquid v = constant.
p1

Therefore wp = h2 – h1 = v1 (p2 – p1) = 0.0010437 x {20 – 1.01325} x 10 5 = 1982 J/kg

Or wp = (h2 – h1) = 1.982 kJ/kg.

(ii) Turbine work = wt = (h3 – h4) = (2798 – 2305) = 493 kJ/kg.

(iii) Net work output = wn = wt – wp = 493 – 1.982 = 491.02 kJ/kg

(iv) h2 = h1 + wp = 419.1 + 1.982 = 421.08 kJ/kg.

Hence heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) = (2798 – 421.08) = 2376.92 kJ/kg

(v) ηRanine = wn / qs = 491.02 / 2376.92 = 0.2066 = 20.66 %.

(vi) Specific steam consumption in kg/kWh = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 491.02 = 7.332 kg/kWh.

Case 2: When the condenser pressure is 0.06 bar

For this case from Mollier chart h4 = 1955 kJ/kg ; x4 = 0.745 ;

(i) h1 = hf at 0.06 bar = 151.5 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf at 0.06 bar = 0.0010064 m3 / kg.

Pump work = wp = 0.0010064 x {20 – 0.06} x 105 / 1000 = 2.007 kJ/kg

Turbine work = wt = 2798 – 1955 = 843 kJ/kg.

Net work output = wn = 843 – 2.007 = 841 kJ/kg

(ii) h2 = h1 + wp = 151.5 + 2.007 = 153.51 kJ/kg

Heat supplied = qs = h3 – h2 = 2798 – 153.51= 2644.5 kJ/kg.

ηRankine = wn / qs = 841 / 2644.5 = = 31.80%.

(iii) Specific steam consumption = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 841 = 4.281 kg/kWh

97
Comparison between the two cycles

Cycle wn (kJ/kg) qs(kJ/kg) η (%) SSC quality of

(kg/kWh) steam at
condenser
inlet

Cycle with 491.02 2376.92 20.66 7.332 0.834

high condensor
pressure (1 atm)

Cycle with 841.0 2644.50 31.80 4.281 0.745

Low condenser
Pressure (0.06 bar)

From the above table the following conclusions can be drawn:

(i) Decreasing the condenser pressure has resulted in an increase in work output as well
as the heat supplied but increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
(ii) Decreasing the condenser pressure also resulted in decrease in specific steam
consumption an advantage.
(iii) Decreasing the condenser pressure resulted in poor quality of steam during the last
stages of expansion which is a disadvantage.

Example 4.2:- Compare the performance of simple Rankine cycle with boiler exit steam
conditions of 20 bar and dry saturated with that of another simple Rankine cycle with
boiler exit steam conditions of 30 bar and dry saturated in terms of (i) net work output,
(ii) heat supply, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) steam rate and (v) quality of steam entering
the condenser. Assume the condenser pressure to be 0.06 bar for both the cycles.

Solution: Case 1: Cycle with low boiler pressure of 20 bar

From Mollier chart : h3 = 2798 kJ/kg; h4 = 1955 kJ/kg; x4 = 0.745

(i) Net work out put = wn = 841 kJ/kg [ see case 2 of example 4.1]

(ii) Heat supply = qs = 2644.5 kJ/kg [ see case 2 of example 4.1]

(iii) Thermal efficiency = 841 / 2644.5 = .3180 = 31.8 %

(iv) steam rate = 3600 / 841 = 4.281 kg/kWh

(v) quality of steam at condenser inlet = x4 = 0.745.

Case 2: Cycle with high boiler pressure of 30 bar

98
From Mollier chart : h3 = 2800 kJ/kg ; h4 = 1900 kJ/kg ; x = 0.725 ;

h1 = hf at 0.06 bar = 151.5 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf at 0.06 bar = 0.0010064 m3/kg.

(i) Pump work per unit mass = wp = v1(p2 – p1) = 0.0010064 x [30 – 0.06] x 105 / 1000

= 3.013 kJ/kg

Hence h2 = h1 + wp = 151.5 + 3.013 = 154.513 kJ/kg

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4) = (2800 – 1900) = 900 kJ/kg.

Net work output = wn = wt – wp = 900 – 3.013 = 897 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supply per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) = (2800 – 154.513) = 2645.5 kJ/kg

Hence thermal efficiency = η = wn / qs = 897/ 2645.5 = 0.3390 = 33.9 %

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / 897 = 4.0133 kg/kWh.

Comparison between the two cycles

Cycle wn qs η steam quality of steam

(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%) rate at condenser
(kg/kWh) inlet

Cycle with
low boiler
pressure (20 bar) 841 2644.5 31.8 4.281 0.745
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cycle with
high boiler
pressure (30 bar) 897 2645.5 33.9 4.013 0.725
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 4.3:- Compare the performance of an ideal reheat cycle with that of a simple
Rankine cycle in terms of (i)net work output, (ii) thermal efficiency, (iii) steam rate, and
(iv) quality of steam entering the condenser assuming the following data. Boiler exit
conditions are 15 bar and 300 C. Condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Reheater pressure is 4
bar. The steam is reheated at constant pressure back to its original temperature in the
reheater.

Solution: Analysis of Reheat cycle:- The h – s diagram for the Reheat cycle is shown in
Fig. E4.3.
Given:- p2 = p3 = 15 bar ; T3 = 300 C ; p4 = p5 = 4 bar ; p6 = 0.1 bar.

99
From Mollier chart: h3 = 3035 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2750 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3060 kJ/kg ;

Fig. E4.3 : h –s diagram for example 4.3

h6 = 2405 kJ/kg ; x6 = 0.925.

From steam tables, h1 = hf at 0.1 bar = 191.8 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf at 0.1 bar = 0.0010102 m3/kg.

(i)Pump work per unit mass = wp = v1[p2 – p1] = 0.0010102 x [ 15 – 0.1] x 105/1000

= 1.505 kJ/kg.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)

= [3035 – 2750] + [3060 – 2405] = 940 kJ/kg.

Net work output per unit mass = wn = 940 – 1.505 = 938.5 kJ/kg

(ii) h2 = h1 + wp = 191.8 + 1.505 = 193.305 kJ/kg

Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h6)

= [3035 – 193.305] + [3060 – 2750] = 3151.7 kJ/kg

100
Thermal efficiency = η = wn / qs = 938.5 / 3151.7 = 0.2978 = 29.78 %.

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 938.5 = 3.836 kg/kWh.

(iv) Quality of steam entering the condenser = x6 = 0.925

Analysis of simple Rankine cycle:- In Fig. E4.3 cycle 1 – 2 – 3 – 4’ – 1 is the simple

Rankine cycle.

From Mollier chart : h4’ = 2195 kJ/kg ; x4’ = 0.835

(i) Pump work is same as in the Reheat cycle.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4’) = 3035 – 2195 = 840 kJ/kg.

Net work out put = wn = 840 – 1.505 = 838.5 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) = 3035 – 193.305 = 2841.7 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = η = 838.5 / 2841.7 = 0.2950 = 29.5%

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / 838.5 = 4.293 kg/kWh.

(iv) quality of steam at condenser inlet = x4’ = 0.835

Comparison:

Cycle wn(kJ/kg) qs(kJ/kg) η (%) SSC quality of steam

(kg/kWh) at condenser
Inlet

Reheat 938.5 3151.7 29.78 3.836 0.925

Rankine 838.5 2841.7 29.50 4.293 0.835

4.6. Deviations of the actual Rankine cycle from the ideal cycle

In analysing the ideal Rankine cycle as well as the ideal reheat cycle it was assumed that
(i) there is no pressure drop during steam flow through pipes, superheater and reheater
colis, in the boiler as well as in the condenser., (ii) the expansion in the turbines and
compression in the pump are isentropic processes, and (iii) all heat transfer processes are
internally reversible. This type of cycle can never be realised in practice. The effect of
losses is to distort the cycle and to reduce the net work output and at the same time
increasing the external heat input.

101
 Because of pressure losses in the piping connecting the boiler exit and turbine inlet the
turbine inlet pressure will be less than the boiler exit pressure and this reduces the
expansion ratio for the turbine which in turn reduces the work output from the
turbine.Similarly because of losses in the piping, bends etc between the pump exit and
boiler inlet the pressure at which boiling takes place reduces which in turn reduces the
expansion ratio and hence the work out put from the turbine.
Because of frictional losses during expansion the actual work
output from the turbine is reduced. To account for the frictional losses during expansion a
parameter called “isentropic efficiency of turbine” is defined as follows:

Actual work of expansion

Isentropic efficiency of turbine = ηt = ---------------------------------------
Isentropic work of expansion

The effect of frictional losses during expansion is illustrated on the T-s diagram shown in
Fig.4.8. Due to friction pumping process also will not be isentropic and we define a
parameter called “Isentropic efficiency of the pump” to account for the frictional losses in
the pump.This is illustrated inFig. 4.8

With reference to the above diagram , isentropic efficiency for the turbine can be written
as:
(wt)actual (h3 – h4)
ηt = ------------------- = ---------------- ……………………………….(4.9)
(wt)Isentropic (h3 – h4’)

102
And the isentropic efficiency of the pump is given by

(wp)Isentropic (h2’ – h1)

ηp = ------------------ = ------------ ………………………………….(4.10)
(wp)Actual (h2 – h1)

4.7. Illustrative examples on Practical Rankine and Reheat Cycles

Example 4.4:- In a simple Rankine cycle, steam conditions at the boiler exit are 10 bar
and 300 C. In the pipe line between the boiler exit and turbine inlet, there is an energy
loss of 50 kj/kg and a drop in pressure of 0.5 bar. The steam expands in the turbine to a
pressure of 0.09 bar. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.86 and that of the pump
is 0.70. Determine (i) the condition of steam entering the turbine, (ii) actual pump work
per unit mass of water, (iii) turbine work per unit mass of steam (iv) net work output and
thermal efficiency of the cycle, and (v) quality of steam entering the condenser.

Given: Boiler exit pressure = p3’ = 10 bar; boiler exit temperature = T3’ = 300 C;

q3’-3 = h3’ – h3 = 50 kJ/kg ; p3’ – p3 = 0.5 bar; p4 = 0.09 bar; ηt = 0.86; ηp = 0.70.

To find:- (i) p3 and T3 ; (ii) (wp)Actual ; (iii) (wt)Actual ; (wn)Actual and η Thermal ; (v) x4

Solution:

From Mollier chart ; h3’ = 3050 kJ/kg .

103
Therefore h3 = 3050 – 50 = 3000 kJ/kg and p3 = 10 – 0.5 = 9.5 bar.

From Mollier chart, T3 = 275 C (by interpolation) ; h4’ = 2220 kJ/kg

(i)From steam tables h1 = hf at 0.09 bar = 183.3 kJ/kg,

and v1 = vf at 0.09 bar = 0.0010094 m3/kg.

(wp)Isentropic = v1(p2 – p1) = 0.0010094 x [10 – 0.09] x 10 5 / 1000 = 1.00 kJ/kg.

(wp)Actual = (wp)Isentropic / η p = 1.00 / 0.7 = 1.4286 kJ/kg.

Hence h2 = h1 + (wp)Actual = 183.3 + 1.4286 = 184.73 kJ/kg.

(ii) Now ηt = (h3 – h4) / (h3 – h4’) or h4 = h3 – ηt (h3 − h4’)

Or h4 = 3000 – 0.86 x [3000 – 2220] = 2329.2 kJ/kg.

Therefore (wt)Actual = h3 – h4 = 3000 – 2329.2 = 670.8 kJ/kg.

Heat supply = qs = h3’ – h2 = 3050 – 184.73 = 2865.27 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηThermal = (wn)actual / qs = [670.8 – 1.4286] / 2865.27 = 0.2336

= 23.36 %.

(iii) Since h4 and p4 are known, state point ‘4’ can be located on the Mollier chart and x4
can be read. Hence from Mollier chart x4 = 0.894.

Example 4.5: In a reheat steam cycle, the boiler exit conditions are 25 bar and 300 C.
The exit pressure of steam at the end of first stage is 5 bar. The steam is then reheated to
300 C before expanding in the second turbine to 0.05 bar. Assuming the high and low
pressure turbines to have efficiencies of 87% and85 % respectively, find (i) the thermal
energy input in the reheater, (ii) the cycle efficiency, (iii) specific steam consumption and
(iv) power output for a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s.

Given:- Boiler exit pressure =p3 = 25 bar; boiler exit temperature = T3 = 300 C;

Reheater Pressure = p4 = p5 = 5 bar; Temperature of steam after reheating = T5 = 300 C;

Condenser pressure = p6 = 0.05 bar; Turbine efficiency for first stage = ηt1 = 0.87;
.
Turbine efficiency for second stage = ηt2 = 0.85; mass flow rate = m = 2 kg/s.

104
 .
To find:- (i) q4-5 ; (ii) ηthermal ; (iii) SSC ; (iv) Wn

Solution: The h – s diagram for the given problem is shown below.

From Mollier chart we have: h3 = 3010 kJ/kg ; h4’ = 2680 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3060 kJ/kg ;

h6’ = 2285 kJ/kg.

(h3 – h4)
(i) Efficiency of I stage turbine = ηt1 = ------------
(h3 – h4’)

Hence h4 = h3 – ηt1 (h3 – h4’) = 3010 – 0.87 x [3010 – 2680]

= 2722.9 kJ/kg.

Also turbine work for I stage per unit mass of steam = wt1 = (h3 – h4)

Or wt1 = [ 3010 – 2722.9] = 287.1 kJ/kg

Similarly,
(h5 – h6)
Efficiency of II stage turbine = ηt2 = ------------
(h3 – h6’)

Hence h6 = h5 – ηt2 (h3 – h6’) = 3060 – 0.85 x [3010 – 2285]

105
 = 2443.75 kJ/kg

Turbine work of II stage = wt2 = (h5 – h6’) = [3060 – 2443.75]

= 616.25 kJ / kg.

Thermal energy input in the reheater per unit mass = q4-5 = (h5 – h4)

Or q4-5 = [3060 – 2722.9]

= 337.1 kJ/kg.

(ii) Total heat supplied per unit mass of steam = qs = q2-3 + q4-5

Or qs = (h3 – h2) + q4-5

Neglecting pump work, h2 = h1 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.8 kJ/kg.

Therefore qs = [3010 – 137.8] + 337.1

= 3209.3 kJ/kg.

Total turbine work per unit mass = wt = wt1 + wt2 = 287.1 + 616.25

= 903.35 kJ/kg.

Since pump work is neglected , wn = wt = 903.3 kJ/kg.

Hence thermal efficiency = ηthermal = wn / qs = 903.3 / 3209.3

= 0.2815 = 28.15 %.

(iii) Specific steam consumption = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 903.3

= 3.985 kg/ kWh.

. .
(iv) Net power output = Wn = m wn = 2 x 903.3 = 1806.6 kW.

Example 4.6:- Steam at 50 bar and 350 C expands to 12 bar in a high pressure stage,
and is dry saturated at the stage exit. This is now reheated to 280 C without any pressure
drop. The reheated steam expands in an intermediate stage and again emerges as a dry
saturated steam at a lower pressure. The steam is once again reheated to 280 C at
constant pressure before it is finally expanded in the low pressure stage to 0.05 bar.
Assuming the work output is the same for the high and intermediate stages, and the

106
efficiencies of the high pressure stage and low pressure stage are equal, find (i) efficiency
of the high pressure stage, (ii) pressure of steam at the exit of the intermediate stage, (iii)
total power output from the three stages for a mass flow rate of 1 kg/s, (iv) condition of
the steam entering the condenser, and (v) thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Fig. E4.6: h – s diagram for example 4.6.

Solution: (i) On the Mollier diagram, the state points 3,4,4’ and 5 can be located and the

corresponding enthalpies can be read. Therefore h3 = 3070 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2780 kJ/kg ;

h4’ = 2755 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3000 kJ/kg ; h1 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.8 kJ/kg (from steam tables)

Pump work is neglected. Hence h2 = h1

Now wt1 = h3 – h4 = 3070 – 2780 = 290 kJ/kg.

But wt1 = wt2 = h5 – h6. Hence h6 = h5 – wt1 = 3000 – 290 = 2710 kJ/kg.

Now state point 6 can be located on the Mollier chart since h6 and the steam is dry

saturated at 6. Hence from Mollier chart

p6 = 2.25 bar = p7. Since T7 = 280 C state point 7 can be located on the Mollier chart.

From Mollier chart h7 = 3020 kJ/kg ; h8’ = 2380 kJ/kg .

107
Efficiency of high pressure stage = η t1 = (h3 – h4) / (h3 – h4’)

= (3070 – 2780) / (3070 – 2755)

= 0.92 = 92 %.

Now η t1 = η t3 = (h7 – h8) / (h7 – h8’).

Hence h8 = h7 – η t3 (h7 – h8’)

= 3020 – 0.92 x (3020 – 2380)

= 2431.2 kJ/kg.

Turbine work from the low pressure stage = wt3 = h7 – h8 = 3020 – 2431.2

= 588.8 kJ/kg
. . .
(iii) Total power output neglecting pump work = Wn = Wt = m (wt1 + wt2 + wt3)
.
Hence Wn = 1.0 x (290 + 290 + 588.8)

= 1168.8 kW.

(iv) Since h8 and p8 are known, the state point 8 can be located on the Mollier digram and

the quality x8 corresponding to point 8 can be read.

Therefore from Mollier chart x8 = 0.9425

(v) Total heat supplied per unit mass of steam = qs = q2-3 + q 4-5 + q 6-7

Or qs = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4) + (h7 – h6)

= (3070 – 137.8) + (3000 – 2780) + (3020 – 2710)

= 3462.2 kJ/kg.
. .
Net workoutput per unit mass of steam = wn = Wn / m = 1168.8 / 1.0

= 1168.8 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = η thermal = wn / qs = 1168.8 / 3462.2 = 0.3376 = 33.76 %

108
4.8. Regenerative Vapour Power Cycle

The thermal efficiency of a steam power plant cycle is quite low even with superheating
and reheating as compared to a Carnot power cycle between the same temperature limits.
For example, a steam power plant cycle with a maximum temperature of 550 C ,a boiler
pressure of 80 bar and a condenser pressure of 0.08 bar will have a thermal efficiency of
about 41 % as against an efficiency of 63 % for a Carnot power cycle working between
the same temperature limits. By employing regenerative feed water heating, the
thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied can be increased thereby
increasing the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

4.8.1. Theoretical Regenerative Vapour Power cycle :- To illustrate the principle of

regenerative feed water heating, let us consider a simple Rankine cycle as shown in Fig.
4.9.During the heating process 1-2, the subcooled liquid water at boiler pressure is

Fig. 4.9 : Theoretical Regenerative Feed Heating Cycle

brought to the saturation temperature. Hence the mean temperature of the fluid during
this process is lower than the maximum temperature of the cycle, with the result the
thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle will be lower than that for the Carnot cycle. If the
amount of heat required for this process is supplied internally instead of externally, then
the cycle efficiency would approach that of Carnot cycle. This process of supplying heat
internally is called regeneration.Fig.4.9 also shows the T-s diagram for a theoretical
regenerative cycle. If it is possible to expand the steam in a reversible manner so that the
area under the path 3 – 3’ would be exactly equal to the area under the path 1 – 2’, then
we would have all the heat supplied externally at T3 (T3 = T2’), and all heat rejected
another constant temperature T1. Consequently, the thermal efficiency of the ideal

109
regenerative cycle will be equal to that of a Carnot cycle working between the same
temperature limits.
To carry out the ideal regenerative process, the liquid leaving the feed water
pump at state 1 is made to circulate through the coils around a regenerative turbine
through which the steam is expanding from state 3.The feed water is heated
regeneratively by absorbing heat from the expanding steam to reach saturated liquid state
at 2’.The feed water then enters the boiler where it is vapourised to become dry
steam.Steam, after non-adiabatic expansion to state 3’ , finally expands isentropically to
state 4’ before condensing in the condenser.
The ideal cycle described above cannot be achieved in practice because of
the complexities involved in the construction of a regenerative turbine. Also, even if it is
possible to build a regenerative turbine, the quality of steam during the last stages of
expansion will be very poor so that there is considerable decrease in the efficiency and
life of the turbine. Therefore, in practice, the regenerative feed water heating is achieved
by bleeding a small fraction of steam from the turbine and use this steam to heat the feed
water in a feed water heater.

4.8.2. Practical Regenerative Feed Heating Cycle : A schematic diagram of a practical

regenerative cycle employing a single feed water heater is shown in Fig. 4.10 (a). The
corresponding T – s and h – s diagrams are shown in Figures 4.10 (b) and 4.10 (c)
respectively.

. Turbine
m

. 3
Qs Boiler .
WT
4
.
2 m1 5
. .
. (m – m1)
. m
Wp2 P2 1
m
Condenser
7
Feed Water Heater
P1 6
Fig. 4.10 (a) : Schematic of a Practical Regenerative cycle employing a
single feed water heater

110
Fig. 4.10 (b) : T – s diagram Fig. 4.10 (c): h – s diagram
for regenerative cycle employing a single feed water heater

111
 CHAPTER 5

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

5.1.Introduction :- This chapter deals with thermodynamic analysis (energy analysis) of

reciprocating gas compressors. Gas compressors are devices in which mechanical work is
done on the gas, raising its pressure. Energy analysis is one of the many major aspects to
be considered in order to design a gas compressor.
Compressed gas has many industrial applications. It is used to
transport solid material, to provide control air for pneumatic systems, to drive tools in
construction industries and so on. Compressors are also part of refrigeration and air
conditioning systems.
Compressors are broadly classified into two types: (i) positive
displacement type and (ii) turbomachine type. In a positive displacement type of
compressor, the interaction between the moving part and the fluid involves a change of
volume, translation of the fluid or both. Fluid compression or expansion thus occurs
without an appreciable displacement of the mass centre of gravity of the contained fluid.
Hence changes in kinetic energy and momentum may be neglected in such machines. In
the positive displacement machine the fluid cannot escape the boundaries except for
leakage. The action is therefore nearly static. In the case of a turbomachine, the fluid
undergoes change in momentum and kinetic energy due to dynamic action between the
flowing fluid and a rotor. Positive displacement compressors are further classified as (i)
reciprocating type and (ii) rotary type. This chapter deals with analysis of reciprocating
type of compressors.In a reciprocating air compressor, air is sucked in to the compressor
cylinder, it is then compressed to the required pressure and then exhausted into a receiver
where it is stored for further use.

5.2. Classification of Reciprocating Compressors:Reciprocating compressors are

classified according to (i) the number of surfaces (one or two) of the piston which
actually participates in the compression process, (ii) the number of stages employed to
get the desired pressure ratio and (iii) the number of cylinders employed.
According to the first classification, compressors are classified into single acting
compressor and double acting compressor. In the case of single acting compressor, only
one side of the piston face (see Fig. 5.1) participates in the compression process.One
revolution of the crank is required to complete one cycle of operation. Hence if N is the
speed of the compressor say in RPM then the number of cycles per minute executed by
the compressor, Nc is equal to N. On the other hand, in the case of a double acting
compressor, since both sides of the piston are participating in the compression process
(i.e. if compression is taking place on one side of the piston, suction is taking place on the
other side) the number of cycles per unit time will be equal to twice the speed of the
compressor, i.e. Nc = 2N if the cross sectional area of the piston rod is negligible.

112
Otherwise Nc = 2 { 1 – (a / A)}N, wher a = area of cross section of the piston rod and A
is the area of cross section of the cylinder.

(a) single acting compressor (b) double acting compressor

Fig. 5.1 : Single acting and double acting compressors

Compressors are also classified as single - stage compressors and multi-stage

compressors. In the case of a single stage compressor the entire compression process
from the surroundings pressure to the required delivery pressure is carried out in a single
stage, where as in a multi stage compressor the whole compression process is divided
into a number of stages, so that after the compression in each stage, the gas is cooled in
an inter cooler at constant pressure back to its original temperature and then compressed

113
 Wc (Wc)I stage

p1,T1 First stage

Compression
p1,T1 p2, T2
pi,Ti
Coolant out

Single stage
Compressor Intercooler

Coolant in pi,T1

Second stage
p2,T2 Compression

(Wc)II stage
Two-stage compressor
Fig. 5.2 : Difference between single stage and two stage compressor

in the next stage. Fig. 5.2 shows the difference between a single stage compressor and a
two-stage compressor. The total work required in a two stage compressor is equal to the
sum of work required in I stage and II stage, which will always be less than the work
required in a single stage compressor for the same delivery pressure. There are other
advantages of multi-stage compressors over a single stage compressor which will be
discussed later.
Whenever a large quantity of gas are required at high pressure it is not
advisable to employ a single cylinder as in that case the size of the cylinder will be very
bulky. Under such circumstances, the required quantity of gas to be compressed is
divided into smaller quantities compressed in separate cylinders and then discharged into
a common receiver. The suction and delivery pressures for all the cylinders are one and
the same.Fig. 5.3 shows the difference between a compressor with one cylinder and a
compressor with two cylinders.

114
 Wc

.
m,p1,T1 m,p2,T2 Single cylinder compressor

Wc1
.
m/2,p1,T1 Cylinder 1 m/2,p2,T2
.
m,p2,T2
Wc2 = Wc1
m,p1,T1 Cylinder 2
.
m,p1,T1 m/2,p2,T2

Fig. 5.3 : Difference between a single cylinder compressor and a two-cylinder

compressor.

5.3. Expression for work done on a gas in a single stage compressor without
clearance

The p – V diagram for a single stage compressor without clearance volume is shown in
Fig.5.4. Line 0 – 1 represents suction of air when the piston moves from its inner most
position to outer most position. During this process both pressure and temperature of the
gas remains constant.Line 1 – 2 represents the compression process where in the gas is
compressed from the suction pressure to the required delivery pressure according to the
law pV n = Constant. Line 2 – 3 represents the delivery of the gas from the cylinder to a
receiver where the gas is stored at this pressure.During the delivery stroke both pressure
and temperature of the gas remains constant.The wokdone on the gas per cycle is given
by

115
 p

3 2

pV n= C

0 1
V
Fig. 5.4: p – V diagram for a single stage compressor without
clearance

1 2 3
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2

[p1V1 – p2V2]
= p1[V1 – V0] + -------------------- + p2[V3 – V2}
(n – 1)

For a compressor without clearance V0 = V3 = 0. Therefore

[p1V1 – p2V2] n
Wc = p1V1 – p2V2 + -------------------- = --------- p1V1 [ 1 – (p2V2) / (p1V1)]
(n – 1) (n – 1)

For process 1-2 we can write p1V1n = p2V2 n or V2 / V1 = (p2/p1) – 1/n.

n
Therefore Wc = ---------- p1V1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n ] ………………………..(5.1)
(n – 1)

If mc = mass of air compressed per cycle, assuming that the gas behaves as a perfect gas

We have p1V1 = mcRT1. Substituting this expression in Eq. (5.1) we get

116
 n
Therefore Wc = ---------- m cRT1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n ] ………………………..(5.2)
(n – 1)

Work done per unit mass of gas in order to raise its pressure from p1 to p2 is given by

n
w = Wc / mc = ---------- m cRT1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………..(5.3)
(n – 1)

It can be seen from Eq. (5.3) that work input required to compress unit mass of a gas
from pressure p1 to p2 depends on (i) the index of compression ‘n’, (ii) the desired
pressure ratio p2/p1 and (iii) the suction temperature T1.Therefore for given suction
conditions (T1 is fixed), w depends on ‘n’ and p2/p1. The effects of these two parameters
on w is shown in Fig. 5.5 where absolute value of w (non dimensionalized) is plotted

|w| /(mcRT1)

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13

p2 / p1
Fig. 5.5. Variation of work input with compression index

against p2/p1 for different values of the index ‘n’.It is clear from this plot that for a given
pressure ratio, the work input increases with increase in ‘n’ and is a minimum for n=1(a
compression index of n < 1 cannot be attained in practice as a gas cannot be cooled below
its original temperature, unless a refrigeration process is used). Therefore for minimum
work of compression , the index n should be unity which means that the compression
process should be according to the law pV = constant which for a perfect gas means that
T = constant or the compression process should be isothermal.

117
Therefore (w) minimum = RT1 ln (p2 / p1) ………………………………………..(5.4)

5.4. Expression for work done on a gas in single stage compressor with clearance

In practice a compressor without clearance does not exist. Some clearance space between
the piston face and the cylinder head, when the piston is in its innermost position is
necessary to prevent the piston from colliding with the cylinder head and therby
providing a “cushioning effect” when the piston moves in. When the clearance has been
provided, the gas in the clearance space alternately expands and contracts as the piston
moves back and forth and has no effect otherwise on the compressor cycle. The gas in the
clearance space after each cycle has to be first expanded to the suction pressure before
fresh gas can enter the cylinder during suction stroke of the next cycle. Therefore the
ideal p – V diagram for a compressor with clearance will be as shown in Fig. 5.6. Process
3 – 0 is the expansion of gas in the clearance space from delivery pressure to suction
pressure. Fresh gas will enter the compressor at 0 and stops at 1.Process 1 -2 is the
compression of the gas to the desired pressure and process 2 – 3 is the delivery of high
pressure gas from the cylinder to a receiver in which the high pressure gas is stored and
used as and when required.
p

3 2

pV ne = const

pV nc = const

1
0
V
Vs = V1 – V3

Clearance volume = V3
Fig. 5.6: p – V diagram for a compressor with clearance
The work done on the gas per cycle is given by

1 2 3 0
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-0 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2 3

[p1V1 – p2V2] [p3V3 – p0V0]

= p1[V1 – V0] + ------------------ + p2[V3 – V2] + ---------------------
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

118
Since p0 = p1 and p3 = p2, the above equation can be simplified as

[p1V1 – p2V2] [p3V3 – p0V0]

Or Wc = [p1V1 – p0V0] + -------------------- + [ p3V3 – p2V2] + -------------------
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

1 1
= [p1V1 – p2V2] { 1 + ---------- } – [p0V0 – p3V3] { 1 + ------------ }
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

nc ne
= --------- p1V1[ 1 – (p2V2/p1V1) ] − ------------- p0V0 [ 1 – (p3V3 / p0V0]
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

For process 1-2 we have p1V1nc = p2V2nc or V2 / V1 = (p2 / p1) −1/nc.

Similarly for process 3 -0 we have V3/V0 = (p3/p0) − 1/ne.

Substituting these expressions in the expression for Wc and simplifying we get

nc ne
(nc – 1)/nc
Wc = ----------- p1V1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) − ------------- p0V0 [1 – (p2/p1) (ne – 1)/ne]
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

……………………(5.5)

Normally the index for compression is taken as equal to the index for expansion, as the
error involved in such an assumption is negligible (this is illustrated in example 5.1)
Hence assuming that nc = ne = n, Eq.(5.5) reduces to

n n
(n – 1)/n
Wc = ----------- p1V1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) ] − ------------- p0V0 [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]
(n – 1) (n – 1)
Noting that p0 = p1, the above expression for Wc can be written as

n
Wc = ---------- p1(V1 – V0) [ 1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………………………(5.6)
(n – 1)

(V1 – V0) is the volume of air sucked and compressed per cycle as measured at suction
conditions. Therefore if mc is the mass of gas compressed per cycle then

119
p1(V1 – V0) = mcRT1. Therefore Eq. (5.6) can also be written as

n
Wc = ---------- mc RT1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………………………….(5.7)
(n – 1)
n
Work done per unit mass of gas = w = Wc / mc = ---------- RT1 [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]
(n – 1)

This expression is same as the one obtained for a compressor without clearance,
indicating that the work input per unit mass of gas to achieve the desired pressure ratio is
independent of the clearance volume.

5.5. Volumetric Efficiency for a reciprocating compressor

For a compressor with clearance, the volume of air sucked as measured at suction
conditions is less than the swept volume of the piston. In order to denote how efficiently
gas is drawn into the compressor the term “volumetric efficiency” is used. The ideal
volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of gas drawn to the mass
of gas filling the stroke volume at suction conditions.

mc p1(V1 – V0) / RT1

i.e. (η v)ideal = --------- = ---------------------------
mswept p1(V1 – V3) / RT1

(V1 – V0)
or (η v)ideal = ------------- ……………………………..(5.8)
(V1 – V3)

Normally the compressor specifications are given as the pressure ratio that has to be
developed and the volume of gas that has to be compressed per unit time as measured at
free air conditions (surrounding conditions). In that case the volumetric efficiency is
defined as the ratio of volume of gas compressed as measured at surroundings conditions
to the swept volume of the piston. This is the actual volumetric efficiency of the
compressor. Thus
Vf
(η v) actul = ---------------- ………………………….(5.9)
(V1 – V3)

If the surroundings pressure is pf and temperature is Tf and Vf is the volume of gas

compressed per cycle as measured at these conditions then we have
p1(V1 – V0) pfVf
mc = ----------------- = ------------ Or Vf = (p1/pf)(Tf/T1) (V1 – V0)
RT1 RTf

120
Substituting this expression for Vf in Eq. (5.9) we get

p1Tf (V1 – V0)

(η v)actual = ------------------- = (p1Tf / pfT1) (η v) ideal ………….(5.10)
pf T1 (V1 – V3)

Expression for Ideal Volumetric Efficiency in Terms of Clerance Ratio, Pressure Ratio
and index of expansion

(V1 – V0)
(η v)ideal = -------------------
(V1 – V3)

(V1 – V3) + (V3 – V0)

= ---------------------------
(V1 – V3)

V3
= 1 + ------------ [ 1 – V0 / V3]
(V1 – V3)

V3 / (V1 – V3) = Clearance ratio = C ; V0 / V3 = (p3 / p0) 1/ne = (p2 / p1) 1/ne. Substituting
these expressions we have

(η v)ideal = 1 + C [ 1 – (p2 / p1) 1/ne] ………………….(5.11)

The above equation is represented graphically in Fig. 5.7. It can be seen from this figure
that the volumetric efficiency diminishes very rapidly as the clearance ratio and pressure
ratio increases.

5.6. Actual p – V diagram for a single stage compressor

While deriving the expression for the work done on a gas in order to compress it from
pressure p1 to pressure p2, it was assumed that during the suction stroke the pressure and
temperature of the gas inside the cylinder remains constant and similarly during the
delivery stroke also the pressure and temperature of the gas inside the cylinder remains
constant.The use of spring loaded valves causes a defect called “valve flutter” because of
which there will be fluctuations in suction and delivery pressures.Hence the intake and
delivery lines on the p – v diagram will be more or less sinuous rather than straight lines..
Further it is necessary that there exists a finite pressure difference between the
surroundings and the cylinder interior so that the inlet valve opens and gas is sucked into
the cylinder. Similarly, compressed gas will flow out of the cylinder only if its pressure is

121
 (η v)Ideal

1.0
1 / C = 20
= 15

= 10

0
p2/p1
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Fig.5.7: Effect of pressure ratio and clearance on volumetric eficiency

more than the receiver pressure. These effects will make the actual p – V diagram bigger
than the ideal diagram.The process of compression can never be isothermal nor it can be
isentropic. Usually it will be polytropic with index ‘n’ anywhere between 1 and 1.4.The
work input to compressor will be minimum if the compression process is isothermal. In
practice, the isothermal compression is approached either by cooling the cylinder head by
spraying cold water or by circulating cold water in jacket surrounding the cylinder.

The actual p – V diagram which includes the pressure drops across the
valves, the valve flutter and non-adiabatic compression is shown in Fig.5.8.The average
pressure during intake p1, is less than the atmospheric pressure by δp1 (δp1 is the inlet
valve pressure drop), while the average pressure at exit,p2 is greater than the receiver
pressure by δp2 which is the exit valve pressure drop. The real indicator diagram has its
corners rounded at the end of compression and expansion processes as compared with the
ideal diagram. Further the actual area of the diagram is greater than the theoretical area so
that the actual work input is greater than that for an ideal compressor given by Eqs (5.6)
and (5.7).In order to account for these deviations in the actual p – V diagram, a factor
called “diagram factor,K” is introduced, which is defined as the ratio of the area of the
actual p – V diagram to the area of the ideal p – V diagram so that the actual work don
per cycle is given by

(Wc)actual = K(Wc)ideal ………………………………..(5.12)

122
 p

p2
pr δp2

p1
δp1
patm
V

Fig.5.8: Actual p – V diagram for a reciprocating compressor

5.7. Performance Factors for Reciprocating Compressors

In an actual compressor, because of irreversibilities, the required compressor work will

not be equal to the ideal work of compression. To account for these irreversibilitis a
parameter called “compressor efficiency” is defined. Compressor efficiency is an
indication of how closely the actual compression process The compressor efficiency is
defined as follows:
Ideal work of compression
ηc = ---------------------------------- ……………………(5.13)
Actual work of compression

If the ideal work of compression is based on isentropic work of compression then the
efficiency is called as “Isentropic efficiency of compressor”. If the ideal process is
isothermal then the efficiency is called as “ Isothermal efficiency of compressor”. For a
reciprocating compressor the ideal work of compression is the isothermal work of
compression ,and hence Isothermal efficiency of compressor is used as one of the
performance parameters.In the case of turbo compressors, the ideal compression is the
isentropic process and hence isentropic efficiency of compressor is used as a performance
parameter for turbo compressors. The actual work of compression in Eq.(5.13) is the
work transferred to air in the cylinder. This will not be the work supplied by the external
agency which is driving the compressor. There are

123
mechanical losses due to friction which will diminish the amount of work supplied to the
gas in the cylinder. To account for mechanical losses, a parameter called “mechanical
efficiency” is defined as follows:

Actual work of compression

ηmech = -------------------------------------- ………………..(5.14)
Shaft work supplied

The overall compressor efficiency is defined as follows:

Ideal work of compression

ηoverall = ----------------------------------- = ηmech ηc ……………………………..(5.15)
Shaft work supplied

5.8.Illustrative Examples on Single stage reciprocating compressors

Example 5.1:- An ideal compressor has a displacement volume (stroke volume) of 14

litres and a clearance volume of 0.7 litre. It receives air at 100 kPa and discharges at
500 kPa. The compression is polytropic with index equal to 1.3 and expansion is
isentropic. Assuming that air behaves as a perfect gas, determine (i) work done on air
per cycle and (ii) the error involved in calculation of work done if the index for
compression and for expansion are both equal to 1.3..
Solution:-

p Given :-
3 2 V1 – V3 = 14 x 10 − 3 m3

V3 = 0.7 x 10 − 3 m3;

p1 = 100 kPa ; p2 = 500 kPa;

nc = 1.3 ; ne = 1.4
To find Wc:-
0 1
V
Solution:- When the index for expansion is not equal to the index for
compression the work done per cycle is given by
Wc = {nc/(nc – 1)}p1V1[1 – (p2/p1) (nc – 1)/nc] – {ne/(ne – 1)}p0V0[1 – (p2/p1) (ne – 1)/ne]

Now V1 = (14.7) x 10 − 3 m3. V0 = (p3/p0) 1/neV3 = (500/100) 1/1.4 x 0.7 x 10 − 3

124
 Or V0 = 2.21 x 10 − 3 m3.

Substituting the numerical values in the expression for Wc we get

Wc = {1.3 /0.3) x 100 x 103 x 14.7 x 10 − 3 [1 – (500/100) 0.3/1.3]

− {1.4/0.4} x 100 x 10 3 x 2.21 x 10 − 3 x {1 – (500/100)0.4/1.4]

= − 2.414 x 10 3 J = − 2.414 kJ
(Negative sign indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings)
(ii) When nc = ne = n, work done per cycle is given by

Wc = {n/(n – 1)}p1(V1 – V0) [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]

Now V0 = (500/100) 1/1.3x 0.7 x 10 −3 = 2.414 x 10 − 3

= (1.3/0.3) x 100 x 10 3 x (14.7 – 2.414) x 10 − 3 x [1 – (500/100) 0.3/1.3]

= − 2.385 x 10 3 J = − 2.385 kJ

Percent error in assuming the same index for both compression and expansion processe is
given by
% error = (2.414 – 2.385) x 100 / 2.414 = 1.2 %.

Example 5.2:-A double acting compressor, with a piston displacement of 0.05 m 3 per
stroke, operates at 500 rpm. The clearance is 5 percent and it receives air at 100 kPa and
discharges at 600 kPa. The compression is polytropic according to the law pV 1.35 =
constant. Determine the power required to drive the compressor and the mass of air
delivered in kg/s if the suction temperature is 27 C

Given:- Double acting,hence Nc = 2N; N = 500 rpm; V1 – V3 = 0.05 m3;

V3 = 0.05(V1 – V3); p1 = 100 kPa; p2 = 600 kPa; nc = ne = n = 1.35; T1 = 27+273 = 300 K

.
To find :- (i) Power input ,P ; (ii) m

Solution:- Refer to the p – V diagram shown in example 5.1

V3 = 0.05 x 0.05 = 2.5 x 10 − 3 m3.

Hence V1 = 0.05 + 2.5 x 10 − 3 = 0.0525 m3.

For the expansion process 3 – 0 we have p0V0n = p3V3n or V0 = (p3/p0) 1/nV3

Therefore V0 = (600 / 100) 1/1.35 x 0.0025 = 9.4265 x 10 − 3 m3.

125
Mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = p1(V1 – V0) / (RT1)

= 100 x 103 x [0.0525 – 9.4265 x 10 − 3] / (286 x 300)

Or mc = 0.0502 kg/cycle
.
Mass of air compressed per second = m = mcNc = 0.0502 x (2 x 500)/60

= 0.837 kg/s

(ii) Power = P = WcNc = {n/(n – 1)}mcNcRT1[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1) / n]

= (1.35/0/35) x 0.837 x 0.286 x 300 x [1 – (600/100) 0.35 / 1.35]

= − 163.8 kW

Example 5.3:- A single acting air compressor has a cylinder of bore 15 cm and the
piston stroke is 25 cm. The crank speed is 600 rpm.Air is taken from atmosphere (1 bar
and 27 C) and is delivered at 11 bars.Assuming polytropic compression of the type pV
1.,25
= C, find the power required to drive the compressor if its mechanical efficiency is 80
%. The compressor has a clearance which is 1/20th of the stroke volume. How long will it
take to deliver 1 m 3 of air at the compressor inlet conditions. Also find the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor.

Given: Bore = d = 0.15 m; stroke = l = 0.25 m; N = 600 rpm; p1 = 1 bar;

T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; Single acting and hence Nc = N; p2 = 11 bar; η mech = 0.80;

nc = ne = n = 1.25; V3 = (1/20)[V1 – V3]

To find:- (i) time to deliver 1 m3 of air as measured at suction conditions, (ii) ηv;
(iii) Power required, P

Solution:- Refer to the p – V diagram shown in example 5.1.

(i) Stroke volume = (V1 – V3) = (πd2/4)l = π x (0.15)2 x 0.25 / 4

= 4.42 x 10 − 3 m3.

Therefore V3 = (1/20) x 4.42 x 10 − 3 = 2.21 x 10 − 4 m3

V1 = 4.42 x 10 − 3 + 2.21 x 10 − 4 = 4.641 x 10 − 3 m3

Also p0V0n = p3V3n. Or V0 = (p3 / p0) 1/n V3= (p2/p1) 1/n V3

126
Or V0 = (600/100) 1/ 1.35 x 2.21 x 10 − 4 = 1.51 x 10 − 3 m3.
.
Volume of air compressed per minute as measured at suction conditions ,Vs is given by
.
Vs = (V1 – V0)Nc= [4.641 – 1.51] x 10 − 3 x 600 = 1.88 m3/min.

Hence time required to compress 1 m3 of air as measured at suction conditions is given

By t = 1 /{(V1 – V0)Nc} = 1/1.88 = 0.532 min = 31.91 s.

(V1 – V0) (4.641 – 1.51) x 10 − 3

(ii) Volumetric efficiency = (η v)ideal = ------------- = --------------------------- = 0.7084
(V1 – V3) 4.42 x 10 − 3

= 70.84 %.

(iii) Power required to drive the compressor is given by

P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}p1(V1 – V0)[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]Nc

1 1.25 1 x 10 5
= ------- x -------- x ------------ x (3.131 x 10 − 3) x [1 – (600/100)0.25/1.25] x (600/60) kJ/s
0.80 0.25 1000

= − 12 kW.

Example 5.4:- A reciprocating compressor has a 5 % clearance with a bore and stroke of
25 x 30 cm. The compressor operates at 500 rpm. Air enters the cylinder at 27 C and 95
kPa and discharges at 2000 kPa. If the indices for both comprssion and expansion are
equal to 1.3 Determine (i) volumetric efficiency, (ii) the volume of air handled at inlet
conditions in m3/s, (iii) the power required to drive the compressor if the mechanical
efficiency is 90 %, (iv) the mass of air delivered in kg/s, (v) the mass of air in the
clearance space.

Given:- V3 = 0.05 (V1 – V3); d = 0.25 m; l = 0.3 m; N = 500 rpm; p1 = 95 kPa;

T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; p2 = 2000 kPa; η mech = 0.90; nc = ne = n = 1.3

Since nothing has been mentioned whether the compressor is single acting or double
acting, it is assumed that it is single acting. Hence Nc = N.
.
To find:- (i) (ηv)ideal ; (ii) (V1 – V0)Nc; (iii) Power, P; (iv) m (v) m3

Solution:- Refer to the p – V diagram shown in example 5.1.

127
V1 – V3 = (πd2/4)l = (π x 0.252/4) x 0.30 = 0.01473 m3.

Therefore V3 = 0.05 x 0.01473 = 7.365 x 10 − 4 m3.

Hence V1 = 0.01473 + 7.365 x 10 − 4 = 0.0155 m3.

For process 3 – 0 we have p0V0n = p3V3n. Or V0 = (p3/p0) 1/nV3.

Hence V0 = (2000/95) 1/1.3 x 7.365 x 10 − 4 = 4.6585 x 10 − 3 m3.

(V1 – V0) [0.0155 – 4.6585 x 10 − 3]

Therefore (ηv)ideal = -------------- = --------------------------------- = 0.736 = 73.6 %.
(V1 – V3) 0.01473
(ii) Volume of air delivered per second as measured at suction conditions is given by
.
Vs = (V1 – V0)Nc = {0.0155 – 4.6585 x 10 − 3} x 500 /60

= 0.0903 m3 / s.
1 n
(iii) P = WcNc / η mech = ------ x ------------- p1(V1 – V0)Nc [1 – (p2/p1) (n-1)/n]
η mech (n – 1)

1 1.3 95 x 10 3
= ---------- x --------- x ---------- x 0.0903 x [ 1 – (2000/95) 0.3/1.3]
0.90 0.3 1000

= − 42 kW
. .
(iv) Mass of air compressed per second = m = Vs p1 /(RT1)

0.0903 x 95 x 10 3
= ----------------------- = 0.01 kg/s
286 x 300

(v) Mas of air in the clearance space = m3 = p3V3/(RT3)

Now T3 = T2 = (p2/p1) (n – 1)/nT1 = (2000/95) 0.3 / 1.3 x 300 = 606 K

2000 x 10 3 x7.365 x 10 − 4
Therefore m3 = ----------------------------------- = 0.0085 kg
286 x 606

Example 5.5:- A single cylinder single acting air compressor takes air from atmosphere
(1.0315 bar and 25 C) and delivers at 9 bar.The compressor running at 900 rpm, delivers

128
1 kg of air per minute. The compression index is 1.25. The stroke to bore ratio is 1.25 and
the mechanical efficiency is 83 %. Calculate : (i) the cylinder dimensions, (ii) the power
required to drive the compressor, and (iii) the heat transfer during compre assumptions
needed to solve this problem.

Given:- p1 = 1.03125 bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; p2 = 9 bar; N = 900 rpm; Single acting
.
and hence Nc = N; m = 1.0 kg/min; ηmech = 0.83; l/d = 1.25.
.
To find:- (i) d,l; (ii) P; (iii) Q1-2

Solution:- Since clearance ratio is not given, it is not possible to determine the stroke
volume for the given mass of air to be compressed and hence it is necessary to assume
that clearance is negligible. In that case the p – V diagram will be as shown below.
p

3 2

0 1
V

.
(i) mc = m / Nc = 1/900 = 1.11 x 10 − 3kg / cycle.

1.11 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298

p1V1 = mcRT1 or V1 = (mcRT1)/p1 = ------------------------------- = 9.337 x 10 − 4 m3
1.01325 x 10 5
Now V1 = (πd2/4)l = (πd2x 1.25d)/4.

Hence d = [(4V1) / (1.25 π) ] 1/3 = [(4 x 9.337 x 10 − 4) / (1.25 x π)] 1/3

129
 = 0.0983 m. Hence l = 1.25 x 0.0983 = 0.123 m.
.
(ii) P = (1/ηmech){n /(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n]

1 1.25 1
= -------- x ----------- x ------ x 0.286 x 298 x [1 – (9/1.01325) 0.25/1.25]
0.83 0.25 60

= − 2.344 kW.

(iii) Applying first law for the compression process1-2 we have

. . .
Q1-2 − W1-2 = m (u2 – u1)
. . .
Or Q = W1-2 + m Cv [T2 – T1]
. .
= m [p1v1 – p2v2] / (n – 1) + m Cv [T2 – T1]
. .
= m [RT1 – RT2] / (n – 1) + m Cv [T2 – T1]
.
= m (T2 – T1) [ Cv – {R /(n – 1)}]

Now T2 = T1(p2/p1)(n-1)/n = 298 x (9/1.01325)0.25/1.25 = 461.23 K

.
Hence Q1-2 = (1/60) x [461.23 – 298] x [0.719 – {0.286/0.25}] = − 1.156 kW

Example 5.6:- A single-cylinder double acting air compressor is to deliver air at 10 bar,
starting from atmospheric air at 20 C. The cylinder bore is 15 cm and the stroke is 20 cm.
The compressor speed is 600 rpm.Assuming the temperature of the delivered air to be
200 C, find, (i) the mass of air delivered in kg/min, (ii) the index of compression, and (iii)
the power needed to drive the compressor. Assume that the effective cylinder area on the
piston side is 90 % of the total area.

Given: Double acting compressor with Nc = (1 +0.9)N = 1.9N; N= 600 rpm; p1 = 1 atm

T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K; p2 = 10 bar; d = 0.15m; l = 0.2 m; T2 = 200 + 273 = 473 K

.
To find: (i) m ; (ii) n; (iii) P
Solution: Clearance is neglected. Hence p – v diagram will be as shown in example 5.5.

π x 0.15 2 x 0.2
Stroke volume = V1 = (πd /4)l = ---------------------- = 3.534 x 10 − 3 m3
2

4
.
m = mcNc = (p1V1/RT1)Nc = [1.01325 x 105 x 3.534 x 10− 3 x 1.9 x 600] / (286 x 293)

130
 .
Or m = 4.8714 kg/min.

(ii) T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n or (n – 1) / n = ln(T2/T1) / ln(p2/p1)

ln(473/293)
Hence (n – 1) / n = ----------------------- = 0.21
ln(10/1.01325)

Or n = 1.266.
. .
(iii) P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}mRT1 [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}mR(T1-T2)

1 1.266 4.8714
= ------ x --------- x ------------- x 0.286 x [293 – 473] = − 19.9 kW
1.0 0.266 60

Example 5.7:- A single acting single cylinder air compressor runs at 750 rpm. The heat
transfer during compression is 1/3rd of the total compression work. The working pressure
limits are 1 bar and 10 bar.If the clearance volume is 1/30th of the stroke volume and if
the stroke to bore ratio is 1.2, compute (i) the index of compression, (ii) the volumetric
efficiency, (iii) the cylinder dimensions to deliver 1 kg/min of air taken from atmosphere
at 30 C and (iv) power required to drive the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 80
percent.

Given: Single acting and hence Nc = N; N = 750 rpm; Q1-2 = (1/3)W1-2; p1 = 1 bar;
.
p2 = 10 bar;V3 = (1/30)(V1 – V3); l/d = 1.2; m = 1.0 kg/min; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K;

ηmech = 0.80.

To find: (i) n; (ii) (ηv)ideal; (iii)d,l; (iv)P

Solution: The p – V diagram will be as shown in example 5.1.

(i) For the compression process the first law equation is

Q1-2 − W1-2 = U2 – U1

Hence (1/3)W1-2 – W1-2 = U2 – U1

Or − (2/3)W1-2 = U2 – U1

Per unit mass the above equation can be written as

131
 − (2/3) [RT1 – RT2}/(n – 1) = Cv{T2 – T1]

2 x 0.286
Solving for ‘n’ we have n = 1 + (2/3) (R/Cv) = 1 + ------------- = 1.265
3 x 0.719
.
(ii) mc = m / Nc = 1/750 kg/cycle.

(1/750) x 286 x 303

Hence V1 – V0 = (mcRT1) / p1 = -------------------------- = 1.155 x 10 − 3 m3 /cycle.
1.0x 10 5

But V0 = (p3/p0) 1/n V3 = (10/1) 1/1.265 V3 = 6.173 V3.

Hence V1 – 6.173V3 = 1.155 x 10 − 3……………………………(a)

Also V3 = (1/30) (V1 – V3) or V1 = 31V3.

Substituting this in Eq.(a) we have (31 – 6.173)V3 = 1.155 x 10 − 3

Or V3 = 1.155x 10 − 3 / (31 – 6.173) = 4.652 x 10 − 5 m3

Hence V1 = 31 x 4.652 x 10 − 5 = 1.442 x 10 − 3 m3

And V0 = 6.173 x 4.652 x 10 − 5 = 2.872 x 10 − 4 m3.

(V1 – V0) 1.155 x 10 − 3

Therefore (ηv)ideal = ------------- = ---------------------------------------
(V1 – V3) [1.442 x 10 − 3 – 4.652 x 10 − 5 ]

= 0.8277 = 82.77 %

(iii) Stroke Volume = Vs = V1 – V3 = (1.442 – 0.04652) x 10 − 3 = 1.395 x 10 − 3 m3.

But Vs = (πd2/4)l = (πd2/4) x 1.2 d Or d = (4Vs / 1.2 π) 1/3.

Hence d = { (4 x 1.395 x 10 − 3) /(1.2 x π) }1/3 = 0.114 m.

Hence l = 1.2 x 0.114 =0.137 m

Example 5.8:- A single cylinder single acting air compressor uses “isothermal”
compression to compress 0.7 kg/min of air from 1 bar and 25 C to 7 bar, while running
at 600 rpm. The clearance volume is 1/25th of the stroke volume which is 1.2 litres. If the

132
actual area of the indicator diagram is 10 % greater than the theoretical and the
mechanical efficiency is 81%, calculate (i) the volumetric efficiency, (ii) the index of
expansion and (iii) actual power required to drive the compressor. Neglect all pressure
drops.
.
Given: compression index = nc = 1 (because process is isothermal); m = 0.7 kg/min;

p1 = 1 bar; p2 = 7 bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; N = Nc = 600 rpm;V3/ Vs = 1/25;

Vs = (V1 – V3) = 1.2 x 10 − 3 m3; Diagram factor = K = 1.1;ηmech = 0.81;

To find: (i) (ηv)ideal; (ii) ne; (iii) Pactual

Solution: The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown in example 5.1.
.
(i) mc = m / Nc = 0.7 / 600 = 1.167 x 10 − 3 kg/cycle.

Volume of air compressed per cycle as measured at suction conditions is given by

mcRT1 1.167 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298

(V1 – V0) = --------- = -------------------------------- = 0.995 x 10 − 3 m3
p1 1 x 10 5

(V1 – V0) 0.995 x 10 − 3

Therefore (ηv)ideal = -------------- = ----------------------- = 0.8292 = 82.92 %.
Vs 1.2 x 10 − 3

(ii) Now V3 = (1/25) x 1.2 x 10 − 3 = 4.8 x 10 − 5 m3.

Hence V1 = 1.2 x 10 − 3 + 4.8 x 10 − 5 = 1.248 x 10 − 3 m3

And therefore V0 = 1.248 x 10 − 3 – 0.995 x 10 − 3 = 0.253 x 10 − 3.

For the expansion process 3 – 0 we have p0V0ne = p3V3ne

ln(p3/p0) ln(7/1)
Or ne = -------------------- = --------------------- = 1.171
ln(V0/V3) ln(0.253/0.048)
(iii) Referring to the p – V diagram shown in example 5.1 work done per cycle is given
1 2 3 0
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-0 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2 3

= p1(V1 – V0) + p1V1 ln(p1/p2) + p3(V3 – V2) + (p3V3 – p0V0) / (ne – 1)

Now V2 – V3 = (mcRT2) / p2. But T2 = T1 as process 1-2 is isothermal.

133
 1.167 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298
Hence V2 – V3 = -------------------------------- = 1.421 x 10 − 4 m3.
7 x 10 5

Therefore Wc = [1x 0.995 x10 − 3 + 1 x 1.248 x 10 − 3 x ln(1/7) − 7 x 1.421 x 10 − 4

+ {7 x 4.8 x 10 − 5 - 1 x 0.253 x 10 − 3.}/(1.171 – 1)] x 10 5

= [0.995 − 2.429 − 0.9947 + 0.4854] x 102 = − 194.36 J/cycle

Ptheoretical = WcNc = − 194.36 x 600 / (60 x 1000) kW = − 1.9436 kW

Pactual = K Ptheoretical / η mech = − 1.9436 x 1.1 / 0.81 = − 2.639 kW

Example 5.9:- The following data refer to a single acting air compressor: Suction
pressure = 1 bar; Receiver pressure = 10 bar; Loss of pressure due to valve resistance at
inlet = 0.05 bar; pressure drop at the exit valve = 0.33 bar; Cylinder bore = stroke =
12.0 cm; Clearance volume = 1/25th of stroke volume; Index for expansion and
compression = 1.25; Mechanical efficiency = 80 %.
If the receiver capacity is 600 litres and if it takes 8 minutes to fill it to 10 bar starting
from 1 bar, find the maximum power required to drive the compressor. Assume that the
receiver temperature remains at 25 C throughout the filling process. Also determine the
mass of air compressed the volumetric efficiency and the speed of the compressor.

Given: p1 = 1 bar; pR = 10 bar; pf – p1 = 0.05 bar; p2 – pR = 0.33 bar; d = l = 0.12 m;

V3 = (1/25)Vs; nc = ne = n = 1.25; η mech = 0.80; VR = 0.6 m3; pR = 10 bar;

Time taken to fill the receiver = t = 8 min;TRi = TRf = 25 + 273 = 298 K; T1 = TRi
.
To find: (i) P;(ii) m ;(iii) (ηv)actual

Solution:The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown in the figure below.

1 x 105 x 0.6
(ii) Mass of air initially in the receiver = mi = pRiVR /(RTRi) = ------------------- = 0.704 kg
286 x 298
10 x 105 x 0.6
Mass of air finally in the receiver = mf = pRfVR /(RTRf) = ---------------------- = 7.04 kg
286 x 298
. (7.04 – 0.704)
Mass of air delivered to the receiver per minute = m = (mf – mi) / t = ------------------
8
= 0.792 kg/min.

134
 p

3 2
p2

pR

pf
p1
0 1
V

.
(i) P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n-1)/n]

1 1.25 0.792
= --------- x ---------- x -------- x 0.286 x 298 x [1 – (10.33/1)0.25/1.25]
0.80 0.25 60

= − 4.185 kW.

(iii) (ηv)ideal = 1 + C { 1 – (p2/p1)1/n} = 1 + (1/25) x [1 – (10.33 / 1)1/1.25}

= 0.781
1.0 x 298
(ηv)actual = [(p1Tf) / (pfT1)] (ηv)ideal = ----------------- x 0.781 = 0.744 = 74.4%
1.05 x 298

Example 5.10:- A single stage double acting air compressor running at 1000 rev/min
delivers air at 25 bar. The suction conditions are 1 bar and 40 C. The free air conditions
are 1.013 bar and 15 C and the free air delivered is 0.25 m 3 / min. The clearance volume
is 3 % and the stroke to bore ratio is 1.2 : 1. Calculate the cylinder dimensions and the
volumetric efficiency. Assume that n = 1.3 for both compression and expansion
processes. Also calculate the indicated power and isothermal efficiency.

135
Given: Double acting and hence Nc = 2N; N = 1000 rpm; p2 = 25 bar; p1 = 1 bar;
.
T1 = 40 + 273 = 313 K; pf = 1.013 bar; Tf = 15+273 = 288 K; Vf = 0.25 m3/min;

Clearance Ratio = V3 / (V1 – V3) = 0.03; l / d = 1.2; nc = ne = n = 1.3

To find: (i) d,l; (ii) (ηv)actual; (iii) P; (iv) ηisothermal

The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown in example 5.1

.
pf Vf
. 1.013 x 10 5 x 0.25
Mass of air delivered / min = m = ------------- = ---------------------------- = 0.3075 kg/min
RTf 286 x 288
.
Hence mc = m / Nc = 0.3075 / (2 x 1000) = 1.5375 x 10 − 4 kg/cycle

Volume of air compressed /cycle = (V1 – V0) = mcRT1 / p1

1.5375 x 10 − 4 x 286 x 288

= -----------------------------------
1.0 x 10 5

= 1.263 x 10 − 4 m3.

Now V0 = (p3 / p0) 1/n V3 = (25/1) 1/1..3 V3 = 11.89 V3.

Hence V1 – 11.89V3 = 1.263 x 10 − 4 ………………(a)

But V3 = 0.03 (V1 – V3) or V1 = 34.333V3.

Substituting this expression in Eq.(a) we get

(34.333 – 11.89)V3 = 1.263 x 10 − 4

Or V3 = 5.63 x 10 − 6 m3.

Hence V0 = 11.89 x 5.63 x 10 − 6, V1 = 34.333 x 5.63 x 10 − 6 = 1.933 x 10 − 4

And Vs = V1 – V3 = 1.933 x 10 − 4 − 5.63 x 10 − 6 = 1.877 x 10 − 4.

Now (πd2/4)l = Vs or (πd2/4) 1.2d = Vs.

Therefore d = {(4Vs) / (1.2π) }1/3 = { (4 x 1.877 x 10 − 4) / (1.2 x π)}1/3

136
Or d = 0.0584 m and l = 1.2 x 0.0584 = 0.07 m

(V1 – V0) (1.933 x 10 − 4 − 6.694 x 10 − 5)

(ii) (ηv)ideal = ------------- = --------------------------------------- = 0.6732
Vs 1.877 x 10 − 4

p1Tf 1 x 288
(ηv)actual = ------- (ηv)ideal = -------------------- x 0.6732 = 0.6115
PfT1 1.013 x 313
.
(iii) Indicated power = P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]

1 1.3 0.3075
= ------ x ---------- x ---------- x 0.286 x 313 x [1 – (25/1)0.3/1.3]
1.0 0.3 60

= − 2.2 kW.

(iv) Isothermal work done on air cycle is given by (Refer to the p – V diagram shown
below)

3 2

pV = constant or
T = constant

0 1
V

1 2 3
(Wc)Isothermal = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2

137
 = p1V1 + p1V1 ln(p1/p2) – p2V2 = p1V1 ln(p1/p2)

= mcRT1 ln(p1/p2)
.
Hence Pisothermal = (Wc)Isothermal Nc = m RT1 ln(p1/p2)

= (0.3075 / 60) x 0.286 x 313 x ln(1/25) = − 1.477 kW

ηisothermal = Pisothermal / Pactual = 1.477 / 2.2 = 0.6714 = 67.14 %.

5.9. Disadvantages of single stage compressors (need for multi-stage compressors)

Following are the disadvantages of a single stage compressor:

(i) In a single stage compressor, as the delivery pressure increases the volume of air
compressed per cycle decreases ( see Fig. 5.9) thereby decreasing the volumetric
efficiency of the compressor. Low volumetric efficiency means that the speed of the
compressor has to be increased in order to compress a given mass of gas per unit time.
There is a practical limitation beyond which the speed of the compressor cannot be
increased.

(ii) Increase in delivery pressure will also result in increase in the temperature of the gas
and this may cause lubrication problem (There is a possibility of the lubricating oil
getting vaporized and getting ignited).

(iii) If the pressure ratio for a single stage compressor is very large then the work required
to drive the compressor will also be very large

All these disadvantages are overcome by employing multistage compression with

intercooling in between the stages.

5.10. Work done in a Two-stage compressor with intercooling in between the stages

The schematic diagram and the corresponding p – V diagram for a two stage compressor
with intercooling in between the stages are shown in Fig 5.10(a) and 5.10(b) respectively.
It is assumed that the index for compression and expansion are equal for both the stages
of compression.Work done per cycle is given by

Wc = (Wc)I + (Wc)II

= {n1 /(n1 – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n] + {n2 /(n2 – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p5)(n – 1)/n]

…………………………(5.16)

138
Where n1 = index for I stage and n2 = index for II stage compression. If n1 = n2 = n, then

p
V3 = Clearance Volume for I stage

V1 – V3 = Stroke volume for I stage

7 6
V7 = Clearance volume for II stage
V5 – V7 = stroke volume for II stage
V1 – V0 = Volume of air
compressed per cycle as measured
3 2 at suction conditions of I stage.

4 5 V5 – V4 = volume of air compressed

per cycle as measured at suction
conditions of II stage.
0 1
Fig.5.10(a): p-V diagram for a
V two stage compressor

QIC
(Wc)I

First stage Inter cooler

p1,T1 Compressor p2,T2 p5,T5

(Wc)II Second stage

compressor

Fig. 5.10(b): Schematic for a two stage compressor

p6,T6

Wc = {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n] + {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p5)(n – 1)/n]

…………………………….(5.17)

139
It can be seen from the above equation that for given inlet conditions to the compressor
and for given overall pressure ratio p6 / p1, Wc depends on the intermediate pressure p2.
The intermediate pressure p2 is chosen such that the work required to dive the compressor
is a minimum.

5.11. Optimum intermediate pressure for a two-stage compressor (condition for

minimum work input for a two stage compressor)

In order to obtain the condition for minimum work input the following assumptions are
made.
(i) There is no pressure loss in the inter cooler; i.e., p5 = p2;

(ii) the index for compression and expansion are equal and are same for both the stages of
compression.

With these assumptions the Eq.(5.17) reduces to

Wc = {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n] + {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p2)(n – 1)/n]

For given values of p1,T1, and p6, Wc will be optimum if dWc / dp2 = 0.

Now dWc/dp2 = − {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1 (p1)(1 – n)/n p2(n – 1)/n – 1

+ {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5 (p6)(n - 1)/n p2(1 - n)/n – 1= 0

Or T1 (p1)(1 – n)/n p2− 1/n = T5 (p6)(n - 1)/n p2(1 – 2n)/n

Or p2− 1/n
----------- = (T5 /T1) (p6/p1) (n - 1)/n
p2(1 – 2n)/n
___________________
or p2 = √[(T5 /T1) n/(n – 1) p6 p1 ] ……………………..(5.18)

Eq.(5.18) gives the optimum intermediate pressure for a two stage compressor.

Special case: Perfect intercooling:- When the intercooling is perfect, the gas will be
cooled back to its original temperature in the inter cooler, i.e., T5 = T1. Then Eq.(5.18)
reduces to
______
p2 = √ (p6p1) ……………………..(5.19)
_____
Therefore pressure ratio for first stage for minimum work = p2 / p1 = √ (p6p1) / p1

140
Or p2 / p1 = √ (p6 / p1)

Similarly for second stage pressure ratio = p6/p5 = p6/p2 = p6 /(√(p6p1)

= √ (p6 / p1)
Thus for minimum work of compression, if the inter cooling is perfect, the pressure for
both the stages of compression are same and equal to the square root of the overall
pressure ratio for the compressor. This can be extended to a compressor with ‘N’ stages
of compression with inter cooling between the stages. For such a compressor with perfect
inter cooling, the work required will be minimum if the pressure ratio is same for all the
stages and equal to the Nth root of the overall pressure ratio

Now for a two stage compressor with perfect intercooling, the work done in both the
stages will be same, because the inlet temperature and the pressure ratio for both the
stages are same.Hence

(Wc)minimum = {2n/(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p6/p1) (n – 1)/2n] …………………………(5.20)

Eq.(5.20) is valid only if the intercooling is perfect and the compressor is designed for
minimum work input.

5.12. Illustrative examples on Multi-stage compressors

Example 5.11:- A two-cylinder, two stage air compressor delivers 2 kg/min of air at 25
bar, taking in air at 1 bar and 30 C. The compression index is 1.25. Neglecting clearance
calculate (i) the intermediate pressure for minimum power, (ii) heat transfer during
intercooling and (iii) power required to drive the compressor.

Given: Number of cylinders = 2; No.of stages = 2; mass of air delivered = 2 kg/min;

p6 = p7 = 25 bar; p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K; n = 1.25 ; Clearance neglected.

.
To find: (i) p2 for minimum power; (ii) QIC; (iii)P.

Solution: It is assumed that there is no pressure loss in the inter cooler; i.e., p5 = p2 .
And the inter cooling is perfect ,i.e. T5 = T1. The p – V diagram for the given problem
will be as shown in the next page.

(i)With perfect inter cooling for minimum power p2 = √ (p6p1) = √(25 x 1) = 5 bar

(ii) Temperature at the exit of I stage = T2 = T1(p2/p1)(n – 1)/n = 303 x (5/1)0.25/1.25

= 418 K.

141
 p
0 – 1 – 2 – 3 : p – V diagram
7 6 for first stage

4 – 5 – 6 – 7 : p – V diagram
for second stage
(4)3
5 2

0 1
V

Fig. E5.11: Figure for example 5.11

. .
Mass flow rate through each cylinder = m = mtotal / number of cylinders

= 2/2 = 1 kg/min

Applying first law for the inter cooler and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
energies we have . .
QIC = m C p(T2 – T5 ) = (1/60) x 1.005 x (418 – 303) kW

= 1.926 kW.

(iii) For two stage compressor with perfect inter cooling the total power required is given
by
.
P = {2n/(n – 1)} mtotal RT1[ 1 – (p6 / p1)(n - 1) / 2n
]

2 x 1.25 2.0
= --------------- x------- x 0.286 x 303 x [ 1 – (25/1)0.3/ (2 x1..3]
0.25 60

= − 13.0 kW.

142
Example 5.12: A two stage, double acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm. The
conditions of air at the beginning of compression are 97.9 kPa and 27 C. The low
pressure cylinder with a bore and stroke of 35 X 38 cm discharges the air at 379 kPa to
the intercooler. The air in the intercooler suffers a pressure drop of 17.2 kPa and enters
the high pressure cylinder at 29 C. The discharge pressure is 2000 kPa. Compression
and expansion processes in both the stages are according to the law pV 1.3 = C. The
surroundings are at 100 kPa and 20 C. The percent clearance is 5 % for each cylinder.
Determine (i) “free air” capacity in m3/s, (ii) the heat loss in the intercooler, (iii) the
total power required, (iv) optimum interstage pressure, (v) diameter of the hp cylinder if
the stroke is same for both the stages (vi) the heat loss in the low-pressure and high-
pressure compression processes.

Given: No. of atages = 2; Double acting and hence Nc = 2N; N = 150 rpm;

p1 = 97.9 kPa; T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; d1 = 0.35 m; l1 = 0.38 m; p2 = 379 kPa;

p2 – p5 = 17.2 kPa; T5 = 29 + 273 = 302 K; p6 = p7 = 2000 kPa; n = 1.3 throughout;

pf = 100 kPa; Tf = 20 + 273 = 293K; V3 = 0.05 (V1 – V3) ; V7 = 0.05 (V5 – V7);
. .
To find: (i) Vf ; (ii) QIC ; (iii) P ; (iv) Optimum value of p2; (v) d2 if l2 = l1; (vi) Q1-2

and Q5-6.

Solution: The p – V and the schematic diagrams are shown below.

p
V3 = Clearance Volume for I stage

V1 – V3 = Stroke volume for I stage

7 6
V7 = Clearance volume for II stage
V5 – V7 = stroke volume for II stage
V1 – V0 = Volume of air
compressed per cycle as measured
3 2 at suction conditions of I stage.

4 5 V5 – V4 = volume of air compressed

per cycle as measured at suction
conditions of II stage.
0 1
Fig.E5.12(a): p-V diagram for
V the example 5.12

143
 QIC
(Wc)I

First stage Inter cooler

p1,T1 Compressor p2,T2 p5,T5

(Wc)II Second stage

compressor

Fig. E5.12(b): Schematic for example 5.12

p6,T6

π x 0.35 2 x 0.38
(i) Stroke volume of I stage = V1 – V3 = (πd12/4)l1 = --------------------------
4
= 0.0366 m

Hence V3 = 0.05 x 0.0366 = 1.83 x 10 − 3 m3 ;V1 = 0.0366 + 1.83 x 10 − 3 = 0.03843 m3

Therefore V0 = (p3/p0) 1/n V3 = (379/97.9) 1/1.3 x 1.83 x 10 − 3 = 5.184 x 10 − 3 m3.

(V1 – V0) = 0.03843 − 5.184 x 10 − 3 = 0.03325 m3.

p1(V1 – V0) 97.9 x 10 3 x 0.03325

Mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = ------------------- = ---------------------------
RT1 286 x 300

= 0.0379 kg/cycle
.
Hence m = mcNc = 0.0379 x 2 x 150 = 11.37 kg/min.
.
. m RTf 11.37 x 286 x 293
Volume of free air delivered / minute = Vf = ------------ = -----------------------
pf 100 x 10 3

= 9.53 m3/min

144
(ii) Applying I law for the inter cooler we have
. .
QIC = m Cp (T2 – T5). But T2 = (p2/p1)(n – 1)/nT1 = (379 / 97.9) 0.3 / 1.3 x 300
.
Or T2 = 410 K. Therefore Q IC = (11.37 / 60) x 1.005 x [410 – 302] = 20.6 kW
____________________
(iii) Optimum value of p2 = √ [ (T5 / T1) n / (n – 1) p6p1 ]
___________________________
= √ [(302/300) 1.3 / 0.3 x 2000 x 97.9 ] = 449 kPa.

(iv) p5 = p2 – 17.5 = 379 – 17.5 = 361.5 kPa.

Power = P = PI stage + PII stage

n . n .
(n – 1) / n
= -------- m RT1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) ] + ------- m RT5 [ 1 – (p6/p5) (n – 1) / n]
(n – 1) (n – 1)

1.3 11.37
= ---------- x -------- x 0.286 x [ 300 x {1 – (379/97.9) 0.3 / 1.3}
0.3 60
+ 302 x {1 – (2000/361.5)0.3 / 1.3} ]

= − 60.17 kW
mc RT5 0.0379 x 286 x 302
(v) Now (V5 – V4) = ------------ = ------------------------- = 9.05 x 10 − 3 m3
p5 361.5 x 10 3

Now V4 = (p7/p4) 1 / n V7 = (2000 /361.5) 1/1.3 V7 = 3.73 V7.

Hence V5 – 3.73 V7 = 9.05 x 10 − 3 ………………………………(a)

But V7 = 0.05 (V5 – V7 ) or V5 = 21 V7

Substituting this in Eq. (a) we get (21 – 3.73) V7 = 9.05 x 10 − 3

Or V7 = 5.24 x 10 − 4 m3

And V5 = 21 x 5.24 x 10 − 4 = 0.0110 m3.

Hence stroke volume for II stage = Vs2 = (V5 – V7) = (0.0110 − 5.24 x 10 − 4 )

= 0.0105 m3

145
 _____________ _______________________
Hence d2 = √ [ (4Vs2) / (πl2)] = √ [ (4 x 0.0105) / (π x0.38)]

= 0.1875 m.
. . .
(vi) Applying I law for process 1-2 we have Q1-2 = W1-2 + m(u2 – u1)
. . .
Or Q1-2 = mR(T1 – T2) / (n – 1) + m Cv(T2 – T1)

11.37
= -------- x [300 – 410] x { 0.286/ 0.3 – 0.719 }
60

= − 4.885 kW

. . .
Similarly Q5-6 = mR(T5 – T6) / (n – 1) + m Cv(T6 – T5)

Now T6 = (p6 / p5)(n – 1) / n T5 = (2000 / 361.5) 0.3/1.3 x 302 = 448.35 K

.
Hence Q5-6 = (11.37/60) x [302 – 448.35] x {0.286 / 0.3 – 0.719}

= − 6.5 kW.

Example 5.13:- A two-stage air compressor is required to take in 1500 litres of free air
per minute at 1 bar and 25 C. The delivery pressure is 20 bar. The heat transfer during
compression, which may be assumed to be polytropic, is double that in the intercooler for
the first stage, and 1/3rd of the total compression work for the second stage. Assuming the
intercooler effectiveness to be 0.83 and an intermediate pressure as the geometric mean
of the suction and delivery pressures of the compressor, find the power required to drive
the compressor assuming a mechanical efficiency of 80 %.
.
Given: No. of stages = 2; Vf = 1.5 m3/min; pf = p1= 1 bar;Tf = T1= 25 + 273 = 298 K;
p6 = 20 bar;
Q1-2 = 2QIC; Q5-6 = (1/3) W5-6; ε = 0.83; p2 = √(p6p1); ηmech = 0.80.
To find: (i) Pactual ;

Solution: First step is to find the compression index for the two stages of compression.

It is given that for the first stage Q1-2 = 2QIC …………………………(a)

Now QIC = 2mcCp[T5 – T2] = 2mcCp ε [T1 – T2]

Applying first law for the process 1-2 we have Q1-2 = W1-2 + (U2 – U1)

146
Or Q1-2 = mcR(T1 – T2) / (n1 – 1) + mcCv(T2 – T1)

Substituting the expressions for QIC and Q1-2 in Eq. (a) and simplifying we get

2Cp ε = R / (n1 – 1) - Cv
R 0.286
Or n1 = 1 + --------------------- = ---------------------------------
(Cv + 2Cp ε) [0.719 + 2 x 1.005 x 0.83]

= 1.12.

For the second stage it is given that Q5-6 = (1/3)W5-6

First law equation for process 5-6 is Q5-6 – W5-6 = U6 – U5

Hence (1/3)W5-6 – W5-6 = U6 – U5

Or − (2/3) W5-6 = (U6 – U5) . Or − (2/3) mcR(T5 – T6) / (n2 – 1)= mcCv(T6 – T5)

Or 2R 2 x 0.286
n2 =1+ ------ = 1 + --------------- = 1.265
3Cv 3 x 0.719

Now p2 = √ [p6p1] = √ [20 x 1] = 4.472 bar

Pactual = (1/ηmech)P = (1/ηmech) [PI stage + PII stage]

. .
= (1/ηmech) [{n1/(n1 – 1)}mRT1{1 – (p2/p1)(n1 – 1)/n1} + mRT5{1 – (p6/p5)(n2 – 1)/n2}]
.
= (1/ηmech) [{n1/(n1 – 1)}mR {T1 – T2} + {n2/(n2 – 1)}mR {T5 – T6}]

Now T2 = (p2 / p1) (n1 – 1)/n1T1 = (4.472/1)(1.12 – 1) / 1.12 x 298 = 350 K

ε = (T2 – T5) / (T2 – T1) or T5 = T2 – ε(T2 – T1) = 350 – 0.83 x (350 – 298) = 306.84 K
. .
m. = (pfVf) /(RTf) = (1 x 10 5 x 1.5) / (286 x 298) = 1.76 kg/min = 0.0293 kg/s

Similarly T6 = (p6 / p5) (n2 – 1)/n2 T5 = (20/4.472) 0.265 / 1.265x 306.84 = 420 K

Hence Pactual = (1/0.8) x 0.0293 x 0.286 x [ (1.12/0.12)x(298 – 350) +

(1.265/0/265)x (306.84 – 420)]

Or Pactual = − 10.742 kW

147
Example 5.14:- A multistage single acting compressor compresses air from 1 bar and 25
C to 30 bar. The maximum temperature in each stage is limited to 100 C. The cylinder
heads are cooled so that the heat transfer during compression is 0.7 times that in the
intercooler, where the air returns to its initial temperature. Find the index of
compression, the number of stages (assume perfect intercooling), the compression
pressures, the temperature at the end of compression and the power required to drive the
compresso to compress1000 litres per minute of air,for minimum work input.

Given: p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; No.of stages = S; Delivery pressure from the
last stage = ps+1 = 30 bar;Exit temperature from each stage ≤ (100 + 273) = 373 K;
Q1-2 = 0.7 QIC;

To find: (i)n; (ii) S; (iii) delivery pressure from each stage; (iv) delivery temperature
from each stage; (v) P

Solution: (i) Applying I law for the compression process in stage 1 we have

Q1-2 = W1-2 + (U2 – U1) = mcR(T1 – T2) / (n – 1) + mcCv(T2 – T1)

Or Q1-2 = mc(T1 – T2)[R /(n – 1) − Cv] ……………………….(a)

Also Q1-2 = 0.7 QIC = 0.7mcCp(T1 – T2).

Substituting this expression in Eq.(a) we have

0.7mcCp(T1 – T2) = mc(T1 – T2)[R /(n – 1) − Cv]

Or 0.7 Cp = [R /(n – 1) − Cv]

R 0.286
Or n = 1 + ------------------- = 1 + ---------------------------
[Cv + 0.7Cp] {0.719 + 0.7 x 1.005]

= 1.2

(ii) Pressure ratio for the first stage = (p2 / p1) ≤ (T2/T1) n/(n – 1)

Or (p2 / p1) ≤ (373 / 298) 1.2 / 0.2 = 3.85

With perfect intercooling for minimum work pressure ratio should be same for all stages.
Therefore
ln(pS+1/p1) ln(30 / 1)
ps+1 / p1 = (p2/p1) S or S = ---------------- = --------------- = 2.52
ln(p2/p1) ln(3.85)

148
Since the number of stages cannot be a fraction S should be rounded off to the next
integer. Hence S = 3. Then pressure ratio developed per stage is given by

Pr = (30 /1) 1/3 = 3.11

(iv) Therefore delivery temperature from each stage = T2 = T1(Pr) (n – 1)/n

Or T2 = 298 x (3.11) 0.2 / 1.2 = 360 K

(iii) Delivery pressure from I stage = 1 x 3.11 = 3.11 bar

Delivery pressure from II stage = 3.11 x 3.11 = 9.6721 bar

Delivery pressure from III stage = 9.6721 x 3.11 = 30 bar (as given in the problem)

(v) Minimum power required with perfect intercooling is given by

. (n – 1) / n
Pminimum = S {n / (n – 1)}p1Vf [ 1 – (Pr) ]

3 x 1.2 1 x 105 1000 x 10 − 3

= ---------- x ----------- x ------------------ x [ 1 – (3) 0.2 / 1.2 ]
0.2 1000 60

= − 6.03 kW

149
 CHAPTER 6

REFRIGERATION CYCLES
6.1. Introduction:- Refrigeration is a term used to denote the process of maintaining a
space or a body at a temperature lower than that of its surroundings. To produce and
maintain the low temperature, it is necessary to transfer heat from the space to be
refrigerated or the cold body. A refrigerator is a device that is employed to accomplish
refrigeration by the expenditure of external energy in the form of work or heat or both.
For the refrigerator to operate continuously, it must reject heat to an external sink, usually
the atmosphere. The working substance used in the refrigerator, which absorbs the heat
from the refrigerated space and rejects to the sink, is called a refrigerant.

6.2. Capacity and Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:- The heat removed

from the refrigerated space or the cold body is called “refrigeration effect” or “ capacity
of the refrigerator”. The refrigeration effect is normally expressed in tons of
refrigeration. The term “ton” is derived from the old British system of units and it means
the amount of heat that has to be removed from 1 ton of water at 32 0F to convert it into
ice at 32 0F in 24 hours. In SI system of units this will be equal to 211 kJ/min or 3.517
kW. Thus
1 ton of refrigeration = 3.517 kW………………….6.1

The performance of a refrigerator is also expressed in terms of power required to produce

1 ton of refrigeration and expressed in kW / ton.

The “coefficient of performance” is another parameter used to measure the effectiveness

of a refrigerator and is defined as the ratio of the heat removed from the refrigerated
space to the external energy input; that is
Refrigeration effect
COP = -------------------------------- ……………………………6.2
External energy input

6.3. Refrigeration Cycles:- The cyclic process executed by the refrigerant to produce
the required refrigeration effect is called the refrigeration cycle / heat pump cycle.
Refrigeration cycles are classified into two types; namely (i) gas refrigeration cycles and
(ii) vapour refrigeration cycles. As the name suggests, in the case of a gas refrigeration
cycle the working substance will be in gaseous phase throughout out the cyclic process,
where as in vapour refrigeration cycles the working substance will undergo a change of
phase from liquid phase to vapour phase in one pert of the cycle and from vapour phase
to liquid phase in another part of the cycle. Vapour refrigeration cycles are further
classified into two types, namely (a) Vapour compression cycle and (b) vapour
absorption cycle.

150
6.4. Gas Refrigeration Cycles

6.4.1. Carnot Gas Refrigeration Cycle (Carnot Refrigerator):- Fig.6.1(a) and 6.1 (b)
represent the schematic diagram and T – s diagram for a Carnot refrigeration cycle.

Compressor
qIC
Inter cooler
Expander

wc
we

Cold Chamber
qR
Fig. 6.1: Physical layout and T-s diagrams for a Carnot refrigerator

Process 1-2 :- Isentropic compression of the working substance from state 1 to state 2.
During this process work is done on the substance by the surroundings.

Process 2-3:- Reversible isothermal cooling of the working substance in the intercooler.
During this process(process 2-3), heat is rejected by the working substance to the sink at
temperature TH.
Process 3-4:- Isentropic expansion of the working substance from state 3 to state 4.
During this process work is done by the working substance on the surroundings.

Process 4-1 :- Reversible isothermal heating of the working substance from the place to
be refrigerated (cold chamber) maintained at temperature TL.

Expression for Refrigeration effect and COP

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = Heat removed from the refrigerated space = qR = q 4-1

151
 1
q R = ∫ Tds = TL (s1 – s4)
4

Similarly heat rejected in the intercooler = q2-3 = TH(s3 – s2)

Net work input per unit mass = w N = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1

By first law for the Carnot cycle we have

w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 = q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1

and q1-2 = q3-4 = 0 as both the processes are isentropic.

Therefore wN = q2-3 + q4-1

= TH(s3 – s2) + TL(s1 – s4)

TL(s1 – s4)
Therefore (COP)Carnot = qR / wN = --------------------------------
TH(s3 − s2) + TL(s1 – s4)

But s1 – s4 = s2 – s3

TL
Therefore (COP)Carnot = ------------- ………………………………6.3
TH - TL

Eq.6.3 indicates that COP increases as TH – TL decreases. For a given cold body
temperature, the lower the temperature at which heat is rejected, greater will be the COP.

Disadvantages of a Carnot Refrigerator:- The Carnot refrigeration cycle is the most

efficient refrigeration cycle operating between the two specific temperature levels.But it
is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles because of the following reasons.
It is difficult to maintain isothermal conditions during heat absorption and heat
rejection processes. Further both the expansion process and the compression process
must take place very slowly if the processes have to be quasi-static with the result the
time required to complete each cycle of operation is very large and hence impracticable.
Nevertheless, the Carnot refrigerator is valuable as a standard of comparison, since it
represents perfection.

6.4.2. Ideal Air Refrigeration Cycle ( Reversed Brayton Cycle or Bell – Coleman
Cycle)

Assumptions made in the analysis of the ideal cycle

(i) The working fluid is air

152
(ii) Air behaves as a perfect gas.

(iii) All processes that the working substance undergoes are reversible.

(iv) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components and
also in the heat exchanger.
(v) Flow is steady and one dimensional.

(vi) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working substance are negligible.

Description of an ideal air refrigeration cycle:

Figure 6.2 (a) and 6.2 (b) shows the schematic and T – s diagram for an air refrigeration
cycle.
QIC T
2

2 3 p = const

3
Wc We 1

1 4 4
s

QR

Fig. 6.2 : Schematic and T-s diagrams for air refrigeration cycle
Process 1-2:- Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process
work is done on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-3:- Constant pressure cooling of air in the intercooler.
Process 3-4:- Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. During this process work
is done by air on the surroundings.
Process 4-1:- Constant pressure heat removal by air in the cold chamber so that it comes
back to original state to complete the cycle.

Expressions for Refrigeration effect and COP

.
Let QR = Refrigeration effect per unit time = Heat removed from the cold chamber per
unit time

153
Applying steady-state steady- flow energy equation to the cold chamber and noting that
changes in kinetic and potential energies are assumed to be neglected we have
. . . .
m h4 = QR + m h1, where m is the mass flow rate of
refrigerant through the cold chamber.
. . .
or QR = m (h1 – h4) = mcp(T1 – T4) …………….6.4
. . .
Similarly Compressor Work input = Wc = m (h2 – h1) = mcp(T2 – T1) …………...6.5
. .
And Expansion work = We = m (h3 – h4) = mcp(T3 – T4)…………..……………..6.6
. . .
Therefore net work input to the cycle = Wn = Wc − We
. . .
Or Wn = mcp(T2 – T1) – mcp(T3 – T4) …………..6.7

. .
Coefficient of performance = COP = QR / Wn
.
mcp(T1 – T4)
= -------------------------------------
[mcp(T2 – T1) – mcp(T3 – T4)]

1
or COP = ------------------------------------ ………………..6.8
(T2 – T3)
----------- − 1
(T1 – T4)

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ.

Similarly, T3 / T4 = (p3 / p4)(γ – 1) / γ = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ

Therefore T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = (T2 – T3) / (T1 – T4) = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ.

Substituting this in Equation 6.8 we get

1
COP = ---------------------------- …………………….6.9
[ (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ − 1 ]

It can be seen from equation 6.9 that COP for an ideal gas refrigeration cycle depends
only on the compressor pressure ratio. The variation of COP with respect to the pressure
ratio is shown in Fig.6.3. as well as is given in table 6.1.

154
 COP

p2 /p1

Fig. 6.3 : Variation of COP with pressure ratio for an ideal gas refrigeration cycle

Table 6.1 : COP for an ideal air(γ = 1.4) refrigeration cycle for different compressor
pressure ratios

___________________________________________________________________
Pressure
Ratio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
___________________________________________________________________

COP ∞ 4.56 2.71 2.05 1.72 1.5 1.34

___________________________________________________________________

It should be noted that the pressure ratio p2 / p1 have limitations on account

of the operating temperatures, viz.,
(i) T1 as the highest refrigeration temperature and
(ii) T3 as the lowest ambient temperature.
The effect of discharge pressure p2 on the performance of an ideal gas refrigeration
cycle is illustrated on the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 6.4. Point 1 on the diagram is fixed
by the temperature T1 and pressure p1 (p1is generally atmospheric). Point 3 is fixed
because of the limitations of the ambient temperature T3 to which the gas can be cooled in
the intercooler. The discharge pressure can however be varied within wider limits,
starting from a minimum discharge pressure p2,min onwards as shown in the figure. With
the compressor discharge pressure equal to p2,min the refrigeration effect is zero. The air is
alternately compressed and expanded between points 2min and 1. The net work input is
also zero and hence the COP is indeterminate. However as p2 is increased, though the

155
 T 2’
p2’ 2
p2 2”
p2”

3’ 3 3” 2 min

4” pmin Ambient Temp, T3

4
4’ p1

Fig. 6.5. Effect of Discharge pressure p2 on the performance of ideal cycle

refrigeration effect (area under curve 4-1) increases, the discharge pressure also
increases. For example when the discharge pressure is p2, the refrigeration effect is equal
to the area under the curve 4-1 and the net work input is area 1-2-3-4-1. Whenthe
discharge pressure is increased to p’2, the refrigeration effect is equal to the area under the
curve 4’-1 and the net work input will be equal to the area 1-2’-3’-4’-1. It is evident that
the increase in work input is much more than the increases in refrigeration effect and
hence the COP decreases as the pressure ratio increases.

6.4.3. Comparison between Carnot cycle and Ideal Refrigeration Cycle

The comparison between the Carnot cycle and the ideal gas refrigeration cycle is
illustrated on the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 6.6. It can be seen from this diagram, that,
for the same compressor inlet conditions (state 1) and same ambient conditions (state 3),
the ideal air refrigeration cycle requires an additional work input of ∆wn and there is a
decrease in the refrigeration effect by an amount ∆qR, thereby decreasing the COP of the
cycle

156
 T

p = const.
Area = + ∆WN

3
2’
4’
1 p = const.
Area = − ∆qR
4

s
Fig.6.6 : Comparison between Carnot Refrigeration cycle and air
Refrigeration cycle
Example 6.1:- A reversed Carnot cycle is used for heating and cooling. The work
supplied is 10 kW. If the COP is 3.5 for cooling determine (a) the ratio of maximum
temperature to minimum temperature in the cycle , (b) refrigeration effect in tons and (c)
COP if the cycle is used as a heat pump.

Solution: The schematic for this example is shown in Fig. E6.1

(a) If the cycle is used for cooling purpose, then

. .
(COP)Ref = QR / WN = TL / (TH – TL) = 1 / (TH / TL – 1)

Therefore 3.5 = 1 / (TH/TL – 1)

Or TH / TL = 1 + 1 / 3.5 = 1.286
. .
(b) Refrigeration effect = QR = (COP)Ref WN = 3.5 x 10 / 3.517 ton

= 9.952 ton

(c) (COP)HP = (COP)Ref + 1 = 3.5 + 1 = 4.5

157
 High Temperature reservoir at TH K

Q1

Q2

Low Temperature reservoir at TL K

Fig. E6.1: Schematic for example 6.1

Example 6.2:- An ideal air refrigeration cycle has the following specifications:

Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;

Pressure of air at turbine inlet = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = −6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;
Determine (i) The COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required to produce 1 ton of
refrigeration, and (iii) air circulation rate per ton of refrigeration.

Solution: The T-s diagram for the example is shown in Fig. E6.2

Data:- p1 = p4 = 101 kPa ; p2 = p3 = 404 kPa ; T1 = − 6 + 273 =266 K;

cp = 1.005 kJ / kg (assumed)

T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; Refrigeration effect = QR = 1 ton = 3.9 kW.

(i) For the ideal cycle, COP = 1 / [(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ − 1]

1
= --------------------------------- = 2.055
[ (404 / 101)(1.4 − 1) / 1.4 − 1 ]
. .
(ii) Power input = WN = QR / COP

= 3.517 / 2.055 = 1.711 kW / ton

158
 T

3 1

Fig. E6.2: T-s diagram for example 6.2

(iii) Applying steady state steady flow energy equation to the cold chamber and
neglecting the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid we have
. . .
QR = m(h1 – h4) = mcp(T1 – T4)
. .
Therefore m = QR / cp(T1 – T4) ……………………….(1)

Now, process 3-4 is isentropic. Therefore T4 = T3(p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ

= 300 x [101 / 404 ](1.4 – 1) / 1.4

= 201.8 K

Substituting in equation (1) we get

. 1 x 3.9
m = ---------------------------
1.005 x ( 266 – 201.8)

=0.0545 kg / s.

159
Example 6.3:- In an air refrigerating machine, the compressor takes in air at 1 bar and
10 C. After compression to 5.5 bar, the air is cooled to 30 C before expanding it back to 1
bar. Assuming ideal conditions, determine (i) refrigeration effect per unit mass of
air,(ii)heat rejected by air per unit mass in the intercooler, and (ii) COP of the cycle,
In an actual plant using the above cycle, the air flow rate is 1700 kg / h and the
relative COP of the actual plant is 0.65. Determine the power required for the actual
plant for the same refrige

Solution:

T
2

3
1

Fig. E6.3 : T-s diagram for example 6.3

Data :- T1 = 10 + 273 = 283 K; T3 = 30 + 273 = 303 K; p1 = p4 = 1 bar; p2 = p3 = 5.5 bar

Cp = 1.005 kJ / kg (assumed)

(6) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 = T1 (p2 / p1)(γ − 1) / γ

or T2 = 283 x [5.5 / 1](1.4 – 1) / 1.4

= 460.82 K

Similarly T4 = T3(p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ

= 303 x (1 / 5.5)(1.4 – 1 ) / 1.4

= 18 6.0 K

160
 . .
Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = QR / m = cp(T1 – T4)

= 1.005 x (283 – 186 )

= 97.5 kJ / kg.

(ii) Heat rejected in the intercooler per unit mass = qc = cp (T2 – T3)

= 1.005 x (460.82 – 303)

= 158.61 kJ / kg.

(iii) Net work input per unit mass = wN = qc – qR = 158.61 – 97.50

= 61.11 kJ / kg.

COP = qR / wN = 97.50 / 61.11

= 1.595

For the actual plant, (COP)actual = Relative COP x (COP)ideal

= 0.65 x 1.595 = 1.0335

. .
QR = m qR

= (1700 / 3600) x 97.50 = 46.04 kW

. .
Therefore (WN)actual = QR /(COP)actual

= 46.04 / 1.0335 = 44.55 kW

6.4.5. Practical Air Refrigeration Cycles

Deviations of Practical cycles from an Ideal Cycle:- (i) In any practical air refrigeration
cycle, there will always be pressure drops as the air flows through the various
components. There will also be pressure drops in the piping connecting the various
components. Because of these pressure drops, the pressure ratio for expansion process ,
p3 / p4 will be less than that for the compression process, p2 / p1.This results in the
reduction of the expansion work, which in turn increases the net work input thereby
decreasing the COP of the cycle.
(ii)The compression and expansion processes in a practical cycle are not isentropic but
adiabatic with frictional losses. This results in an increase in compression work and a

161
 decrease in expansion work, thereby increasing the net work input to the cycle. Hence
the there will be a decrease in the COP of the cycle. The frictional losses in
compression and

T 2
2’

3’ 3
1

4’
4”
s

Fig.6.7: T-s diagram for a practical refrigeration cycle

and expansion processes are taken into account in the analysis by using a parameter
called “Isentropic efficiency”. The isentropic efficiency for compression process is
defined as the ratio of the isentropic work of compression to the actual work of
compression for the same inlet conditions and exit pressure and the isentropic work of
expansion is defined as the ratio of the actual work of expansion to the isentropic work of
expansion for the same inlet conditions and the exit pressure.

The deviations of the actual cycle from the ideal cycle is shown on the T-s
diagram in Fig. 6.7, where 1 – 2’ – 3’ −4” − 1 represents the ideal cycle and 1–2–3– 4–1
is the actual cycle.

Expression for COP of a Practical Air Refrigeration Cycle

Let ηc = Isentropic efficiency of the compressor,

ηt= Isentropic efficiency of the turbine,

∆p1 = pressure loss in the cold chamber = p4 – p1,

∆p2 = pressure loss in the inter cooler = p2 – p3.

162
 (p2 − ∆p2) p2[1 − ∆p2 / p2]
Now expansion ratio = p3 / p4 = ---------------- = ----------------------
(p1 + ∆p1) p1 [1 + ∆p1 / p1]

p2 [1 − ∆p2 / p2] [1 − ∆p1 / p1]

or p3 / p4 = ----- -----------------------------------
p1 [ 1 − (∆p1 / p1)2 ]

Since (∆p1 / p1)2 << 1, the above expression for the expansion ratio can be written as

p3 / p4 = (p2 / p1) ( 1 − ∆p2 / p2) ( 1 − ∆p1 / p1) …………… 6.10

∆p / p is normally referred to as “ the relative pressure drop” for the heat exchanger
circuit. Defining ‘β’ as the pressure drop factor equal to ( 1 – ∆p / p ), the expansion ratio
given in equation 6.10 can be written as

P3 / p4 = β23 β41 (p2 / p1) …………………………………..6.11(a)

Where β23 = ( 1 − ∆p2 / p2), ………………………………….6.11(b)

And β41 = ( 1 − ∆p1/ p1)……………………………………6.11(c)

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4)

Net work input per unit mass = wN = wc – wt = cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

Therefore COP = qR / wN

cp(T1 – T4)
= ---------------------------------------
cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

(T1 – T4)
or COP = ------------------------------ ………………….6.12
(T2 – T1) – (T3 – T4)

The above expression for COP can be expressed in terms of (p2 / p1), ηc,ηt, β23, β41, and

163
 T1(1 – T4 / T1)
COP = -------------------------------------------
T1(T2 / T1 – 1) – T3(1 – T4 / T3)

(1 – T4 / T1)
= ----------------------------------------------- ……..
(T2 / T1 – 1) – (T3 / T1) [1 – T4 / T3]

{ 1 − (T4 / T3)(T3 / T1)}

= ---------------------------------------------------- …6.13
(T2 / T1 – 1 ) – (T3 / T1) { 1 – (T4 / T3)}

(T2’ – T1) (T2’ / T1 – 1 )

Now ηc = ------------------ = -----------------------
(T2 – T1) (T2 / T1 – 1)

(T2’ / T1 – 1)
Therefore T2 / T1 = 1 + --------------------
ηc

Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Therefore T2’ / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ

Therefore T2 / T1 = 1 + (1/ ηc) [(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) /γ – 1 ]………….6.14(a)

(T3 – T4) (1 – T4 / T3)

ηt = ------------- = ------------------
(T3 – T4’) (1 – T4’ / T3)

Therefore T4 / T3 = 1 – ηt (1 – T4’ / T3)

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ / T3 = (p4’ / p3)(γ – 1) /γ

= [β23 β41 (p2 / p1)](γ – 1) / γ …………..6.14(b)

Substituting the expressions for T2 / T1 and T4 / T3 from equations 6.14 (a) and 6.14 (b)
in equation 6.13 we get

164
 1
1 − (T3 / T1) [ 1 − ηt { 1 − ------------------------------- }
{β23 β41(p2 / p1)}(γ – 1) / γ
COP = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
(γ – 1) / γ
(1/ ηc) [(p2 / p1) − ] − ηt(T3 / T1) [ 1 − ------------------------------ ]
{β23 β41(p2 / p1)}(γ – 1) / γ

Example 6.4:- An air refrigeration system is to be designed according to the following

specifications:
Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;
Pressure of air at compressor exit = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = − 6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;
Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 85 %;
Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 85 %;
Relative pressure drop in each heat exchanger = 3 %
Capacity of the plant = 1 ton
Determine (a) COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required in kW, and (iii) air circulation rate r

Solution: The T-s diagram for the given cycle is shown in Fig. E6.4.

T
2’ 2

3
∆p2
1

4’ 4

∆p1

Fig.E6.4 : T-s diagram for example 6.4

165
Data:- p1 = 101 kPa; p2 = 404 kPa; T1 = − 6 + 273 = 266 K; T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K;
.
ηc = 0.85; ηt = 0.85; ∆p2 / p2 = ∆p1 / p1 = 0.03; QR = 1 ton = 3.517 kW.

The first step is to know the temperature at the salient points of the cycle, namely, T1,
T2,T3 and T4. T1 and T3 are given and T2and T4 are determined as follows.

Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Therefore T2’ = T1(p2 /p1)(γ – 1) / γ

= 266 x (404 / 101)0.4 / 1.4

= 395.4 K

T2’ – T1
ηc = ----------------
T2 – T1

Therefore T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc

(395.4 – 266)
= 266 + -------------------
0.85

= 418.2 K

∆p2 / p2 = (p2 – p3) / p2 = 0.03.

Therefore p3 = (1 – 0.03) p2 = 0.97 x 404 = 391.9 kPa.

Similarly, ∆p1 / p1 = (p4 – p1) /p1.

Therefore p4 = (1 + 0.03) p1 = 1.03 x 101 = 104.03 kPa

Hence expansion ratio for the turbine = p3 / p4 = 391.9 / 104.03 = 3.77

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3)(γ -1) / γ

= 300 x (1 / 3.77 )0.4 / 1.4

= 205.2 K.

ηt = (T3 – T4) / (T3 – T4’)

166
Therefore T4 = T3 – ηt (T3 – T4’) = 300 – 0.85 x (300 – 205.2)

= 219.4 K.

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4) = 1.005 x (266 – 219.4)

= 46.83 kJ / kg.

Net work input per unit mass of air = wN = wc – wt = cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

Or wN = 1.005 x (418.2 – 266 ) – 1.005 x (300 – 219.2)

Or wN = 152.96 – 81.2

= 71.76 kJ / kg.

COP = qR / wN = 46.83 / 71.76

= 0.6526

. . 1 x 3.517
(ii) Power Required = WN = QR / COP = -----------
0.6526
= 5.389 kW
. .
(iii)Mass flow rate of air = m = QR / qR = 1 x 3.517 / 46.83 = 0.0751 kg / s

Example 6.5:- An air refrigerator unit uses a reciprocating compressor and a

reciprocating expander. 5 kg / min of air at 30 C (ambient temperature is 25 C) and 4.8
bar expand behind a piston to 1 bar. The expansion is according to the law
pv1.35= constant. After expansion, the air enters a cold chamber where its temperature
rises to 0 C and the it is compressed back to 4.8 bar according to the law
pv1.28 = constant. Determine (a) the power required to drive the unit if the mechanical
efficiencies of the expander and the compressor are both equal to 85 %, (b) capacity of
the refrigerator in tons, (c) energy rejected by air to the ambient during the cooling
process at 4.8 bar and (d) the actual COP of the plant.

Solution: A schematic for the example is shown in Fig. E6.5(a) and the T-s diagram in
Fig. E6.5(b).
.
Data:- m = 5 kg / min = (1 / 12) kg /s ; T3 = 30 + 273 = 303 K ; p3 = p2 = 4.8 bar ;

167
p1 = p4 = 1 bar ; ne = index for expansion process = 1.35 ; T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K ;

nc = index for compression process = 1.28 ; (ηm)comp = (ηm)exp = 0.85 ;

For compression process 1-2 we have T2 = T1(p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc

= 273 x (4.8/1)(1.28 – 1) / 1.28 = 384.75 K

Similarly for process 3-4 we get T4 = T3 (p3 / p4) (ne – 1) / ne

= 303 x (1/4.8) 0.35 / 1.35

= 201.75 K.

Actual compression work per unit mass = (wc)actual = (wc)ideal / (ηm)comp

nc
= {1 / (ηm)comp} ----------- RT1 [(p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc − 1]
(nc – 1)
nc
= {1 / (ηm)comp} ----------- R[T2 – T1] = (1/ 0.85) x (1.28 / 0.28) x 0.287 x {384.75 – 273}
(nc – 1)

Or (wc)actual = 172.49kJ / kg.

Similarly (we)actual = (ηm)e (we)ideal

ne
= (ηm)e ------------ RT3 [ 1 – (p4 / p3)(ne − 1) / ne ]
( ne – 1 )

ne
= (ηm)e ------------ R[T3 – T4]
(ne – 1)

= 0.85 x (1.35 / 0.35) x 0.287 x [ 303 – 201.75]

= 95.27 kJ/kg

Therefore (wN)actual = 172.49 – 95.27

= 77.22 kJ / kg.

Therefore (wN)actual = 172.78 – 95.29

168
 = 77.49 kJ / kg.
. .
(a) Actual power required = (WN) = m (wN)actual = (1 / 12 ) x 77.49 kW

= 6.46 kW

(b) Capacity of the refrigerator = QR = mcp (T1 – T4) = (1 / 12) x 1.005 x (273 – 201.75)

= 5.97 kW = 5.97 / 3.517 = 1.6975 ton

. .
(c) Energy rejected by air in the intercooler = QIC = mcp (T2 – T3)

Intercooler
2
3

compressor expander
Cold chamber

1 4

Fig. E6.5 : Figure for example 6.5(a)

. .

For compression process we have T2 = T1 (p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc

= 273 x (4.8 / 1.0 )0.28 / 1.28

= 384.75 K
.
Therefore QIC = (1 / 12) x 1.005 x (384.75 – 303)

= 6.85 kW

169
 . .
(d) (COP)actual = QR / (WN)actual

= 5.97 / 6.46 = 0.924

Example 6.6:- In an ideal air refrigeration cycle, air after compression in the
compressor is first cooled in an intercooler and then passed through a regenerative
heat exchanger. It is then expanded in a turbine and after expansion the air flows
through the regenerative heat exchanger where it exchanges heat with the air coming
from the intercooler. Then the cold air is passed through the cold chamber before it
enters the compressor.(a) Draw the schematic layout of the plant.(b) obtain an
expression for the COP of the cycle in terms of the pressure ratio of the compressor
and the temperature ratio of the compressor inlet temperature to the turbine inlet
temperature.

Solution: The schematic for the given example is shown in Fig. E6.6(a) and the
corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig. E6.6(b).

Assumption:- The regenerator is perfect i.e., its effectiveness is 100 % (T3 = T1,
and T6 = T4).

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T6) = cp(T1 – T4)

= cpT1( 1 – T4 / T1) ………………………(1)

Net work input per unit mass = wN = wc − wT = cp(T2 – T1) − cp(T4 – T5)

= cpT1[(T2 / T1) – 1 – (T4 / T1) + (T5 /. T1)] ………………………(2)

Now process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) /γ

T5 / T1 = (T5 / T4) (T4 / T1)

= (p1 / p2)(γ – 1) /γ (T4 / T1)

Substituting these expressions in Eq.(2) we have

wN = cpT1[(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ – 1 – (T4 / T1) + (T4 / T1)(p1 / p2)(γ – 1) / γ ] ………………..(3)

cpT1{1 – (T4 / T1) }

Therefore COP = qR / wN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
CpT1{(p2 / p1)(γ − 1) / γ − 1 − (T4 / T1) + (T4 / T1)(p1/p2)(γ − 1)/γ }

170
 qH 3 4
2
6 5

wc wT

qR

Fig. E6.6(a): Schematic diagram for example 6.6

T 2

3 1

4 6

5
s

Fig. E6.6(b): T-s diagram for example 6.6

Example 6.7 :- An air refrigeration unit takes in air from a cold chamber at 5 C and
compresses it from 1 bar to 6.5 bar. The index of compression is 1.25. The compressed
air is cooled to a temperature which is 10 C above the ambient temperature of 30 C

171
before being expanded isentropically in an expander. Neglecting the clearance volume of
the compressor and expander find the COP and the amount of air circulation per minute
if 2000 kg of ice at 0 C is to be formed per day from water at 25 C. What will be the
tonnage of the unit?

Solution: Data:- T1 = 5 + 273 =278 K ; p1 = p3 = 1 bar ; p2 = p4 = 6.5 bar ;

T3 = 40 + 273 = 313 C ; compression index = nc = 1.25 ; expansion index = ne = γ = 1.4

Mass of ice to be formed = m = 2000 kg ; Time duration for making the ice = t = 24 h ;

Temperature of water available = Tw = 25 C.

we
wc

qR

Fig. E6.7: Schematic for example E6.7

Refrigeration effect = Amount of heat to be removed from water at 25 C to convert it

into ice at 0 C
.
Or QR ={mcp(Tw – 0) + m x latent heat of ice} / t

2000 x{ 4.192 x (25 – 0) + 335.35}

= ------------------------------------------
24 x 3600

172
 6.24

= 10.2 kW = 10.2 / 3.517 = 2.9 ton

For compression process 1-2, we have T2 = (p2 / p1)(n – 1)/ n T1

= (6.5 / 1)(0.25 / 1.25 x 278

= 404.23 K.

For expansion process 3-4, we have T4 = (p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ T3

= (1 / 6.5)0.4 / 1.4 x 313

= 183.3 K

n
Compression work per unit mass = wc = ------------ RT1 {(p2 / p1)(n – 1) / n – 1 }
(n–1)

= {n / ( n – 1)}R [ T2 – T1]

= (1.25 / 0.25) x 0.287 x [404.23 – 278]

= 181.14 kJ / kg.

γ
Expansion work per unit mass = we = ---------------- RT4 {(p3 / p4)(γ – 1 ) / γ – 1 }
(γ–1)

= [γ / (γ – 1) ] R [T3 – T4] = Cp[T3 – T4]

= 1.005 x [313 – 183.3]

=130.36 kJ / kg

Net work input = wN = wc – we = 181.14 – 130 .36

= 50.78 kJ / kg.

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4)

= 1.005 x (278 – 183.3)

= 95.17 kJ / kg.

173
 COP = qR / wN = 95.17 / 50.78 = 1.87.
. .
Mass flow rate of air required = m = QR / qR = 10.2 / 95.17 = 0.1072 kg / s.

6.4.6. Practical Applications of Gas Refrigeration Cycles :- The gas refrigeration cycle
is exclusively used in air conditioning systems of military and commercial aircrafts. It is
more appropriate to call it as “air cycle refrigeration”, since only air has found
application as a working substance in this cycle. The COP of this cycle is lower than that
of the vapour compression cycle between the same temperature limits. Nevertheless, the
air cycle continues to be favoured for aircraft refrigeration because of its many
advantages. The present day jet aircrafts have very high cooling loads because of their
large occupancy, electronic equipment and high velocity and consequent heat generation
due to skin friction.

The air cycle can either work as an open system or as a closed system.
A closed system also called as a “dense air machine” has many thermodynamic
advantages. It can work at a suction pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. This
reduces the volume handled by the compressor and expander. Also the operating pressure
ratio can be reduced resulting in higher COP. In an open air-cycle system, the air after
expansion is directly led to the conditioned space. It is therefore necessary to expand air
to one atmospheric pressure. This requires larger volumes to be handled. The open air
system has an advantage over the closed system, in respect that, it does not require a heat
exchanger for the refrigeration process. This saves the weight and cost of the equipment.
But it has one disadvantage, viz., when the air drawn from the refrigerated space is
humid, it might produce fog and ice at the end of the expansion process and clog the line.
A drier in the circuit is required in such a case.

6.5. Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

6.5.1. Limitations of Carnot Refrigeration Cycle With Vapour as a Refrigerant:-

The Carnot refrigeration cycle ( The T-s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. 6.7) can
be used as a practical cycle with certain modifications. Though the isothermal process of

174
 T

3 2

1
4

Fig. 6.7 : T – s diagram for Carnot Refrigeration cycle with vapour as a

refrigerant

heat rejection (process 2-3) and heat absorption (process 4-1) can be achieved in practice,
it is extremely difficult to achieve isentropic compression (process 1-2) and isentropic
expansion (process 3-4) in practice when the vapour is wet. Therefore in a mechanical
vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the isentropic expansion is replaced by a
throttling expansion or by an expansion through a capillary and the compression of wet
vapour is avoided for reasons explained later in this chapter.

6.5.2. Analysis of an Ideal Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Assumptions:- (i) The compression process in the compressor is isentropic

(ii) The refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.
(iii)There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components as well
as in the heat exchangers, viz., the condenser and the evaporator.
(iv)The flow of the refrigerant is steady and one dimensional.
(v)Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the refrigerant, as it flows through the
various components, are negligible.

A schematic diagram of a mechanical vapour compression refrigeration cycle is

shown in Fig. 6.8(a). The corresponding T – s and p – h diagrams are shown in Fig.
6.8(b).

175
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from state 1 to state 2. During this
process work is done on the refrigerant by the surroundings.At the end of the process the
refrigerant will be in superheated vapour state.

Coolant In Coolant out

Condenser

qc
Throttle valve

wc

Compressor

qR
Evaporator

Fig. 6.8 (a) : Schematic for a vapour compression refrigeration cycle

Process 2-3: Constant pressure condensation of the refrigerant in the condenser till it
becomes a saturated liquid.

176
Process 3-4: Throttling expansion of the refrigerant from condenser pressure to the
evaporator pressure.

Process 4-1: Constant pressure vapourisation of the refrigerant in the evaporator till it
becomes a dry saturated vapour. During this process heat is absorbed by the refrigerant
from the place to be refrigerated.

Expression for Refrigeration effect and COP in terms of Enthalpies

Applying steady flow steady state energy equation to the evaporator and neglecting the
changes in kinetic and potential energies we have
. .
Refrigeration effect = QR = m (h1 – h4) …………………………………(6.16)

Since process 3-4 is a throttling process, h4 = h3.

. .
Hence QR = m (h1 – h3) …………………………………(6.17)

Similarly, by applying steady flow, steady state energy equation to compressor we get
. .
Compressor work input = Wc = m (h2 – h1) ………………………………(6.18)
.
QR (h1 – h4)
Hence COP = -----.------ = ------------ …………………(6.19)
Wc (h2 – h1)

6.5.3. Effect of sub-cooling the refrigerant on the performance of a Vapour

Compression Cycle

The effect of sub cooling the refrigerant before it enters the expansion valve on the
performance of a vapour compression refrigeration cycle is shown on the T-s diagram in
Fig. 6.9. In this diagram 1-2-3-4-1 represents the ideal cycle without sub-cooling, while
1-2-3’-4’-1 is the cycle with sub-cooling. It can be seen form the T-s diagram that by sub-
cooling the refrigerant say up to 3’, the refrigeration effect per unit mass has increased
from (h1 – h4) to (h1 – h4’). Therefore, theoretically, it is desirable to sub-cool the
refrigerant before it enters the throttle valve. But for almost all refrigerants, the constant
pressure line in the sub-cooled liquid region almost coincides with the saturated liquid
line. Therefore it is sufficient to compress the refrigerant up to 2’ (p2’ is the saturation
pressure corresponding to T3’) and then cool it in the condenser till it becomes a saturated
liquid at state 3” (h3’ ≈ h3”). Therefore it is not necessary to compress the refrigerant up to
2 and then sub-cool it to 3’.

177
 T

Fig. 6.9: Effect of sub-cooling the refrigerant on Vapour compression cycle

But in practice, the condensers are always designed assuming certain amount of sub-
cooling of the refrigerant to ensure that the refrigerant coming out of the condenser is at
least in saturated liquid state.

6.5.4. Dry compression versus Wet compression

In the analysis of the ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle it was assumed that the
refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.As the compression process
proceeds the vapour becomes a superheated vapour. In the case of wet compression it
will be assumed that the refrigerant leaves the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.The
comparison of these two compression processes are shown on the T-s diagram in Fig.
6.10. When a reciprocating compressor is used for compression, wet compression is not
found suitable due to the following reasons.
(i) Liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the compressor cylinder because, the
speed of the compressor is quite high and the liquid present in the wet vapour cannot
readily evaporate. If enough liquid is collected in the compressor, then the compression
may not be possible and the system may break down.

(ii) Liquid refrigerant droplets may wash away the lubricating oil from the walls of the
compressor cylinder thus increasing wear.

It is therefore desirable to have compression with refrigerant in dry saturated

vapour state or even slightly in superheated vapour state at entry to the compressor.This
type of compression is known as dry compression. In dry compression the state of
refrigerant at the end of compression will therefore be at 2, pressure at 2 being the
saturation pressure corresponding to the condensing temperature T2’. For wet
compression the state point after the end of compression will be at 2”, which would be

178
the state point if Carnot cycle were to be employed. Because of dry compression, the
discharge temperature T2 will be higher than the condensing temperature.Because of dry
compression, the work of compression increases by an amount shown by the shaded area
and this area is normally referred to as “superheat horn”.

In some cases, wet compression is indeed desirable and also practicable with
the use of screw compressor instead of a reciprocating compressor.

6.5.5. Practical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Deviations of Practical Cycle from ideal cycle:- (i)In the ideal cycle it has been assumed
that the refrigerant leaving the compressor is in dry saturated vapour state. Since the
cooling load is not constant, it is extremely difficult to ensure that the fluid is dry at
compressor inlet. Moreover in high speed reciprocating compressors, the compression
occurs so fast that the liquid in the vapour cannot readily evaporate and may collect
inside the compressor. If enough liquid collects, vapour compression will not be possible
and the system may break down. The practice, therefore, is to design the evaporator to
superheat the vapour emerging from it as shown by state point 1’ on T-s diagram in Fig.
6.11.With this arrangement, the net work input increases to achieve the same
compression ratio, the volumetric efficiency decreases and the overall COP of the cycle
also decreases.

(ii) In the ideal cycle analysis it was assumed that the compression process is isentropic.
But in a practical cycle, the process will not be isentropic but adiabatic with frictional
losses. Therefore, in the practical cycle, the frictional losses during compression are

Fig. 6.11: T-s diagram for a practical vapour compression refrigeration cycle

179
accounted by using a parameter called “isentropic efficiency of compressor”. This
efficiency is defined as the ratio of isentropic work of compression required to the actual
work of compression between the same pressure limits. Because of frictional losses the
net work input increases, which in turn decreases the overall COP.
(iii) For a reciprocating compressor, there will be pressure drop across the inlet and
delivery valves. This increases the operating pressure ratio for the compressor, thereby
increasing the net work input to the compressor and hence the COP decreases.

6.5.6. Desirable properties of refrigerants to be used in a vapour compression cycle

Following are the desirable properties for refrigerants to be used in a vapour compression
cycle.
(i) When the evaporator works under vacuum conditions, it is difficult to make the
system completely leak-proof. Hence the saturation pressure corresponding to the
evaporator temperature should be close to the atmospheric pressure. Infact it is preferable
to have the evaporator pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure in order to prevent
air leaking into the system. Even the presence of a small amount of air in the evaporator
reduces the heat transfer coefficient, which in turn decreases the refrigeration effect.

(ii) The pressure difference between the evaporator and condenser should be moderate to
reduce the leakage losses. Also if the pressure difference is large then it will be necessary
to use multi-stage compression with inter cooling in order to have a high compression
efficiency.

(iii) The triple point and the critical point of the refrigerant should be far away from the
operating range of the refrigerating system.

(iv) The density of the vapour should be as high as possible to avoid large flow velocities
which result in high pressure drops in pipe lines. For a vapour with low density it is
preferable to use centrifugal compressors.

(v) Higher the enthalpy of vapourization of the refrigerant lower will be the mass flow
rate of refrigerant required to achieve the desired refrigeration effect.

(vi) The refrigerant should have a high thermal conductivity and low viscosity so that the
evaporator and condenser can be reasonably small in size.A low viscosity ensures a low
pressure drop.

(vii) The specific heats of the liquid and vapour refrigerant should be as low as possible.
A fluid, which has a low specific heat, will have nearly vertical sides for the saturation
dome in the T – s diagram. In that case the real cycle approaches towards Carnot cycle.

(viii) The refrigerant should be easily available and safe to handle.

(ix) The refrigerant vapour should be inert, stable and should not react with materials of
the compressor, condenser, evaporator coils and the valves.
(x) The vapour should be insoluble in water.

180
 CHAPTER 8

Measurements and Testing of I.C.Engines

8.1. Introduction: - The basic task in the design and development of I.C.Engines is to
reduce the cost of production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to
achieve the above task, the engineer has to compare the engine developed by him with
other engines in terms of its output and efficiency. Hence he has to test the engine and
make measurements of relevant parameters that reflect the performance of the engine. In
general the nature and number of tests to be carried out depend on a large number of
factors. In this chapter only certain basic as well as important measurements and tests are
described.

8.2. Important Performance Parameters of I.C.Engines:- The important performance

parameters of I.C. engines are as follows:

(i) Friction Power,

(ii) Indicated Power,

(iii) Brake Power,

(iv) Specific Fuel Consumption,

(v) Air – Fuel ratio

(vi) Thermal Efficiency

(vii) Mechanical Efficiency,

(viii) Volumetric Efficiency,

(ix) Exhaust gas emissions,

(x) Noise

8.3. Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory

8.3.1. Measurement of Friction Power:- Friction power includes the frictional losses
and the pumping losses. During suction and exhaust strokes the piston must move against
a gaseous pressure and power required to do this is called the “pumping losses”. The

181
friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction between the piston and cylinder
walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and camshaft and their
bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as
water pump, ignition unit etc.

Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction

power:

(i) Willan’s line method;

(ii) From the measurement of indicated power and brake power;

(iii) Motoring test;

(iv) Retardation test;

(v) Morse Test.

8.3.1.1. Willan’s Line Method:- This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation
method. In this method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power
(horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake power (see
Fig. 8.1).The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the engine at

1.0
Fuel 0.8
consumption
(g/s) 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

5 10 15 20 25
Brake power (kW)
Friction Power

Fig. 8.1. Willan’s line method

that speed. As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the
fuel consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and
this permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake

182
power = 0, it consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been
spent in overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the
horizontal axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to friction,
pumping and as a whole is termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of
measuring friction power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable
mainly for compression ignition engines.

The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated
from data between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input.The directional
margin of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

8.3.1.2.From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power:- This is an ideal
method by which friction power is obtained by computing the difference between the
indicated power and brake power. The indicated power is obtained from an indicator
diagram and brake power is obtained by a brake dynamometer. This method requires
elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator diagrams at high speeds.

8.3.1.3.Morse Test:- This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines. The
Morse test consists of obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate
equipment. The test consists of making, in turn, each cylinder of the engine inoperative
and noting the reduction in brake power developed. In a petrol engine (gasoline engine),
each cylinder is rendered inoperative by “shorting” the spark plug of the cylinder to be
made inoperative. In a Diesel engine, a particular cylinder is made inoperative by cutting
off the supply of fuel. It is assumed that pumping and friction are the same when the
cylinder is inoperative as well as during firing.

In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake
power is measured. Next, one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a
petrol engine or by cutting of the fuel supply if it is a diesel engine. Since one of the
cylinders is cut of from producing power, the speed of the engine will change. The engine
speed is brought to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This will ensure
that the frictional power is the same.

If there are k cylinders, then

Total indicated power k

when all the cylinders are working = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + …………...+ ipk = ∑ipj
j=1

k
We can write ∑ipj = Bt + Ft ………………………………………..(8.1)
j=1

where ipj is the indicated power produced by j th cylinder, k is the number of cylinders,

183
Bt is the total brake power when all the cylinders are producing power and Ft is the total
frictional power for the entire engine.

If the first cylinder is cut – off, then it will not produce any power, but it will have
frictional losses. Then
k
we can write ∑ipj = B1 - Ft………………………………………..(8.2)
j=2

where B1 = total brake power when cylinder 1 is cut - off and

Ft = Total frictional power.

Subtracting Eq. (8.2) from Eq. (8.1) we have the indicated power of the cut off cylinder.
Thus

ip1 = Bt – B1 ………………………………………..(8.3).

Similarly we can find the indicated power of all the cylinders, viz., ip2, ip3, …..ipk. Then
the total indicated power is calculated as
k
(ip)total = ∑ipj ……………………………………….(8.4)
j=1

The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by

Ft = (ip)total – Bt ……………………………………(8.5)

The procedure is illustrated by some examples worked out at the end of the chapter.

8.3.2. Measurement of Indicated Power: Indicated power of an engine tells about the
health of the engine and also gives an indication regarding the conversion of chemical
energy in the fuel into thermal energy. It is an important variable because it is the
potential output of the cycle.Hence the measurement of indicated power must be very
accurate. For obtaining indicated power the cycle pressure must be determined as a
function of cylinder volume. It is of no use to determine pressure accurately unless
volume or crank angle is accurately measured.

Following methods are usually adopted to estimate the

indicated power of an IC engine:
(i) using the indicator diagram

(ii) by measuring brake power and friction power and adding them to give indicated
power

184
(iii) By conducting Morse test (applicable only for multi-cylinder engines).

(i) Method using Indicator diagram:- Indicator is a device which measures the variation
of the pressure in the cylinder over a part or full cycle and the plot of such information
obtained is called an “indicator diagram”. Indicator diagram gives a very good
indication of the process of combustion. Also the losses occurring in the suction and
exhaust stroke can be studied using this diagram.

Indicated power = indicated work per cycle x number of cycles / second

pim Vs ne K
ip = ----------------
1000 x 60

pim LA n K
= --------------- kW…………………………………….(8.6)
60,000

Where ip = indicated power (kW)

pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N / m2)

L = Length of the stroke of the piston (m)

A = Area of the piston (m2)

ne = number of power strokes per minute or number of explosions per minute

K = number of cylinders.

Now ne = N / 2 for a four stroke engine and

= N for a two – stroke engine, where N is the speed of the engine in RPM.

The indicated mean effective pressure is calculated by using the equation

Area of the indicated diagram in m2

pim = ----------------------------------------------- x indicator spring stiffness in (N /m2) /m
Length of the indicator diagram in m

(ii) Method by measuring Brake Power and Friction Power:- In this method the brake
power is measured by using a brake dynamometer and the friction power is measured by
using Willan’s line method or by Motoring test or by retardation test and then the
indicated power is calculated as ip = bp + fp where bp is the brake power of the engine
and fp is the friction power.

185
(iii) Morse Test:- This method is already described in section 8.3.1.3.

8.3.3. Measurement of Brake Power: Indicated power is based on indicated net work
and is thus a measure of the forces developed within the engine cylinder.The rotational
force available at the engine crank shaft and the power corresponding to this is of more
practical interest. This power is interchangeably referred to as brake power or shaft
power. Measurement of brake power is one of the most important measurements in the
test schedule of an engine. It involves the determination of the torque and the angular
speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called the dynamometer.

Brake power is usually measured by attaching a power absorbing

device to the output shaft of the engine. Such a device will set up forces (which can be
measured) counteracting the forces delivered by the engine. The measured force is
usually referred to as the braking force, W. If ‘r’ is the distance from the centre of the
output shaft and the point of acting of Fb ( r is also called the lever arm),

then braking torque = T = W r …………………………………………….(8.7)

If N is the speed of the engine in RPM, then brake power in KW is given by

Brake power = bp = 2πNT / (60 x 1000)

Or bp = 2πNT / 60,000 kW ………………………………..(8.8)

In the above equation T should be in N – m.

Since in Eq. (8.7) only the brake load and speed can vary for a given engine, the equation
can be written as
WN
bp = --------------- …………………………………………..(8.9)
C
where C is called the dynamometer constant. Eq. (8.7) or Eq. (8.8) can be used to
calculate the brake power depending on the information available for a given engine.

Brake mean effective pressure: - Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) can be
considered as that portion of indicated mean effective pressure which goes into the
development of useful work output from the engine. Hence bmep is related to brake
power by the following equation.

(bmep) LA ne K
bp = ----------------------- ……………………………………….(8.10)
60000

186
8.3.4. Measurement of Fuel Consumption: There are two basic types of fuel
measurement methods namely (i) volumetric method and (ii) gravimetric method.
In volumetric method the time taken for the engine to consume a known volume of fuel is
measured and knowing the specific gravity of the fuel the mass flow rate of fuel
consumed is calculated as follows:

Let t = time in seconds for the engine to consume ‘y’ cc of fuel, and

s = specific gravity of the fuel.

y x 10 − 6
.
Mass of fuel consumed per second = m = -------------- x s x 1000
t

. ys
Or m = ----------- kg/s………………….(8.11)
1000 t

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption: This is defined as the mass of fuel consumption
per hour in order to produce an indicated power of one kilo watt.
.
3600 m
Thus, indicated specific fuel consumption = isfc = --------------- kg/kWh …..(8.12)
ip

Brake Specific fuel consumption:- This defined as the mass of fuel consumed per hour,
in order to develop a brake power of one kilowatt.
.
3600 m
Thus, brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = --------------- kg/kWh ……..(8.13)
bp

8.3.5. Thermal Efficiency : There are two definitions of thermal efficiency as applied
to IC engines. One is based on indicated power and the other on brake power.The one
based on indicated power is called as ‘indicated thermal efficiency”, and the one based
on brake power is known as “brake thermal efficiency”.

Indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of indicated power to the energy
available due to combustion of the fuel.
Indicated Power in kW
Thus ηith = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Mass flow rate of fuel in kg/s) x (Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg )

ip
Or ηith = --------------- ………………………………………………..(8.14)
m x CV

187
Similarly brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power to energy
available due to combustion of the fuel.

bp
Or ηbth = --------------- ………………………………………………..(8.15)
m x CV

8.3.6.Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical

losses in an engine. The mechanical losses include (i) frictional losses, (ii) power
absorbed by engine auxillaries like fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water circulating
pump, magneto and distributor, electric generator for battery charging, radiator fan etc.,
and (iii) work requited to charge the cylinder with fresh charge and work for discharging
the exhaust gases during the exhaust stroke. It is defined as the ratio of brake power to
indicated power. Thus
bp
ηmech = -------- ……………………………(8.16)
ip

8.3.7. Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual mass of air
drawn into the cylinder during a given period of time to the theoretical mass which
should have been drawn in during the same interval of time based on the total piston
displacement, and the pressure and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
.
mactual
Thus ηv = ----------------- …………………………(8.17)
mth
.
where m = ρa n Vs ………………………………….(8.18)

where n is the number of intake strokes per minute and Vs is the stroke volume of the
piston.

8.4. Illustrative examples:

Example 8.1:- The following observations have been made from the test of a four
cylinder, two – stroke petrol engine. Diameter of the cylinder = 10 cm; stroke = 15 cm;
speed = 1600 rpm; Area of indicator diagram = 5.5 cm2; Length of the indicator
diagram = 55 mm; spring constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Determine the indicated power of the
engine.

Given:- d = 0.1 m; L = 0.15 m ; No. of cylinders = K = 4; N = 1600 rpm; n = N (two –

stroke); a = 5.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 5.5. cm; spring constant = ks = 3.5
bar/cm ;
To find: indicated power, ip.

188
 a ks
Solution: Indicated mean effective pressure = pim = ---------------
ld

5.5 x 3.5
or pim = -------------- = 3.5 bar = 3.5 x 10 5 N / m2
5.5

pim LAnK 3.5 x 105 x 0.15 x (π/4) x 0.12 x 1600 x 4

Indicated power = ip = ---------------- = ---------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 43.98 kW

Example 8.2:- A gasoline engine (petrol engine) working on Otto cycle consumes 8 litres
of petrol per hour and develops 25 kW. The specific gravity of petrol is 0.75 and its
calorific value is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine

Given:- Volume of fuel consumed/hour = y/t = 8 x 10 3 / 3600 cc/s ;

ip = 25 kW; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg;

Specific gravity of petrol = s = 0.75

To find: ηith ;
ys . 8 x 10 3 x 0.75
Solution: Mass of fuel consumed = m = ----- = --------------------- = 1.67 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
1000 t 1000 x 3600

ip 25
Indicated thermal efficiency = ηith = -------------- = ----------------------------
m CV 1.67 x 10 − 3x 44000

= 0.3402 = 34.02 %.

Example 8.3:- The bore and stroke of a water cooled, vertical, single-cylinder, four
stroke diesel engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively.The torque is 23.5 N-
m.Calculate the brake mean effective pressure.
What would be the mean effective pressure and torque if the engine rating is 4 kW at
1500 rpm?

Given:- Diameter = d = 80 x10 − 3 = 0.008 m ; stroke = L = 0.110 m; T = 23.5 N-m;

To find (i) bmep ; (ii) bmep if bp = 4 kw and N= 1500 rpm.

189
Solution: (i) Relation between brake power (bp) and brake mean effective pressure
(bmep) is given by

2πNT (bmep)LAn
bp = ------------ = ---------------
60,000 60,000

Hence bmep = (2πNT) / (LAn) = (2πNT) / {(Lπd2 /4) N/2}

16T 16 x 23.5
= ------------- = ---------------- = 5.34 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.34 bar
d2L 0.08 2 x 0.11

(ii) when bp = 4 kw and N = 1500 rpm, we have

60,000 bp 60,000 x 4
bmep = -------------- = -------------------------------------------
LAn 0.110 x (π/4) x 0.08 2 x (1500 / 2)

= 5.79 x 10 5 N/m2 = 5.79 bar.

60,000 bp 60,000 x 4
Also bp = 2πNT / 60,000 or T = ---------------- = -------------------- = 25.46 N – m.
2πN 2 x π x 1500

Example 8.4:-Find the air fuel ratio of a four stroke, single cylinder, air cooled engine
with fuel consumption time for 10 cc is 20.4 s and air consumption time for 0.1 m3is 16.3
s. The load is 7 N at the speed of 3000 rpm. Find also the brake specific fuel
consumption in kg/kWh and brake thermal efficiency.Assume the density of air as 1.175
kg/m3 and specific gravity of the fuel to be 0.7. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43
MJ/kg and the dynamometer constant is 5000.

Given:- y = 10 cc ; t = 20.4 s ; Va = 0.1 m3; ta = 16.3 s ; W = 7 N ; N = 3000 rpm;

ρa = 1.175 kg/m3; s = 0.7 ; CV = 43 x 10 3 kJ/kg; Dynamometer constant = C = 5000.

To find:- (i) ma / mf ; (ii) bsfc ; (iii) ηbth.

0.1 x 1.175
Solution: (i) Mass of air consumed = ma = ---------------- = 7.21 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
16.3
ys 10 x 0.7
Mass of fuel consumed = mf = --------- = ------------------ = 0.343 x 10 − 3 kg/s
1000 t 1000 x 20.4

190
 8.11
−3
ma 7.21 x 10
Air fuel ratio = --------- = ------------------- = 21
mf 0.343 x 10 − 3

7 x 3000
(ii) Brake power = bp = WN / C = ------------- = 4.2 kW
5000

mf x 3600 0.343 x 10 −3 x 3600

bsfc = ------------------- = ---------------------------- = 0.294 kg/kWh
bp 4.2

bp 4.2
(iii) bith = --------------- = ----------------------------------- = 0.2848 = 28.48 %.
mf CV 0.343 x 10 −3 x 43 x 10 3

Example 8.5:- A six cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four stroke cycle. The bore
of each cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume in each
cylinder is 70 cc. At a speed of 4000 rpm and the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h. The torque
developed is 150 N-m. Calculate (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective
pressure, (iii) brake thermal efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and
(iv) the relative efficiency if the ideal cycle for the engine is Otto cycle.

Given:- K = 6 ; n = N /2 ; d = 8 cm ; L = 10 cm ; Vc = 70 cc ; N = 4000 rpm ; mf = 20

kg/h ; T = 150 N-m ; CV = 43000 kJ/kg ;

To find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) ηbth ; (iv) η Relative.

Solution: 2π NT 2 x π x 4000 x 150

(i) bp = ------------ = --------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 62.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 62.8

(ii) bmep = -------------------- = --------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.1 x (π / 4) x 0.08 2 x (4000/2) x 6

= 6.25 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.25 bar

bp 62.8
(iii) ηbth = ----------------------- = ------------------------------ = 0.263 = 26.3 %.
mf CV (20 / 3600) x 43,000

191
(iv) Stroke volume = Vs = (π / 4) d2 L = (π / 4) x 8 2 x 10 = 502.65 cc

Vs + Vc 502.65 + 70
Compression Ratio of the engine = Rc = ------------ = --------------------- = 8.18
Vc 70

Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle = η Otto = 1 – (1/ Rcγ – 1)

1
= 1 − ---------------------- = 0.568 = 56.8 %
8.18 0.4

Hence Relative efficiency = ηRelative = η bth / η Otto = 0.263 / 0.568 = 0.463 = 46.3 %.

Example 8.6:- An eight cylinder, four stroke engine of 9 cm bore, 8 cm stroke and with a
compression ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 54 cm arm.
During a 10 minute test, the dynamometer scale beam reading was 42 kg and the engine
consumed 4.4 kg of gasoline having a calorific value of 44,000 kJ/kg. Air at 27 C and 1
bar was supplied to the carburetor at a rate of 6 kg/min. Find (i) the brake power, (ii) the
brake mean effective pressure, (iii) the brake specific fuel consumption, (iv) the brake
specific air consumption, (v) volumetric efficiency , (vi) the brake thermal efficiency and
(vii) the air fuel ratio.

Given:- K = 8 ; Four stroke hence n = N/2 ; d = 0.09 m; L = 0.08 m; Rc = 7; N = 4500

rpm; Brake arm = R = 0.54 m ; t = 10 min ; Brake load = W = (42 x 9.81) N

.
mf = 4.4 kg ; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg ; Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; pa = 1 bar; ma = 6 kg/min;
. .
To find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) bsfc ; (iv) bsac ; (v) η v ; (vi) ηbth ; (vii) ma / mf

Solution:
2π NT 2π NWR 2 x π x 4500 x (42 x 9.81) x 0.54
(i) bp = ----------- = ------------ = --------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000 60,000

= 104.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 104.8

(ii) bmep = ------------- = ------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.08 x (π / 4) x 0.09 2 x (4500 / 2) x 8

= 6.87 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.87 bar.

192
 .
(iii) mass of fuel consumed per unit time = mf = mf / t = 4.4 x 60 / 10 kg/h

= 26.4 kg/h
.
mf 26.4
Brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = ----------- = ------------- = 0.252 kg / kWh
bp 104.8
.
ma 6 x 60
(iv) brake specific air consumption = bsac = ------------- = ------------------
bp 104.8

= 3.435 kg / kWh

bp 104.8
(v) ηbth = --.-------------- = ----------------------------- = 0.325 = 32.5 %.
mf CV (26.4 / 3600) x 44,000
.
(vi) Stroke volume per unit time = Vs = (πd2/4) L n K

π
= ------ x (0.092) x 0.08 x (4500 / 2) x 8
4

= 9.16 m3 / min.
.
ma Ra Ta
. 6 x 286 x 300
Volume flow rate of air per minute = Va = ------------- = --------------------
pa 1 x 10 5

= 5.17 m3 / min
. .
Volumetric efficiency = ηv = Va / Vs = 5.17 / 9.16 = 0.5644 = 56.44 %.
. .
(vii) Air fuel ratio = ma / mf = 6 /(4.4 / 10) = 13.64

Example 8.7:- A gasoline engine working on four- stroke develops a brake power of 20.9
kW. A Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained when
each cylinder was made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3,
14.8 and 14.5 respectively. The test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated
power, mechanical efficiency and brake mean effective pressure when all the cylinders
are firing. The bore of the engine is 75mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running
at 3000 rpm.

193
Given:- brake power when all cylinders are working = Bt = 20.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 1 is inoperative = B1 = 14.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 2 is inoperative = B2 = 14.3 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 3 is inoperative = B3 = 14.8 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 4 is inoperative = B4 = 14.5 kW ;

N = 3000 rpm ; d = 0.075 m ; L = 0.09 m ;

To find:- (i) (ip)total ; (ii) ηmech ; (iii) bmep ;

Solution:

(i) (ip)total = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ip4 = (Bt – B1) + (Bt – B2) + (Bt – B3) + (Bt – B4)

= 4Bt – (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4) = 4 x 20.9 – (14.9 + 14.3 + 14.8 + 14.5)

= 25.1 Kw

Bt 20.9
(ii) ηmech = ------------- = --------- = 0.833 = 83.3 %
(ip)total 25.1

60,000 Bt 60,000 x 20.9

(iii) bmep = --------------- = --------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.09 x (π / 4) x 0.075 2 x (3000 / 2) x 4

= 5.25 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.25 bar.

Example 8.8:- The following observations were recorded during a trail of a four –
stroke, single cylinder oil engine.
Duration of trial = 30 min ; oil consumed = 4 litres ; calorific value of oil = 43 MJ/kg ;
specific gravity of fuel = 0.8 ; average area of the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm2; length of
the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm; Indicator spring constant = 5.5 bar/cm; brake load =
150 kg; spring balance reading = 20 kg; effective brake wheel diameter = 1.5 m ; speed
= 200 rpm ; cylinder diameter = 30 cm ; stroke = 45 cm ; jacket cooling water = 10
kg/min ; temperature rise of cooling water = 36 C. Calculate (i) indicated power, (ii)
brake power, (iii) mechanical efficiency, (iv) brake specific fuel consumption, (v)
indicated thermal efficiency, and (vi) heat carried away by cooling water.

194
Given:- t = 30 min ; y = 4000 cc; CV = 43 x10 3 kJ/kg; s = 0.8 ; area of the diagram = a =

8.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 8.5 cm ; indicator spring constant = ks = 5.5 bar /

cm; W = 150 x 9.81 N ; Brake radius = R = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75 m; N = 200 rpm ; d = 0.3 m ;
.
L = 0.45 m ; mw = 10 kg/min ; ∆Tw = 36 C; Spring Balance Reading = S = 20 x 9.81 N
.
To find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; (iii) ηmech ; (iv) bsfc ; (v) ηith ; (vi) Qw

Solution:
a 8.5
(i) pim = ------- ks = ----------- x 5.5 = 5.5 bar = 5.5 x 105 N/m2
ld 8.5
pim L A n K 5.5 x 10 5 x 0.45 x (π / 4) x 0.32 x (200 / 2) x 1
ip = ------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 29.16 kW

2π N(W – S) R 2 x π x 200 x (150 – 20)x 9.81 x 0.75

(ii) bp = ----------------------- = ------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 20.03 kW

(iii) ηmech = bp / ip = 20.03 / 29.16 = 0.687 = 68.7 %.

. ys 4000 x 0.8
(iv) Mass of fuel consumed per hour = mf = ------------- x 60 = ------------------ x 60
1000 t 1000 x 30

= 6.4 kg / h.
. 6.4
bsfc = mf / bp = ------------- = 0.3195 kg/kWh
20.03

ip 29.16
(v) ηith = ---.--------- = -------------------------------- = 0.3814 = 38.14 %.
mf CV (6.4 / 3600) x 43 x 10 3
. .
(vi) Qw = m Cp ∆Tw = (10 / 60) x 4.2 x 36 = 25.2 kW

195
Example 8.9:- A four stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 25 cm and stroke 45
cm. The effective diameter of the brake is 1.6 m.The observations made in a test of the
engine were as follows.
Duration of test = 40 min; Total number of revolutions = 8080 ; Total number of
explosions = 3230; Net load on the brake = 80 kg ; mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar;
Volume of gas used = 7.5 m3; Pressure of gas indicated in meter = 136 mm of water
(gauge); Atmospheric temperature = 17 C; Calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/ m3 at NTP;
Temperature rise of cooling water = 45 C; Cooling water supplied = 180 kg.
Draw up a heat balance sheet and find the indicated thermal efficiency and brake
thermal efficiency. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of mercury.

Given:- d = 0.25 m ; L = 0.45 m; R = 1.6 / 2 =0.8 m; t = 40 min ; Ntotal = 8080 ;

Hence N = 8080 / 40 = 202 rpm ntotal = 3230 ;

Hence n = 3230 / 40 = 80.75 explosions / min; W = 80 x 9.81 N; pim = 5.8 bar ;

.
Vtotal = 7.5 m3; hence V = 7.5 / 40 = 0.1875 m3/min; pgauge = 136 mm of water (gauge);

Tatm = 17 + 273 = 290 K; (CV)NTP = 19 x 10 3 kJ/ m3 ; ∆Tw = 45 C;

.
mw = 180 / 40 = 4.5 kg/min; patm = 760 mm of mercury

To find:- (i) ηith ; (ii) ηbth ; (iii) heat balance sheet

Solution:
pim L A n K 5.8 x 10 5 x (π / 4) x 0.252 x 0.45 x 80.75
(i) ip = ------------------ = ----------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 17.25 kW.

2π N W R 2 x π x 202 x (80 x 9.81) x 0.8

bp = --------------------- = ------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 13.28 kW

Pressure of gas supplied = p = patm + pgauge = 760 + 136 / 13.6 = 770 mm of mercury
. .
Volume of gas supplied as measured at NTP = VNTP = V (TNTP / T)(p / pNTP)

0.1875 x 273 x 770

= -------------------------- = 0.17875 m3 / min
290 x 760

196
 . .
Heat supplied by fuel = Qf = VNTP (CV)NTP = 0.17875 x 19 x 103 = 3396.25 kJ/min

Heat equivalent of bp in kJ/min = 13.28 x 60 = 796.4 kJ/min

.
Heat lost to cooling water in kJ/min = mw Cp ∆Tw = 4.5 x 4.2 x 45 = 846.5 kJ/min

Friction power = ip – bp = 17.25 – 13.28 = 3.97 kW

Hence heat loss due to fiction, pumping etc. = 3.97 x 60 = 238.2 kJ/min

Heat lost in exhaust, radiation etc (by difference) = 3396.25 – (896.4 + 796.4 + 238.2)

= 1465.15 kJ/min

Heat Balance Sheet:

Item Heat Energy Input Heat Energy spent

No. (kJ/min) (percent) (kJ/min) (percent)

1 Heat supplied by fuel 3396.25 100.00

2 Heat equivalent of bp 896.4 26.4

3 Heat lost to cooling

Water 796.4 23.4

4 Heat equivalent of fp 238.2 7.0

5 Heat unaccounted
(by difference) 1465.15 43.2

Total 3396.25 100.0 3396.25 100.0

Example 8.10:- A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load.

Speed = 350 rpm; Net brake load = 65 kg ; mean effective pressure = 3 bar ; Fuel
consumption = 4 kg/h ; Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h ; jacket water
temperature at inlet = 20 C ; jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 C ; Test room
temperature = 20 C ; Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 C; Air used per kg of fuel =
32 kg ; cylinder diameter = 22 cm ;stroke = 28 cm; effective brake diameter = 1 m ;
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg ; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg –K.
Find indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance for the test in kW and in
percentage.

197
Given:- Two stroke engine. Hence n = N ; N = 350 rpm ; W = (65 x 9.81) N ;
. .
pim = 3 bar ; mf = 4 kg/h ; mw = 500 kg/h ; Twi = 20 C ; Two = 40 C ; Tatm = 20 C ;
. .
Teg = 400 C ; ma / mf = 32 ; d = 0.22 m ; L = 0.28 m ; Brake radius = R = ½ m ;

CV = 43,000 kJ/kg ; (Cp) eg = 1.0 kJ/(kg-K) ;

To find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; and (iii) heat balance;

Solution: pim LAn 3 x 10 5 x 0.28 x (π/4) x 0.22 2 x 350

(i) ip = -------------- = ----------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 18.63 kW.

2π N WR 2 x π x 350 x (65 x 9.81) x 0.5

(ii) bp = ------------- = ---------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 11.68 kW.
.
(iii) Heat supplied in kW = mf CV = (4 / 3600) x 43,000

= 47.8 kW
.
Heat lost to cooling water = mw (Cp)w [Two – Twi]

= (500 / 3600) x 4.2 x [40 – 20]

= 11.7 kW.
. .
Heat lost in exhaust gases = (ma + mf) (Cp)eg [Teg – Tatm]

(32 + 1 ) x 4
= --------------- x 1.0 x [400 – 20]
3600

= 13.9 kW

198
Heat balance sheet:

Heat Input kW % Heat Expenditure kW %

Heat supplied by fuel 47.8 100 Heat in bp 11.68 24.4

Heat lost to cooling

Water 11.70 24.5

Heat lost to exhaust

Gases 13.90 29.1

Unaccounted heat
(by difference) 10.52 22.0

Total 47.80 100 Total 47.80 100.0

199
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